Classification of the Indigenous languages of the Americas

{{Short description|none}} thumb|300px|Pre-contact distribution of North American language families north of Mexico 300px|thumb|The indigenous languages of Mexico that have more than 100,000 speakers [[File:Chibcha lang.png|thumb|right|300px|The Chibchan languages]] This is a list of different language classification proposals developed for the Indigenous languages of the Americas or Amerindian languages. The article is divided into North, Central, and South America sections; however, the classifications do not correspond to these divisions.

==North America==

===''Glottolog'' 4.1 (2019)=== ''Glottolog'' 4.1 (2019) recognizes 42 independent families and 31 isolates in North America (73 total).<ref name="Glottolog-4-1">{{cite web |url=https://glottolog.org/glottolog/family |title=Glottolog |version=4.1 |editor1-last=Hammarström |editor1-first=Harald |editor2-last=Forkel |editor2-first=Robert |editor3-last=Haspelmath |editor3-first=Martin |date=2019 |location=Jena |publisher=Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History}}</ref> The vast majority are (or were) spoken in the United States, with 26 families and 26 isolates (52 total).

;North American languages families proposed in ''Glottolog'' 4.1 {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ;Families (42) #Otomanguean (180) #Arawakan (78) #Uto-Aztecan (69) #Algic (46) #Athabaskan-Eyak-Tlingit (45) #Mayan (33) #Chibchan (27) #Salishan (25) #Mixe-Zoque (19) #Siouan (18) #Eskimo–Aleut (12) #Totonacan (12) #Cochimi-Yuman (11) #Iroquoian (11) #Miwok-Costanoan (11) #Kiowa-Tanoan (8) #Muskogean (7) #Pomoan (7) #Chumashan (6) #Wakashan (6) #Caddoan (5) #Misumalpan (5) #Sahaptian (5) #Xincan (5) #Chinookan (4) #Huavean (4) #Maiduan (4) #Yokutsan (4) #Kalapuyan (3) #Shastan (3) #Tequistlatecan (3) #Tsimshian (3) #Chimakuan (2) #Coosan (2) #Haida (2) #Jicaquean (2) #Keresan (2) #Lencan (2) #Palaihnihan (2) #Tarascan (2) #Wintuan (2) #Yuki-Wappo (2)

{{col-break}} ;Isolates (31) #Adai #Alsea-Yaquina #Atakapa #Beothuk #Cayuse #Chimariko #Chitimacha #Coahuilteco #Comecrudan #Cotoname #Cuitlatec #Esselen #Guaicurian #Karankawa #Karok #Klamath-Modoc #Kutenai #Maratino #Molale #Natchez #Salinan #Seri #Siuslaw #Takelma #Timucua #Tonkawa #Tunica #Washo #Yana #Yuchi #Zuni {{col-end}}

===Gallatin (1836)===

An early attempt at North American language classification was attempted by A. A. Albert Gallatin published in 1826, 1836, and 1848. Gallatin's classifications are missing several languages which are later recorded in the classifications by Daniel G. Brinton and John Wesley Powell. (Gallatin supported the assimilation of indigenous peoples to Euro-American culture.)

: (Current terminology is indicated parenthetically in ''italics''.)

'''Families''' # Algonkin-Lenape '' (=Algonquian)'' # Athapascas '' (=Athabaskan)'' # Catawban '' (=Catawba + Woccons)'' # Eskimaux '' (=Eskimoan)'' # Iroquois '' (=Northern Iroquoian)'' # Cherokees '' (=Southern Iroquoian)'' # Muskogee '' (=Eastern Muskogean)'' # Chahtas '' (=Western Muskogean)'' # Sioux '' (=Siouan)''

'''Languages''' {| | valign="top" width="65%" | # Adaize '' (=Adai)'' # Attacapas '' (=Atakapa)'' # Salmon River '' (=Bella Coola)'' # Black Feet '' (=Blackfoot)'' # Pawnees '' (=Pawnee)'' # Caddoes '' (=Caddo)'' # Chinooks '' (=Chinookan)'' # Chetimachas '' (=Chitimacha)'' # Fall Indians '' (=Gros Ventre)'' # Queen Charlotte's Island '' (=Haida)'' | valign="top" | 11. Straits of Fuca '' (=Makah)'' 12. Natches '' (=Natchez)'' 13. Wakash '' (=Nootka)'' 14. Salish '' (=Salishan)'' 15. Shoshonees '' (=Shoshone)'' 16. Atnahs '' (=Shuswap)'' 17. Kinai '' (=Tanaina)'' 18. Koulischen '' (=Tlingit)'' 19. Utchees '' (=Yuchi)'' |}

===Gallatin (1848)=== '''Families'''

# Algonquian languages # Athabaskan languages # Catawban languages # Eskimoan languages # Iroquoian languages (Northern) # Iroquoian languages (Southern) # Muskogean languages # Siouan languages

'''Languages''' {| | valign="top" width="55%" | 1. Adai 2. Alsean 3. Apache 4. Arapaho 5. Atakapa 6. Caddoan, Northern 7. Caddoan, Southern 8. Cayuse-Molala 9. Chinookan 10. Chitimacha 11. Comanche 12. Haida 13. Kalapuyan 14. Kiowa 15. Klamath 16. Koasati-Alabama 17. Kootenai | valign="top" | 18. Kutchin 19. Maricopa (Yuman) 20. Natchez 21. Palaihnihan 22. Plains Apache 23. Sahaptian 24. Salishan 25. Shasta 26. Shoshone 27. Tanaina 28. Tlingit 29. Tsimshian 30. Ute 31. Wakashan, Southern 32. Wichita 33. Yuchi |}

===Powell's (1892) "Fifty-eight"=== John Wesley Powell, an explorer who served as director of the Bureau of American Ethnology, published a classification of 58 "stocks" that is the "cornerstone" of genetic classifications in North America. Powell's classification was influenced by Gallatin to a large extent.

John Wesley Powell was in a race with Daniel G. Brinton to publish the first comprehensive classification of North America languages (although Brinton's classification also covered South and Central America). As a result of this competition, Brinton was not allowed access to the linguistic data collected by Powell's fieldworkers.

: ''(More current names are indicated parenthetically.)''

{| style="font-size: 95%;" | valign="top" width="34%" | 1. Adaizan 2. Algonquian 3. Athapascan 4. Attacapan '' (=Atakapa)'' 5. Beothukan '' (=Beothuk)'' 6. Caddoan 7. Chimakuan 8. Chimarikan '' (=Chimariko)'' 9. Chimmesyan '' (=Tsimshian)'' 10. Chinookan 11. Chitimachan '' (=Chitimacha)'' 12. Chumashan 13. Coahuiltecan 14. Copehan '' (=Wintuan)'' 15. Costanoan 16. Eskimauan '' (=Eskimoan)'' 17. Esselenian '' (=Esselen)'' 18. Iroquoian 19. Kalapooian '' (=Kalapuyan)'' 20. Karankawan '' (=Karankawa)'' | valign="top" width="34%" | 21. Keresan 22. Kiowan '' (=Kiowa)'' 23. Kitunahan '' (=Kutenai)'' 24. Koluschan '' (=Tlingit)'' 25. Kulanapan '' (=Pomoan)'' 26. Kusan '' (=Coosan)'' 27. Lutuamian '' (=Klamath-Modoc)'' 28. Mariposan '' (=Yokutsan)'' 29. Moquelumnan '' (=Miwokan)'' 30. Muskhogean '' (=Muskogean)'' 31. Natchesan '' (=Natchez)'' 32. Palaihnihan 33. Piman '' (=Uto-Aztecan)'' 34. Pujunan '' (=Maiduan)'' 35. Quoratean '' (=Karok)'' 36. Salinan 37. Salishan 38. Sastean '' (=Shastan)'' 39. Shahaptian '' (=Sahaptian)'' | valign="top" | 40. Shoshonean '' (=Uto-Aztecan)'' 41. Siouan '' (=Siouan–Catawba)'' 42. Skittagetan '' (=Haida)'' 43. Takilman '' (=Takelma)'' 44. Tañoan '' (=Tanoan)'' 45. Timuquanan '' (=Timucua)'' 46. Tonikan '' (=Tunica)'' 47. Tonkawan '' (=Tonkawa)'' 48. Uchean '' (=Yuchi)'' 49. Waiilatpuan '' (=Cayuse & Molala)'' 50. Wakashan 51. Washoan '' (=Washo)'' 52. Weitspekan '' (=Yurok)'' 53. Wishoskan '' (=Wiyot)'' 54. Yakonan '' (=Siuslaw & Alsean)'' 55. Yanan 56. Yukian 57. Yuman 58. Zuñian '' (=Zuni)'' |}

===Rivet (1924)=== Paul Rivet (1924) lists a total of 46 independent language families in North and Central America. Olive and Janambre are extinct languages of Tamaulipas, Mexico.<ref name="Rivet-1924"/>

{{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ;North American families #Algonkin #''Beothuk'' #Eskimo #Hoka #Iroquois (Irokwa) #''Kaddo'' #''Keres'' #''Kiowa'' #''Klamath'' #''Kutenai'' #Muskhogi #Na-Dene #Penutia #Sahaptin #Salish #Siou (Syu) #Tano #''Timukua'' #''Chimakum'' #''Tunika'' #Uto-Azten #''Waiilatpu'' #Wakash #''Yuki'' #''Yuchi'' #''Zuñi'' {{col-break}} ;Central American families #''Amusgo'' #''Kuikatec'' #''Kuitlatek'' #Lenka #Maya #Miskito-Sumo-Matagalpa #Mixe-Zoke #Mixtek #''Olive'' #Otomi #''Paya'' #''Subtiaba'' #''Tarask (Michoacano)'' #Totonak #Chinantek #''Waїkuri'' #''Xanambre (Janambre)'' #Xikake (Jicaque) #Xinka (Jinca, Sinca) #Zapotek {{col-end}}

===Sapir (1929): ''Encyclopædia Britannica''=== Below is Edward Sapir's (1929) famous ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' classification. Note that Sapir's classification was controversial at the time and it additionally was an original proposal (unusual for general encyclopedias). Sapir was part of a "lumper" movement in Native American language classification. Sapir himself writes of his classification: "A more far-reaching scheme than Powell's [1891 classification], suggestive but not demonstrable in all its features at the present time" (Sapir 1929: 139). Sapir's classifies all the languages in North America into only 6 families: Eskimo–Aleut, Algonkin–Wakashan, Na-Dene, Penutian, Hokan–Siouan, and Aztec–Tanoan. Sapir's classification (or something derivative) is still commonly used in general languages-of-the-world type surveys. (Note that the question marks that appear in Sapir's list below are present in the original article.)

: "Proposed Classification of American Indian Languages North of Mexico (and Certain Languages of Mexico and Central America)"

{| style="font-size: 95%;" | valign="top" width="40%" |

'''I. ''Eskimo–Aleut'''''

'''II. ''Algonkin–Wakashan''''' : 1. ''Algonkin–Ritwan'' :: (1) Algonkin :: (2) Beothuk (?) :: (3) Ritwan ::: (a) Wiyot ::: (b) Yurok : 2. ''Kootenay'' : 3. ''Mosan (Wakashan–Salish)'' :: (1) Wakashan (Kwakiutl–Nootka) :: (2) Chimakuan :: (3) Salish

'''III. ''Nadene''''' : 1. ''Haida'' : 2. ''Continental Nadene'' :: (1) Tlingit :: (2) Athabaskan

'''IV. ''Penutian''''' : 1. ''Californian Penutian'' :: (1) Miwok-Costanoan :: (2) Yokuts :: (3) Maidu :: (4) Wintun : 2. ''Oregon Penutian'' :: (1) Takelma :: (2) Coast Oregon Penutian ::: (a) Coos ::: (b) Siuslaw ::: (c) Yakonan :: (3) Kalapuya : 3. ''Chinook'' : 4. ''Tsimshian'' : 5. ''Plateau Penutian'' :: (1) Sahaptin :: (2) Waiilatpuan (Molala–Cayuse) :: (3) Lutuami (Klamath-Modoc) : 6. ''Mexican Penutian'' :: (1) Mixe–Zoque :: (2) Huave | valign="top" width="40%" |

'''V. ''Hokan–Siouan''''' : 1. ''Hokan–Coahuiltecan'' :: A. Hokan ::: (1) Northern Hokan :::: (a) Karok, Chimariko, Shasta–Achomawi :::: (b) Yana :::: (c) Pomo ::: (2) Washo ::: (3) Esselen–Yuman :::: (a) Esselen :::: (b) Yuman ::: (4) Salinan–Seri :::: (a) Salinan :::: (b) Chumash :::: (c) Seri ::: (5) Tequistlatecan (Chontal) :: B. Subtiaba–Tlappanec :: C. Coahuiltecan ::: (1) Tonkawa ::: (2) Coahuilteco :::: (a) Coahuilteco proper :::: (b) Cotoname :::: (c) Comecrudo ::: (3) Karankawa : 2. ''Yuki'' : 3. ''Keres'' : 4. ''Tunican''{{anchor|Tunican}} :: (1) Tunica–Atakapa :: (2) Chitimacha : 5. ''Iroquois'' :: (1) Iroquoian :: (2) Caddoan : 6. ''Eastern group'' :: (1) Siouan–Yuchi ::: (a) Siouan ::: (b) Yuchi :: (2) Natchez–Muskogian ::: (a) Natchez ::: (b) Muskogian ::: (c) Timucua (?) | valign="top" width="40%" |

'''VI. ''Aztec–Tanoan''''' : 1. ''Uto-Aztekan'' :: (1) Nahuatl :: (2) Piman :: (3) Shoshonean : 2. ''Tanoan–Kiowa'' :: (1) Tanoan :: (2) Kiowa : 3. ''Zuñi (?)'' |}

===Voegelin & Voegelin (1965): The "Consensus" of 1964=== thumb|300px thumb

The Voegelin & Voegelin (1965)<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Voegelin |first1=C. F. |last2=Voegelin |first2=F. M. |date=October 1965 |title=Languages of the World: Native America Fascicle Two |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/30022559 |journal=Anthropological Linguistics |volume=7 |issue=7 |pages=139–145 |doi= |jstor=30022559 |access-date=2022-01-08}}</ref> classification was the result of a conference of Americanist linguists held at Indiana University in 1964. This classification identifies 16 main genetic units.

{| style="font-size: 95%;" cellpadding="7" | valign="top" width="50%" | # '''American Arctic-Paleosiberian''' phylum #* Eskimo–Aleut #* Chukchi–Kamchatkan # '''Na-Dene''' phylum #* Athapascan #* Tlingit #* Haida # '''Macro-Algonquian''' phylum #* Algonquian #* Yurok #* Wiyot #* Muskogean #* Natchez #* Atakapa #* Chitimacha #* Tunica #* Tonkawa # '''Macro-Siouan''' phylum #* Siouan #* Catawba #* Iroquoian #* Caddoan #* Yuchi # '''Hokan''' phylum #* Yuman #* Seri #* Pomoan #* Palaihnihan #* Shastan #* Yanan #* Chimariko #* Washo #* Salinan #* Karok #* Chumashan #* Comecrudan #* Coahuiltecan #* Esselen #* Jicaque #* Tlapanecan #* Tequistlatecan | valign="top" width="60%" |  6. '''Penutian''' phylum * Yokuts * Maidu * Wintun * Miwok–Costanoan * Klamath–Modoc * Sahaptin–Nez Perce * Cayuse * Molale * Coos * Yakonan * Takelma * Kalapuya * Chinookan * Tsimshian * Zuni * Mixe–Zoque * Mayan * Chipaya–Uru * Totonacan * Huave  7. '''Aztec–Tanoan''' phylum * Kiowa–Tanoan * Uto-Aztecan  8. '''Keres'''  9. '''Yuki''' 10. '''Beothuk''' 11. '''Kutenai''' 12. '''Karankawa''' 13. '''Chimakuan''' 14. '''Salish''' 15. '''Wakashan''' 16. '''Timucua''' |}

Chumashan, Comecrudan, and Coahuiltecan are included in Hokan with "reservations". Esselen is included in Hokan with "strong reservations". Tsimshian and Zuni are included in Penutian with reservations.

===Campbell & Mithun (1979): The "Black Book"=== Campbell & Mithun's 1979 classification is more conservative, since it insists on more rigorous demonstration of genetic relationship before grouping. Thus, many of the speculative phyla of previous authors are "split".

===Goddard (1996), Campbell (1997), Mithun (1999)=== (preliminary)

{{collapse top|Classification by Goddard (1996), Campbell (1997), Mithun (1999)}} '''Families''' # Algic ## Algonquian ## Wiyot (> Ritwan?) ## Yurok (> Ritwan?) # Na-Dene ## Eyak-Athabaskan ### Eyak ### Athabaskan ## Tlingit # Caddoan (> Macro-Siouan?) # Chimakuan # Chinookan (> Penutian?) # Chumashan [chúmash] # Comecrudan # Coosan [kus] (> Coast Penutian?) # Eskimo–Aleut ## Eskimoan ## Aleut = Unangan # Iroquoian # Kalapuyan [kalapúyan] # Kiowa–Tanoan # Maiduan # Muskogean # Palaihnihan (Achumawi–Atsugewi) # Pomoan # Sahaptian # Salishan # Shastan # Siouan–Catawban ## Siouan ## Catawban # Tsimshianic # Utian ## Miwok ## Costanoan # Utaztecan ## Numic = Plateau ## Tübatulabal = Kern ## Takic = Southern California ## Hopi = Pueblo ## Tepiman = Pimic ## Taracahitic ## Tubar ## Corachol ## Aztecan # Wakashan ## Kwakiutlan ## Nootkan # Wintuan (> Coast Penutian?) # Yokutsan # Yuman–Cochimi ## Yuman ## Cochimi

'''Isolates''' # Adai # Alsea [alsi] (> Coast Penutian?) # Atakapa (> Tunican?) # Beothuk (unclassifiable?) # Cayuse # Chimariko # Chitimacha (> Tunican?) # Coahuilteco # Cotoname = Carrizo de Camargo # Esselen # Haida # Karankawa # Karuk # Keres # Klamath-Modoc # Kootenai # Molala # Natchez # Salinan # Siuslaw (> Coast Penutian?) # Takelma # Timucua # Tonkawa # Tunica (> Tunican?) # Wappo (> Yuki–Wappo) # Washo # Yana # Yuchi (> Siouan) # Yuki (> Yuki–Wappo) # Zuni

'''Stocks'''

* Yuki–Wappo, supported by Elmendorf (1981, 1997)

The unity of Penutian languages outside Mexico is considered probable by many linguists: * Penutian # Tsimshianic # Chinookan # Takelma # Kalapuya (not close to Takelma: Tarpent & Kendall 1998) # Maidun # Oregon Coast-Wintu (Whistler 1977, Golla 1997) ## Alsea ## Coosan ## Siuslaw ## Wintuan # Plateau ## Sahaptian ## Klamath ## Molala ## Cayuse ? (poor data) # Yok-Utian ? ## Yana ## Yana

Siouan–Yuchi "probable"; Macro-Siouan likely: * Macro-Siouan # Iroquoian–Caddoan ## Iroquoian ## Caddoan # Siouan–Yuchi ## Siouan–Catawban ## Yuchi

Natchez–Muskogean most likely of the Gulf hypothesis * Natchez–Muskogean # Natchez # Muskogean

Hokan: most promising proposals * Hokan # Karok # Chimariko # Shastan # Palaihnihan # Yana # Washo # Pomoan # Esselen # Salinan # Yuman–Cochimi # Seri

"Unlikely" to be Hokan: :Chumashan :Tonkawa :Karankawa {{collapse bottom}}

Subtiaba–Tlapanec is likely part of Otomanguean (Rensch 1977, Oltrogge 1977).

Aztec–Tanoan is "undemonstrated"; Mosan is a Sprachbund.

===Campbell (2024)===  Lyle Campbell (2024) proposed the following list of 30 uncontroversial indigenous language families and 24 isolates north of Mexico – a total of 54 independent families and isolates.<ref>{{Citation |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Indigenous Languages of South America |date=2024-06-25 |work=The Indigenous Languages of the Americas |pages=28-145 |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/57386/chapter/464719092 |access-date=2025-06-16 |edition=1 |publisher=Oxford University PressNew York |language=en |doi=10.1093/oso/9780197673461.003.0004 |isbn=978-0-19-767346-1|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Language families deemed major are highlighted in '''bold'''. The remaining language families all considered small.

{{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ;Families #'''Algic''' ({{circa|54}}) #'''Caddoan''' (5) #'''Cochimi-Yuman''' (12) #'''Eskimo-Aleut''' (13) #'''Iroquoian''' (13) #'''Kiowa-Tanoan''' (7) #'''Muskogean''' (7) #'''Na-Dene''' ({{circa|47}}) #'''Plateau''' (4) #'''Salishan''' (23) #'''Siouan-Catawban''' (17) #'''Utian''' (15) #'''Uto-Aztecan''' ({{circa|48}}, of which {{circa|16}} are in Mexico and Central America) #'''Wakashan''' (6) #Chimakuan (2) {{extinct}} #Chinookan (3) {{extinct}} #Chumashan (6) {{extinct}} #Comecrudan (3) {{extinct}} #Coosan (2) {{extinct}} #Kalapuyan (3) {{extinct}} #Keresan (2) #Maiduan (4) {{extinct}} #Palaihnihan (2) {{extinct}} #Pomoan (7) {{extinct}} #Salinan (2) {{extinct}} #Shastan (3~4) {{extinct}} #Tsimshianic (4) #Wintuan (2) {{extinct}} #Yokutsan (6~7) #Yukian (2) {{extinct}} {{col-break}} ;Isolates #Adai {{extinct}} #Alsea {{extinct}} #Atakapa {{extinct}} #Beothuk {{extinct}} #Cayuse {{extinct}} #Chimariko {{extinct}} #Chitimacha {{extinct}} #Coahuilteco {{extinct}} #Cotoname {{extinct}} #Esselen {{extinct}} #Haida #Karankawa {{extinct}} #Karuk #Kootenai #Natchez {{extinct}} #Siuslaw {{extinct}} #Takelma {{extinct}} #Tonkawa {{extinct}} #Timucua {{extinct}} #Tunica {{extinct}} #Washo #Yana {{extinct}} #Yuchi {{extinct}} #Zuni {{col-end}}

==Mesoamerica== (Consensus conservative classification)

'''Families''' * Uto-Aztecan (Other branches outside Mesoamerica. See North America) languages :# Corachol (Cora–Huichol) :# Aztecan (Nahua–Pochutec)

* Totonac–Tepehua * Otomanguean :# Otopamean :# Popolocan–Mazatecan :# Subtiaba–Tlapanec :# Amuzgo :# Mixtecan :# Chatino–Zapotec :# Chinantec :# Chiapanec–Mangue (extinct)

* Tequistlatecan * Mixe–Zoque * Mayan * Jicaquean * Misumalpan (Outside Mesoamerica proper. See South America) * Chibchan (Outside Mesoamerica proper. See South America) :# Paya

'''Isolates''' * Purépecha * Cuitlatec (extinct) * Huave * Xinca (extinct) * Lenca (extinct)

'''Proposed stocks''' * Hokan (see North America) :# Tequistlatec-Jicaque * Macro-Mayan (Penutian affiliation now considered doubtful.) :# Totonac–Tepehua :# Huave :# Mixe–Zoque :# Mayan * Macro-Chibchan :# Chibchan :# Misumalpan :# Xinca :# Lenca

==South America== {{further|Indigenous languages of South America}}

Notable early classifications of classifications of indigenous South American language families include those by Filippo Salvatore Gilii (1780–84),<ref name="Gilij">Gilij, Filippo Salvatore. 1965. ''Ensayo de historia Americana''. Spanish translation by Antonio Tovar. (Fuentes para la Historia Colonial de Venezuela, Volumes 71–73.) Caracas: Biblioteca de la Academia Nacional de la Historia. First published as Saggio di storia americana; o sia, storia naturale, civile e sacra de regni, e delle provincie spagnuole di Terra-Ferma nell' America Meridionale descritto dall' abate F. S. Gilij. Rome: Perigio [1780–1784].</ref> Lorenzo Hervás y Panduro (1784–87),<ref name="Hervas-1784">Hervás y Panduro, Lorenzo. 1784–87. ''Idea dell'universo: che contiene la storia della vita dell'uomo, elementi cosmografici, viaggio estatico al mondo planetario, e storia de la terra e delle lingue''. Cesena: Biasini.</ref><ref name="Hervas-1800">Hervás y Panduro, Lorenzo. 1800–1805. ''Catálogo de las lenguas de las naciones conocidas y numeracion, division, y clases de estas segun la diversidad de sus idiomas y dialectos'', Volume I (1800): ''Lenguas y naciones Americanas''. Madrid: Administracion del Real Arbitrio de Beneficencia.</ref> Daniel Garrison Brinton (1891),<ref name="Brinton-1891">Brinton, Daniel G. 1891. ''The American race''. New York: D. C. Hodges.</ref> Paul Rivet (1924),<ref name="Rivet-1924">Rivet, Paul. 1924. Langues Américaines III: Langues de l'Amérique du Sud et des Antilles. In: Antoine Meillet and Marcel Cohen (ed.), ''Les Langues du Monde'', Volume 16, 639–712. Paris: Collection Linguistique.</ref> John Alden Mason (1950),<ref name="Mason-1950">Mason, J. Alden. 1950. The languages of South America. In: Julian Steward (ed.), ''Handbook of South American Indians'', Volume 6, 157–317. (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 143.) Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.</ref> and Čestmír Loukotka (1968).<ref name="Loukotka"/> Other classifications include those of Jacinto Jijón y Caamaño (1940–45),<ref name="Jijon">Jijón y Caamaño, Jacinto. 1998. ''El Ecuador interandino y occidental antes de la conquista castellana''. Quito: Abya-Yala. First published Quito: Editorial Ecuatoriana [1940–1945].</ref> Antonio Tovar (1961; 1984),<ref name="Tovar-1961">Tovar, Antonio. 1961. ''Catálogo de las lenguas de América del Sur: enumeración, con indicaciones tipológicas, bibliografía y mapas''. Buenos Aires: Editorial Sudamericana.</ref><ref name="Tovar-1984">Tovar, Antonio and Consuelo Larrucea de Tovar. 1984. ''Catálogo de las lenguas de América del Sur''. Madrid: Gredos.</ref> and Jorge A. Suárez (1974).<ref name="Suarez-1974">Suárez, Jorge. 1974. South American Indian languages. ''Encyclopaedia Britannica'', 15th edition, Macropaedia 17. 105–112.</ref><ref name="Campbell-SAmerica">{{cite book |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |author-link=Lyle Campbell |title=The Indigenous Languages of South America |date=2012 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |isbn=978-3-11-025513-3 |editor1-last=Grondona |editor1-first=Verónica |series=The World of Linguistics |volume=2 |location=Berlin |pages=59–166 |chapter=Classification of the indigenous languages of South America |editor2-last=Campbell |editor2-first=Lyle}}</ref>

===''Glottolog'' 4.1 (2019)=== ''Glottolog'' 4.1 (2019) recognizes 44 independent families and 64 isolates in South America.<ref name="Glottolog-4-1" />

;South American languages families proposed in ''Glottolog'' 4.1 {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ;Families (44) #Arawakan (78) #Tupian (71) #Pano-Tacanan (45) #Quechuan (45) #Cariban (42) #Mayan (33) #Nuclear-Macro-Jê (30) #Chibchan (27) #Tucanoan (26) #Chapacuran (12) #Chocoan (9) #Huitotoan (7) #Matacoan (7) #Arawan (6) #Barbacoan (6) #Nambiquaran (6) #Zaparoan (6) #Guahiboan (5) #Guaicuruan (5) #Lengua-Mascoy (5) #Yanomamic (5) #Aymaran (4) #Chicham (4) #Chonan (4) #Jodi-Saliban (4) #Kamakanan (4) #Naduhup (4) #Bororoan (3) #Cahuapanan (3) #Charruan (3) #Kawesqar (3) #Peba-Yagua (3) #Zamucoan (3) #Araucanian (2) #Boran (2) #Harakmbut (2) #Hibito-Cholon (2) #Huarpean (2) #Kakua-Nukak (2) #Katukinan (2) #Otomaco-Taparita (2) #Puri-Coroado (2) #Ticuna-Yuri (2) #Uru-Chipaya (2)

{{col-break}} ;Isolates (64) #Aewa #Aikanã #Andaqui #Andoque #Arutani #Atacame #Betoi-Jirara #Camsá #Candoshi-Shapra #Canichana #Cayubaba #Chiquitano #Chono #Cofán #Culli #Fulniô #Guachi #Guamo #Guató #Irántxe-Münkü #Itonama #Jirajaran #Kanoê #Kariri #Kunza #Kwaza #Leco #Lule #Máku (Jukude) #Matanawí #Mato Grosso Arára #Mochica #Mosetén-Chimané #Movima #Muniche #Mure #Omurano #Oti #Páez #Pankararú #Payagua #Pirahã #Puelche #Puinave #Pumé #Puquina #Ramanos #Sapé #Sechuran #Tallán #Taruma #Taushiro #Timote-Cuica #Tinigua #Trumai #Tuxá #Urarina #Vilela #Waorani #Warao #Xukurú #Yámana #Yuracaré #Yurumanguí {{col-end}}

===Rivet (1924)=== Paul Rivet (1924) lists 77 independent language families of South America.<ref name="Rivet-1924"/>

{{columns-list |colwidth=25em| #''Alakaluf'' #''Al'entiak'' #''Amuesha'' #''Araukan'' #Arawak #''Arda'' (spurious) #''Atakama'' #''Atal'an'' #''Auaké'' #''Aymará'' #Bororó #Diagit #''Enimaga'' #''Esmeralda'' #Guahibo #''Guarauno'' #''Guató'' #Guaykurú #''Het (Chechehet)'' #''Huari'' #''Itonama'' #Kahuapana #''Kaliána'' #''Kañari'' #''Kanichana'' #Karajá (Karayá) #Karib #Karirí #Katukina #''Kayuvava'' #Kichua #''Koche (Mokóa)'' #''Kofane'' #''Leko'' #Maku (Nadahup) #Maskoi #''Mashubi'' #Matako-Mataguayo #''Mobima'' #Moseten #Múra #Nambikuára #Otomak #Pano #''Puelche'' #''Puinave'' #Puruhá #Sáliba #Samuku #''Sanaviron'' #''Shavanté'' #Sek #''Shirianá'' #Timote #''Trumaí'' #Chapakura #Charrúa #Chibcha #Chikito #''Chirino'' #Choko #Cholona #Chon #Tukáno #Tupi-Guaraní #''Tuyuneiri'' #Vilela-''Chulupí'' #Witóto #Xíbaro (Shiwora, Shuara) #Xiraxara #''Yahgan'' #''Yaruro'' #''Yunka'' #''Yurakáre'' #''Yuri'' #Záparo #Je (Ge) }}

===Mason (1950)=== Classification of South American languages by J. Alden Mason (1950):<ref name="Mason-1950"/>

; Chibchan * Western ** Talamanca ** Barbacoa *** Pasto *** Cayapa-Colorado ** Guatuso ** Cuna * Pacific ** Isthmian (Guaymí) ** Colombian * Inter-Andine ** Páez ** Coconuco ** Popayanense * Eastern ** Cundinamarca ** Arhuaco ** Central America ** ? Andakí (Andaquí) ** ? Betoi group

;Languages probably of Chibchan affinities * Panzaleo * Cara, Caranki * Kijo (Quijo) * Misumalpan * Cofán (Kofane)

;Languages of doubtful Chibchan relationships * Coche (Mocoa) * Esmeralda * Tairona, Chimila * Yurumanguí * Timote * Candoshi, Chirino, Murato * Cholón * Híbito * Copallén * Aconipa (Akonipa)

;Language families of central South America * Yunca-Puruhán ** Yunca ** Puruhá ** Cañari (Canyari) ** Atalán ** Sec (Sechura, Tallán) * Kechumaran ** Quechua ** Aymara * Chiquitoan * Macro-Guaicuruan ** Mataco-Macá *** Mataco *** Macá (Enimagá, Cochaboth) ** Guaicurú (Waicurú) * Lule-Vilelan ** Tonocoté, Matará, Guacará

; Arawakan * Chané, Chaná

;Languages of probable Arawakan affinities * Arauá group * Apolista (Lapachu) * Amuesha * Tucuna (Tikuna) * Tarumá * Tacana

;Languages of possible Arawakan relationships * Tuyuneri * Jirajara * Jívaro * Uru-Chipaya-Pukina ** Ochosuma ** Chango, Coast Uru

;Cariban

;Languages of probable Cariban affiliations * Chocó, Cariban of Colombia * Peba-Yagua ** Arda * Yuma * Palmella * Yuri (Juri) * Pimenteira

;Macro-Tupí-Guaranian * Tupí-Guaranian ** Yurimagua (Zurimagua) * Arikem * Miranyan (Boran) * Witotoan ** Nonuya ** Muenane ** Fitita ** Orejón ** Coeruna ** Andoke ** Resigero * Záparoan ** Omurano (Roamaina?) ** Sabela ** Canelo ** Awishira

;Northern tropical lowland independent families * Warrauan * Auakéan * Calianan * Macuan * Shirianán * Sálivan, Macu, Piaróa * Pamigua, Tinigua * Otomacan, Guamo (Guama), Yaruran * Guahiban * Puinavean (Macú) * Tucanoan (Betoyan) ** Coto * Cahuapanan ** Muniche * Panoan ** Chama languages ** Cashibo ** Mayoruna ** Itucale, Simacu, Urarina ** Aguano ** Chamicuro

;Southern tropical lowland independent families * Unclassified languages of Eastern Perú: Alon, Amasifuin, Carapacho, Cascoasoa, Chedua, Cholto, Chunanawa, Chusco, Cognomona, Chupacho, Huayana, Kikidcana (Quiquidcana), Moyo-pampa, Nindaso, Nomona, Pantahua, Payanso, Tepqui, Tingan, Tulumayo, Zapazo * Small "families" of Bolivia: Itonama, Canichana, Cayuvava, Movima, Moseten, Leco, Yuracare * Small languages of the Brazil-Bolivia border: Huari, Masáca, Capishaná, Puruborá, Mashubi, Kepikiriwat, Sanamaicá, Tuparí, Guaycarú, Aricapu, Yaputi, Aruashí, Canoa * Catukinan * Chapacuran: Wanyam (Huañam), Cabishí (Kabichi) * Mascoian * Zamucoan * Guatoan * Bororoan, Otuke ** Coraveca, Covareca ** Curucaneca, Curuminaca * Nambicuaran ** Cabishí * Muran ** Matanawí * Trumaian * Caraján * Caririan

;Macro-Jê * Jê * Caingang * Camacán, Mashacalí, Purí (Coroado) ** Camacán ** Mashacalí ** Purí (Coroado) * Patashó * Malalí * Coropó * Botocudo

;Other language families of eastern Brazil * Shavanté (Chavanté, Šavante) ** Otí ** Opayé ** Cucurá * Guaitacán * Small languages of the Pernambuco region: Fulnió, Natú, Pancãrurú, Shocó, Shucurú, Tushá, Carapató, Payacú, Teremembé, Tarairiu (Ochucayana)

;Southernmost languages * Ataguitan ** Atacama ** Omawaca (Omahuaca) ** Diaguita (Calchaquí) * Charrua, Kerandí, Chaná, etc. * Allentiac (Huarpean) * Sanavirón, Comechingónan ** Sanavirón ** Comechingón * Araucanian ** Chono * Puelchean ** Het (Chechehet) * Chonan (Tewelche, Tehuelche), Selkʼnam * Yahganan * Alacalufan

===Loukotka (1968)=== {{See also|List of unclassified languages of South America#Loukotka (1968)}} Čestmír Loukotka (1968) proposed a total of 117 indigenous language families (called ''stocks'' by Loukotka) and isolates of South America.<ref name="Loukotka">{{cite book |last=Loukotka |first=Čestmír |author-link=Čestmír Loukotka |title=Classification of South American Indian languages |url=https://archive.org/details/classificationof0007louk |url-access=registration |publisher=UCLA Latin American Center |year=1968 |location=Los Angeles}}</ref>

{{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ;Languages of Paleo-American tribes *A. Southern Division **1. ''Yámana'' **2. ''Alacaluf'' **3. Aksanás **4. ''Patagon'' **5. ''Gennaken'' **6. Chechehet **7. ''Sanaviron'' *B. Chaco Division **8. Guaicuru **9. Vilela **10. Mataco **11. Lengua **12. Zamuco **13. Chiquito **14. ''Gorgotoqui'' **Unclassified or unknown languages of the areas of Divisions A and B. *C. Division of Central Brazil **15. Charrua **16. Kaingán **17. ''Opaie'' **18. Puri **19. Mashakali **20. Botocudo **21. ''Baenan'' **22. Kamakan **23. Fulnio **24. Jê **25. ''Kukura'' [spurious] **26. ''Otí'' **27. Boróro **28. Karajá **Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of Division C. *D. Northeastern Division **29. ''Katembri'' **30. ''Tushá'' **31. ''Pankarurú'' **32. ''Chocó'' **33. ''Umán'' **34. ''Natú'' **35. Shukurú **36. Kiriri **37. Tarairiú **38. Gamela **Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of Division D. *E. Northwestern Division **39. Múra **40. ''Matanawí'' **41. ''Erikbaktsa'' **42. Nambikwára **43. ''Iranshe'' **44. Yabutí {{col-break}} ;Languages of tropical forest tribes *A. North Central Division **45. Tupi **46. Arawak **47. Otomac **48. Guamo **49. ''Taruma'' **50. Piaroa **51. Tinigua **52. ''Máku'' **53. ''Tucuna'' **54. Yagua **55. Kahuapana **56. Munichi **57. Cholona **58. Mayna **59. Murato **60. ''Auishiri'' **61. ''Itucale'' **62. Jíbaro **63. Sabela **64. Záparo **65. Chapacura **66. Huari **67. ''Capixana'' **68. ''Koaiá'' **69. ''Purubora'' **70. ''Trumai'' **71. ''Cayuvava'' **72. ''Mobima'' **73. ''Itonama'' **74. ''Canichana'' **Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the North Central Division. *B. South Central Division **75. Pano **76. Tacana **77. ''Toyeri'' **78. ''Yuracare'' **79. Mosetene **80. ''Guató'' **Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the South Central Division. *C. Languages of the Central Division **81. Tucano **82. ''Andoque'' **83. Uitoto **84. Bora **85. ''Yuri'' **86. Makú (Nadahup) **87. Catuquina **88. Arawa **Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the Central Division. *D. Northeastern Division **89. Karaib **90. Yanoama **91. Uarao **92. ''Auaké'' **93. ''Kaliána'' **Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the North Eastern Division. {{col-break}} ;Languages of Andean tribes *A. Northern Division **94. Chibcha **95. Timote **96. Jirajara **97. Chocó **98. ''Idabaez'' **Unclassified or unknown division. *B. North Central Division **99. Yurimangui **100. ''Cofán'' **101. Sechura **102. Catacao **103. ''Culli'' **104. ''Tabancale'' **105. ''Copallén'' **106. Chimú *C. South Central Division **107. Quechua **108. Aymara **109. Puquina **110. Uro **111. Atacama **112. ''Leco'' **Unclassified or unknown languages of the area of the Ancient Inca Empire. *D. Southern Division **113. Mapuche **114. Diaguit **115. Humahuaca **116. Lule **117. Huarpe {{col-end}}

===Kaufman (1990)===

====Families and isolates====

Terrence Kaufman's classification is meant to be a rather conservative genetic grouping of the languages of South America (and a few in Central America). He has 118 ''genetic units''. Kaufman believes for these 118 units "that there is little likelihood that any of the groups recognized here will be broken apart". Kaufman uses more specific terminology than only ''language family'', such as ''language area'', ''emergent area'', and ''language complex'', where he recognizes issues such as partial mutual intelligibility and dialect continuums. The list below collapses these into simply ''families''. Kaufman's list is numbered and grouped by "geolinguistic region". The list below is presented in alphabetic order. Kaufman uses an anglicized orthography for his genetic units, which is mostly used only by himself. His spellings have been retained below.<ref>Kaufman, Terrence. (1990). Language history in South America: What we know and how to know more. In D. L. Payne (Ed.), ''Amazonian linguistics: Studies in lowland South American languages'' (pp. 13–67). Austin: University of Texas Press. {{ISBN|0-292-70414-3}}.</ref>

{| | valign="top" width="65%" | '''Families:''' # Aimoré # Arawán # Barbakóan # Bóran # Boróroan # Chapakúran # Charrúan # Chíbchan # Chimúan # Chipaya # Chokó # Cholónan # Chon # Haki # Harákmbut # Hiraháran # Hívaro # Jabutían # Jê # Kamakánan # Karajá # Káriban # Katakáoan # Katukínan # Kawapánan # Kawéskar # Kechua # Maipúrean # Mashakalían # Maskóian # Matákoan # Misumalpa # Mosetén # Múran # Nambikuara # Otomákoan # Páesan # Pánoan # Puinávean # Purían # Sálivan # Samúkoan # Sáparoan # Takánan # Timótean # Tiníwan # Tukánoan # Tupían # Wahívoan # Waikurúan # Warpe # Witótoan # Yanomáman # Yáwan | valign="top" width="65%" | '''Isolates or unclassified:''' # Aikaná # Andoke # Awaké # Baenã # Betoi # Chikitano # Ezmeralda # Fulnió # Gamela # Gorgotoki # Guató # Hotí # Iranshe # Itonama # Jaruro # Jeikó # Jurí # Kaliana # Kamsá # Kanichana # Kapishaná # Karirí # Katembrí # Kayuvava # Koayá # Kofán # Kandoshi # Kolyawaya jargon # Kukurá # Kulyi # Kunsa # Leko # Lule # Maku (Jukude) # Mapudungu # Matanawí # Movima # Munichi # Natú # Ofayé # Omurano # Otí # Pankararú # Puelche # Pukina # Rikbaktsá # Sabela # Sechura # Shokó # Shukurú # Tarairiú # Taruma # Tekiraka # Tikuna # Trumai # Tushá # Urarina # Vilela # Wamo # Wamoé # Warao # Yámana # Yurakare # Yurimangi |}

====Stocks==== In addition to his conservative list, Kaufman list several larger "stocks" which he evaluates. The names of the stocks are often obvious hyphenations of two members; for instance, the Páes-Barbakóa stock consists of the Páesan and Barbakóan families. If the composition is not obvious, it is indicated parenthetically. Kaufman puts question marks by Kechumara and Mosetén-Chon stocks.

'''"Good" stocks:''' * Awaké–Kaliana (Arutani–Sape) * Chibcha–Misumalpa * Ezmeralda–Jaruro * Jurí–Tikuna * Kechumara ''(=Kechua + Haki)'' (good?) * Lule–Vilela * Mosetén–Chon (good?) * Páes–Barbakóa * Pano–Takana * Sechura–Katakao * Wamo–Chapakúra

'''"Probable" stocks:''' * Macro-Jê ''(=Chikitano + Boróroan + Aimoré + Rikbaktsá + Je + Jeikó + Kamakánan + Mashakalían + Purían + Fulnío + Karajá + Ofayé + Guató)'' * Mura–Matanawí

'''"Promising" stocks:''' * Kaliánan ''(=Awaké + Kaliana + Maku [Jukude])''

'''"Maybe" stocks:''' * Bora–Witoto * Hívaro–Kawapana * Kunsa–Kapishaná (now abandoned) * Pukina–Kolyawaya * Sáparo–Yawa

====Clusters and networks==== {{Expand section|date=June 2008}}

Kaufman's largest groupings are what he terms ''clusters'' and ''networks''. Clusters are equivalent to macro-families (or phyla or superfamilies). Networks are composed of clusters. Kaufman views all of these larger groupings to be hypothetical and his list is to be used as a means to identify which hypotheses most need testing.

===Campbell (2012)=== {{See also|List of indigenous languages of South America#Campbell (2012)}} {{See also|List of unclassified languages of South America#Campbell (2012)}} Lyle Campbell (2012) proposed the following list of 53 uncontroversial indigenous language families and 55 isolates of South America – a total of 108 independent families and isolates.<ref name="Campbell-SAmerica" /> Language families with 9 or more languages are highlighted in '''bold'''. The remaining language families all have 6 languages or fewer.

{{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ;Families #'''Arawakan''' (Maipurean, Maipuran) (~65) – widespread #'''Cariban''' (~40) – Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, etc. #'''Chapacuran''' (Txapakúran) (9) – Brazil, Bolivia #'''Chibchan''' (23) – Colombia, Venezuela, Panama, Costa Rica #'''Jêan''' (12) – Brazil #'''Pano–Takanan''' (~30) – Brazil, Peru, Bolivia #'''Makúan''' (Makú–Puinavean, Puinavean, Guaviaré–Japurá) (8) – Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela #'''Quechuan''' (23 ?) – Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina #'''Tukanoan''' (Tucanoan) (~20) – Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil #'''Tupían''' (~55) – Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia, etc. #Arawan (Arahuan, Arauan, Arawán) (6) – Brazil, Peru #Aymaran (2) – Bolivia, Peru #Barbacoan (5) – Colombia, Ecuador #Bororoan (3) – Brazil #Cahuapanan (2) – Peru #Cañar–Puruhá (2; uncertain) – Ecuador #Charruan (3) – Uruguay, Argentina #Chipaya–Uru (3) – Bolivia #Chocoan (2–6) – Colombia, Panama #Cholonan (2) – Peru #Chonan (Chon) (3) – Argentina #Guaicuruan (Waykuruan) (5) – Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil #Guajiboan (4) – Colombia #Harákmbut–Katukinan (3; uncertain) – Peru, Brazil #Huarpean (Warpean) (2) – Argentina #Jabutían (2) – Brazil #Jirajaran (3) – Venezuela #Jivaroan (4 ?) – Peru, Ecuador #Kamakanan (5 ?) – Brazil #Karajá (2 ?) – Brazil #Karirian (Karirí) (4) – Brazil #Krenákan (Botocudoan, Aimoré) (3) – Brazil #Lule–Vilelan (2) – Argentina #Mascoyan (4) – Paraguay #Matacoan (4) – Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia #Maxakalían (3) – Brazil #Mosetenan (2) – Bolivia #Muran (4, only 1 living) – Brazil #Nambikwaran (5 ?) – Brazil #Qawasqaran (Kaweskaran, Alacalufan) (2–3) – Chile #Otomacoan (2) – Venezuela #Paezan (1–3; isolate ?) – Colombia #Purían (2) – Brazil #Sáliban (Sálivan) (3 ?) – Venezuela, Colombia #Sechura–Catacaoan (3) – Peru #Timotean (2) – Venezuela #Tikuna–Yuri – Peru, Colombia, Brazil #Tiniguan (2) – Colombia #Yaguan (3) – Peru #Witotoan (Huitotoan) (5) – Colombia, Peru #Yanomaman (4) – Venezuela, Brazil #Zamucoan (2) – Paraguay, Bolivia #Zaparoan (3) – Peru, Ecuador {{col-break}} ;Isolates #Aikaná – Brazil #Andaquí – Colombia #Andoque (Andoke) – Colombia, Peru #Atacameño (Cunza, Kunza, Atacama, Lipe) – Chile, Bolivia, Argentina #Awaké (Ahuaqué, Uruak) – Venezuela, Brazil #Baenan – Brazil #Betoi – Colombia (small family ?) #Camsá (Sibundoy, Coche) – Colombia #Candoshi (Candoxi, Maina, Shapra, Murato) – Peru #Canichana – Bolivia #Cayuvava (Cayuwaba, Cayubaba) – Bolivia #Chiquitano – Bolivia #Chono – Chile #Cofán (A’ingaé) – Colombia, Ecuador #Culle – Peru #Gamela – Brazil #Guachí – Brazil #Guató – Brazil #Irantxe (Iranche, Münkü) – Brazil #Itonama (Saramo, Machoto) – Bolivia, Brazil #Jeikó (Jeicó, Jaiko) – Brazil (Macro–Jêan ?) #Jotí (Yuwana) – Venezuela #Kaliana (Sapé, Caliana, Cariana, Chirichano) – Venezuela #Kapixaná (Kanoé) – Brazil #Koayá (Kwaza, Koaiá, Arara) – Brazil #Máku (Jukude) – Brazil #Mapudungu (Mapudungun, Araucano, Mapuche, Maputongo) – Chile, Argentina #Matanauí – Brazil #Mochica (Yunga, Yunca, Chimú, Mochica, Muchic) – Peru #Movima – Bolivia #Munichi (Muniche, Munichino, Otanabe) – Peru #Natú (Peagaxinan) – Brazil #Ofayé (Opayé, Ofayé–Xavante) – Brazil (Macro–Jêan ?) #Omurano (Humurana, Numurana) – Peru #Otí – Brazil #Pankararú (Pancararu, Pancarurú, Brancararu) – Brazil #Payaguá – Paraguay #Puquina – Bolivia #Rikbaktsá (Aripaktsá, Eribatsa, Eripatsa, Canoeiro) – Brazil (Macro–Jêan ?) #Sabela (Huao, Auca, Huaorani, Auishiri) – Ecuador #Taruma (Taruamá) – Brazil, Guyana #Taushiro (Pinchi, Pinche) – Peru #Tequiraca (Tekiraka, Aushiri, Auishiri, Avishiri) – Peru #Trumai (Trumaí) – Brazil #Tuxá – Brazil #Urarina (Simacu, Kachá, Itucale) – Peru #Wamoé (Huamoé, Huamoi, Uamé, Umã; Araticum, Atikum) – Brazil #Warao (Guarao, Warau, Guaruno) – Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela #Xokó – Brazil #Xukurú – Brazil #Yagan (Yaghan, Yamana, Yámana) – Chile #Yaruro (Pumé, Llaruro, Yaruru, Yuapín) – Venezuela #Yaté (Furniô, Fornió, Carnijó; Iatê) – Brazil #Yuracaré – Bolivia #Yurumangui – Colombia {{col-end}}

Campbell (2012) leaves out the classifications of these languages as uncertain.

*Boran – Brazil, Colombia *''Esmeralda'' – Ecuador *''Guamo'' – Venezuela *''Leko'' – Bolivia *''Mure'' – Bolivia *''Puinave'' – Colombia, Venezuela

===Jolkesky (2016)=== {{See also|List of indigenous languages of South America#Jolkesky (2016)}}

Jolkesky (2016) lists 43 language families and 66 language isolates (and/or unclassified languages) in South America – a total of 109 independent families and isolates.<ref name="Jolkesky-2016">{{cite thesis|last=Jolkesky |first=Marcelo Pinho de Valhery |date=2016 |url=http://www.etnolinguistica.org/tese:jolkesky-2016-arqueoecolinguistica |title=Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas |type=Ph.D. dissertation |location=Brasília |publisher=University of Brasília |edition=2}}</ref>{{rp|783–806}}

*† = extinct

{{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ;Families #Andoke-Urekena #Arawa #Barbakoa #Bora-Muinane #Chacha-Cholon-Hibito #Chapakura-Wañam #Charrua #Chibcha #Choko #Chon #Duho #Guahibo #Harakmbet-Katukina #Jaqi #Jirajara † #Jivaro #Karib #Kawapana #Kechua #Lengua-Maskoy #Macro-Arawak #Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru #Macro-Jê #Mapudungun #Moseten-Tsimane #Mura-Matanawi #Nambikwara #Otomako-Taparita † #Pano-Takana #Peba-Yagua #Puinave-Nadahup #Puri † #Tallan † #Timote-Kuika #Tinigua-Pamigua #Tukano #Tupi #Uru-Chipaya #Warpe † #Witoto-Okaina #Yanomami #Zamuko #Zaparo {{col-break}} ;Isolates and unclassified languages #Aikanã #Andaki † #Arara do Rio Branco #Arutani #Atakame † #Atikum † #Aushiri † #Chono † #Guamo † #Guato #Gününa Këna #Iranche/Myky #Itonama #Kakan † #Kamsa #Kañari † #Kanichana #Kanoe #Kawesqar #Kayuvava #Kerandi † #Kimbaya † #Kingnam † #Kofan #Komechingon † #Koraveka † #Kueva † #Kulle † #Kunza † #Kuruminaka † #Kwaza #Leko #Lule † #Maku #Malibu † #Mochika † #Mokana † #Morike † #Movima #Muzo-Kolima † #Omurano #Oti † #Paez #Panche † #Pijao † #Puruha † #Sanaviron † #Sape #Sechura † #Tarairiu † #Taruma #Taushiro #Tekiraka #Trumai #Tuxa † #Umbra #Urarina #Vilela #Waorani #Warao #Xukuru † #Yagan #Yaruro #Yurakare #Yurumangui † #Zenu † {{col-break}} ;Creoles, pidgins, and secret languages #Kallawaya #Maskoy Pidgin #Media Lengua #Ndyuka-Tiriyo {{col-end}} ===Campbell (2024)===  Lyle Campbell (2024) proposed the following list of 47 uncontroversial indigenous language families and 53 isolates of South America – a total of 100 independent families and isolates.<ref>{{Citation |last=Campbell |first=Lyle |title=Indigenous Languages of South America |date=2024-06-25 |work=The Indigenous Languages of the Americas |pages=182–279 |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/57386/chapter/464719092 |access-date=2025-06-16 |edition=1 |publisher=Oxford University PressNew York |language=en |doi=10.1093/oso/9780197673461.003.0004 |isbn=978-0-19-767346-1|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Language families with more than 6 languages are highlighted in '''bold'''. The remaining language families all have 6 languages or fewer.

{{col-begin}} {{col-break}} ;Families #'''Arawakan''' (Maipurean, Maipuran) (~65–80) – widespread #'''Cariban''' (~40–50) – Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, etc. #'''Chapacuran''' (Txapakúran) (10) – Brazil, Bolivia #'''Chibchan''' (23) – Colombia, Venezuela, Panama, Costa Rica #'''Macro-Jê Sensu Stricto''' (~33) – Brazil #'''Pano–Takanan''' (~39) – Brazil, Peru, Bolivia #'''Quechuan''' (23 ?) – Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina #'''Tukanoan''' (Tucanoan) (~29, 8 extinct) – Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil #'''Tupían''' (~55–70) – Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia, etc. #Arawan (Arahuan, Arauan, Arawán) (6?) – Brazil, Peru #Aymaran (2) – Bolivia, Peru #Barbacoan (5) – Colombia, Ecuador #Boran (3) – Brazil, Colombia #Bororoan (3) – Brazil #Cahuapanan (3, possibly 2) – Peru #Cañar–Puruhá (2; uncertain) – Ecuador #Charruan (3) – Uruguay, Argentina #Chicham (4) – Peru, Ecuador #Chocoan (3?) – Colombia, Panama #Cholonan (2) – Peru #Chonan (Chon) (5–6?) – Argentina #Enlhet–Enenlhet Mascoyan (6) – Paraguay #Guaicuruan (Waykuruan) (5) – Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil #Guajiboan (4) – Colombia #Harákmbut–Katukinan (4) – Peru, Brazil #Huarpean (Warpean) (2) – Argentina #Jirajaran (3) – Venezuela #Kakua–Nukak (2) – Colombia, Brazil #Karirian (Karirí) (4) – Brazil #Kaweskaran (Qawasqaran, Alacalufan) (3?) – Chile #Lule–Vilelan (2) – Argentina #Mapudungun (Mapudungu, Araucano, Mapuche, Maputongo) (2) – Chile, Argentina #Matacoan (4) – Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia #Nadahup (4) – Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil #Nambikwaran (4 ?) – Brazil #Otomacoan (2) – Venezuela #Sáliban (Sálivan) (3 ?) – Venezuela, Colombia #Tallán (2) – Peru #Tikuna–Yuri (3) – Peru, Colombia, Brazil #Timotean (2) – Venezuela #Tiniguan (2) – Colombia #Uru–Chipaya (3) – Bolivia #Yaguan (3) – Peru #Witotoan (Huitotoan) (5) – Colombia, Peru #Yanomaman (4) – Venezuela, Brazil #Zamucoan (2) – Paraguay, Bolivia #Zaparoan (3–8?) – Peru, Ecuador {{col-break}} ;Isolates #Aikaná – Brazil #Andaquí – Colombia #Andoque (Andoke) – Colombia, Peru #Arara do Rio Branco – Brazil #Arutani (Ahuaqué, Uruak) – Venezuela, Brazil #Atacameño (Cunza, Kunza, Atacama, Lipe) – Chile, Bolivia, Argentina #Betoi–Jirara – Colombia #Candoshi (Candoxi, Maina, Shapra, Murato) – Peru #Canichana – Bolivia #Cayuvava (Cayuwaba, Cayubaba) – Bolivia #Chiquitano – Bolivia #Chono – Chile #Cofán (A'ingaé) – Colombia, Ecuador #Culle – Peru #''Esmeralda'' – Ecuador #Guachí – Brazil #''Guamo'' – Venezuela #Guató – Brazil #Iatê (Furniô, Fornió, Carnijó; Yaté) – Brazil #Irantxe (Iranche, Münkü) – Brazil #Itonama (Saramo, Machoto) – Bolivia, Brazil #Jotí (Yuwana) – Venezuela #Kamsá (Sibundoy, Coche) – Colombia #Kanoê (Kanoé, Kapixaná) – Brazil #Kwaza (Koayá, Koaiá, Arara) – Brazil #''Leko'' – Bolivia #Máku (Jukude) – Brazil #Matanawí – Brazil #Mochica (Yunga, Yunca, Chimú, Mochica, Muchic) – Peru #Moseten–Chimane (Mosetén) – Bolivia #Movima – Bolivia #Munichi (Muniche, Munichino, Otanabe) – Peru #Omurano (Humurana, Numurana) – Peru #Paezan (1–3; smal family ?) – Colombia #Payaguá – Paraguay #Pirahã (Muran) (possibly family of close languages) – Brazil #Puinave (Wãnsöhöt) – Colombia, Venezuela #Purí–Coroado – Brazil #Puquina – Bolivia #Sapé (Kaliana, Caliana, Cariana, Chirichano) – Venezuela #Sechura? – Peru #Taruma (Taruamá) – Brazil, Guyana #Taushiro (Pinchi, Pinche) – Peru #Tequiraca (Tekiraka, Aushiri, Auishiri, Avishiri) – Peru #Trumai (Trumaí) – Brazil #Urarina (Simacu, Kachá, Itucale) – Peru #Waorani (Sabela, Huao, Auca, Huaorani, Auishiri) – Ecuador #Warao (Guarao, Warau, Guaruno) – Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela #Xukurú – Brazil #Yagan (Yaghan, Yamana, Yámana) – Chile #Yaruro (Pumé, Llaruro, Yaruru, Yuapín) – Venezuela #Yuracaré – Bolivia #Yurumangui – Colombia {{col-end}}

==All of the Americas==

===Swadesh (1960 or earlier)=== Morris Swadesh further consolidated Sapir's North American classification and expanded it to group all indigenous languages of the Americas in just 6 families, 5 of which were entirely based in the Americas.<ref>{{cite book| author = Mauricio Swadesh| title = Tras la huella lingüística de la prehistoria| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=IYQkVkdsKXgC&pg=PA114| year = 1987| publisher = UNAM| isbn = 978-968-36-0368-5| page = 114 }}</ref>

# Vasco-Dene languages included the Eskimo–Aleut, Na-Dene, Wakashan and Kutenai families along with most of the languages of Eurasia. # Macro-Hokan roughly comprised a combination of Sapir's Hokan–Siouan and Almosan families and expanded into Central America including the Jicaque language. # Macro-Mayan comprising Mayan along with Sapir's Penutian and Aztec-Tanoan families, the Otomanguean languages and various languages of Central and South America including the Chibchan languages, the Paezan languages and the Tucanoan languages. # Macro-Quechua comprising the Zuni language, the Purépecha language and various languages of South America including Quechua, the Aymara language, the Panoan languages and most of the various other languages of Patagonia and the Andes. # Macro-Carib, an almost entirely South American family including the Carib languages, the Macro-Jê languages and the Jirajara languages, albeit including some Caribbean languages. # Macro-Arawak, a family primarily confined to South America and its component families included the Arawakan languages and the Tupian languages. However, it also was proposed to include the Taíno language in the Caribbean and the Timucua language in Florida.

===Greenberg (1960, 1987)=== Joseph Greenberg's classification<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rdbEBricFRUC |title = Language in the Americas|isbn = 9780804713153|last1 = Greenberg|first1 = Joseph Harold|year = 1987| publisher=Stanford University Press }}</ref> in his 1987 book ''Language in the Americas'' is best known for the highly controversial assertion that all North, Central and South American language families other than Eskimo–Aleut and Na-Dene including Haida, are part of an Amerind macrofamily. This assertion of only three major American language macrofamilies is supported by DNA evidence,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/12/science/earliest-americans-arrived-in-3-waves-not-1-dna-study-finds.html|title = Earliest Americans Arrived in Waves, DNA Study Finds|newspaper = The New York Times|date = 11 July 2012|last1 = Wade|first1 = Nicholas}}</ref> although the DNA evidence does not provide support for the details of his classification.

{{collapse top|Amerind macrofamily proposed by Greenberg}} # Northern Amerind ## Almosan–Keresiouan ### Almosan #### Algic #### Kutenai #### Mosan ##### Wakashan ##### Salish ##### Chimakuan ### Caddoan ### Keres ### Siouan ### Iroquoian ## Penutian ### California Penutian #### Maidu #### Miwok–Costanoan #### Wintun #### Yokuts ### Chinook ### Mexican Penutian (=Macro-Mayan) #### Huave #### Mayan #### Mixe–Zoque #### Totonac ### Oregon Penutian ### Plateau Penutian ### Tsimshian ### Yukian ### Gulf #### Atakapa #### Chitimacha #### Muskogean #### Natchez #### Tunica ### Zuni ## Hokan ### Nuclear Hokan #### Northern ##### Karok–Shasta ##### Yana ##### Pomo #### Washo #### Esselen–Yuman #### Salinan–Seri #### Waicuri #### Maratino #### Quinigua #### Tequistlatec ### Coahuiltecan #### Tonkawa #### Nuclear Coahuiltecan #### Karankawa ### Subtiaba ### Jicaque ### Yurumangui # Central Amerind ## Kiowa–Tanoan ## Otomanguean ## Uto-Aztecan # Chibchan–Paezan ## Chibchan ### Nuclear Chibchan #### Antioquia #### Aruak #### Chibcha #### Cuna #### Guaymi #### Malibu #### Misumalpan #### Motilon #### Rama #### Talamanca ### Paya ### Purépecha ### Xinca ### Yanomam ### Yunca–Puruhan ## Paezan ### Allentiac ### Atacama ### Betoi ### Chimu ### Itonama ### Jirajara ### Mura ### Nuclear Paezan #### Andaqui #### Barbacoa #### Choco #### Paez ### Timucua ### Warrao # Andean (Greenberg (1960) joined Andean and Equatorial, but Greenberg (1987) did not) ## Aymara ## Itucale–Sabela ### Itucale ### Mayna ### Sabela ## Cahuapana–Zaparo ### Cahuapano ### Zaparo ## Northern ### Catacao ### Cholona ### Culli ### Leco ### Sechura ## Quechua ## Southern ### Qawesqar ### Mapundungu ### Gennaken ### Patagon ### Yamana # Equatorial–Tucanoan ## Equatorial ### Macro-Arawakan #### Arawakan #### Guahibo #### Katembri #### Otomaco #### Tinigua ### Cayuvava ### Coche ### Jivaro–Kandoshi #### Cofan #### Esmeralda #### Jivaro #### Kandoshi #### Yaruro ### Kariri–Tupi #### Kariri #### Tupian ### Piaroa ### Taruma ### Timote ### Trumai ### Tusha ### Yuracare ### Zamucoan ## Tucanoan ### Auixiri ### Canichana ### Capixana ### Catuquina ### Gamella ### Huari ### Iranshe ### Kaliana–Maku #### Auake #### Kaliana #### Maku ### Koaia ### Movima ### Muniche ### Nambikwara ### Natu ### Pankaruru ### Puinave ### Shukura ### Ticuna–Yuri #### Ticuna #### Yuri ### Tucanoan ### Uman # Jê–Pano–Carib ## Macro-Jê ### Bororo ### Botocudo ### Caraja ### Chiquito ### Erikbatsa ### Fulnio ### Jê–Kaingang #### Jê #### Kaingang ### Guato ### Kamakan ### Mashakali ### Opaie ### Oti ### Puri ### Yabuti ## Macro-Panoan ### Charruan ### Lengua ### Lule–Vilela #### Lule #### Vilela ### Mataco–Guaicuru #### Guaicuru #### Mataco ### Moseten ### Pano–Tacanan #### Panoan #### Tacanan ## Macro-Carib ### Andoke ### Bora–Uitoto #### Boro #### Uitoto #### Carib #### Kukura #### Yagua {{collapse bottom}}

==Mixed languages== In ''American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America'', Lyle Campbell describes various pidgins and trade languages spoken by the indigenous peoples of the Americas.<ref>{{cite book|first=Lyle|last=Campbell|author-link=Lyle Campbell|title=American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America|date=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|isbn=978-0-19-509427-5|pages=18–25}}</ref> Some of these mixed languages have not been documented and are known only by name.

* Medny Aleut (Copper Island Aleut) * Chinook Jargon * Broken Slavey (Slavey Jargon) * Loucheux Jargon * Michif (French Cree, Métis, Metchif) * Broken Oghibbeway (Broken Ojibwa) * Basque-Algonquian Pidgin (spoken by the Basques, Micmacs, and Montagnais in eastern Canada) * Delaware Jargon * Pidgin Massachusett * Jargonized Powhatan * Lingua Franca Creek * Lingua Franca Apalachee * Mobilian Jargon * Güegüence-Nicarao (formerly spoken in Nicaragua) * Carib Pidgin or Ndjuka-Amerindian Pidgin (Ndjuka-Trio) * Carib Pidgin-Arawak mixed language * Media Lengua * Catalangu * Callahuaya (Machaj-Juyai, Kallawaya) * Nheengatú or Lingua Geral Amazonica ("Lingua Boa," Lingua Brasílica, Lingua Geral do Norte) * Lingua Geral do Sul or Lingua Geral Paulista (Tupí Austral) * Labrador Eskimo Pidgin * Hudson Strait Pidgin Eskimo (spoken from 1750–1850) * Nootka Jargon (18th–19th centuries; later replaced by Chinook Jargon) * Trader Navajo * Yopará (Guaraní-Spanish pidgin) * Afro-Seminole Creole (variety of Gullah) * Haida Jargon * Kutenai Jargon * Guajiro-Spanish mixed language

'''Lingua francas''' * Ocaneechi (spoken in Virginia and the Carolinas in early colonial times) * Tuscarora language * Plains sign language

==Linguistic areas== {{main|Linguistic areas of the Americas}}

==Notes and references== {{reflist}}

==Bibliography== * See: {{Slink|Indigenous languages of the Americas|Bibliography}}

==External links== *[http://native-languages.org/ Native American Language Net] *{{cite web |url=http://geocities.ws/indiosbr_nicolai/menu.html |title=Vocabulários e dicionários de línguas indígenas brasileiras |first=Renato |last=Nicolai |date=2006}} *{{cite web |url=https://www.oocities.org/indianlanguages_2000/index.html |first=Victor A. |last=Petrucci |title=Línguas Indígenas |date=2007}} *[https://diacl.ht.lu.se/Language/Index Diachronic Atlas of Comparative Linguistics (DiACL)] *[https://huntergatherer.la.utexas.edu/ Languages of hunter-gatherers and their neighbors], The University of Texas at Austin *[https://ids.clld.org/ The Intercontinental Dictionary Series]

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