Ground spider

{{Short description|Family of spiders}} {{Automatic taxobox | fossil_range = {{Fossil range|Cretaceous|present}} | name = Ground spiders | image = Callilepis nocturna.jpg | image_caption = ''Callilepis nocturna'', a ground spider found in the Palearctic realm | image2 = Asemesthes ceresicola 299765819 540074175.jpg | image2_caption= female ''Asemesthes ceresicola'' from South Africa | taxon = Gnaphosidae | authority = Banks, 1892 | range_map = Gnaphosidae range map.svg | range_map_caption = blue: reported countries (WSC) green: observation hotspots (iNaturalist) | diversity = 154 genera, 2,498 species }}

'''Ground spiders''' comprise '''Gnaphosidae''', the seventh largest spider family with about 2,500 described species in over 100 genera distributed worldwide. There are 105 species known to central Europe,<ref name="blick2004" /> and common genera include ''Gnaphosa'', ''Drassodes'', ''Micaria'', ''Cesonia'', ''Zelotes'' and many others. They are closely related to Clubionidae.<ref name=ednieuw /> At present, no ground spiders are known to be seriously venomous to humans.

==Hunting behavior== Ground spiders hunt by active foraging, chasing down and subduing individual prey items. They are adapted to hunting large and potentially dangerous prey, including other spiders, which they subdue by using their silk. When hunting, ground spiders produce thick, gluey silk from their enlarged spinnerets and attempt to use it to entangle their prey in swathing attacks, often applying their webbing to their prey's legs and mouths. By immobilizing potential prey in this manner, ground spiders can subdue proportionally large creatures while reducing risk of injury to themselves from their prey's attempts to fight back.<ref name="wolff2017" />

==Description== <gallery mode=packed heights=180px> Spinnerets.jpg|Spinnerets of ''Herpyllus ecclesiasticus'' SpiderEnditesAndLabium.jpg|Endites and labium (also fangs and sternum) </gallery>

Generally, ground spiders are characterized by having barrel-shaped anterior spinnerets that are one spinneret diameter apart. The main exception to this rule is found in the ant-mimicking genus ''Micaria''. Another characteristic is an indentation in the endites (paired mouthparts anterior and lateral to the labium, or lip). All ground spiders lack a prey-capture web and generally run prey down on the surface. They hunt at night and spend the day in a silken retreat.<ref name=ednieuw/>

The genitalia are diverse and are a good model for studying the evolution of genitalia because of their peculiar copulatory mechanism.<ref name="azevedo2018" /> The thick-walled egg sacs are guarded by the mother until the spiderlings hatch.<ref name=ednieuw/>

{{clear}} ==Genera==

<gallery mode=packed> Ammoxenus amphalodes 301149800 542654034.jpg|female ''Ammoxenus amphalodes'' Ammoxenus amphalodes 301149489 542653466.jpg|male ''A. amphalodes'' Asemesthes flavipes 297522781 535830530.jpg|''Asemesthes flavipes'' Theuma elucubata 300858330 542111562.jpg|male ''Theuma elucubata'' </gallery>

{{as of|2026|1}}, this family includes 154 genera and 2,498 species:<ref name="wsc" /> {{Div col}} * ''Afrodrassex'' Haddad & Booysen, 2022 – Angola, South Africa * ''Algarvezelotes'' Wunderlich, 2023 – Portugal * ''Allomicythus'' Ono, 2009 – China, Vietnam * ''Allozelotes'' Yin & Peng, 1998 – China * ''Almafuerte'' Grismado & Carrión, 2017 – Argentina, Bolivia, Uruguay * ''Amazoromus'' Brescovit & Höfer, 1994 – Brazil * ''Ammoxenus'' Simon, 1893 – Southern Africa * ''Amusia'' Tullgren, 1910 – South Africa, East Africa * ''Anagraphis'' Simon, 1893 – Ethiopia, Libya, Asia, Russia, Southern Europe, East Africa * ''Anagrina'' Berland, 1920 – Kenya, Niger * ''Aneplasa'' Tucker, 1923 – Angola, South Africa, East Africa * ''Anzacia'' Dalmas, 1919 – Oceania * ''Aphantaulax'' Simon, 1878 – Africa, Asia, Russia, France, Australia, North Africa, São Tomé and Príncipe * ''Apodrassodes'' Vellard, 1924 – Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, South America * ''Apodrassus'' Chamberlin, 1916 – Peru * ''Aponetius'' Kamura, 2020 – Japan * ''Apopyllus'' Platnick & Shadab, 1984 – Bonaire, Curaçao, Mexico, South America * ''Arauchemus'' Ott & Brescovit, 2012 – Brazil * ''Asemesthes'' Simon, 1887 – Angola, Ethiopia, Southern Africa * ''Asiabadus'' Roewer, 1961 – Central Asia * ''Australoechemus'' Schmidt & Piepho, 1994 – Cape Verde, Ascension Is * ''Austrammo'' Platnick, 2002 – Australia * ''Avstroneulanda'' Zakharov & Ovtsharenko, 2022 – Australia, Papua New Guinea * ''Barrowammo'' Platnick, 2002 – Australia * ''Benoitodes'' Platnick, 1993 – St. Helena * ''Berinda'' Roewer, 1928 – Tanzania, Egypt, Western Asia, Cyprus, Greece. Introduced to Japan * ''Berlandina'' Dalmas, 1922 – Africa, Asia, Alps, Mediterranean to Central Asia * ''Cabanadrassus'' Mello-Leitão, 1941 – Argentina * ''Callilepis'' Westring, 1874 – Asia, Europe, Mexico, North America * ''Callipelis'' Zamani & Marusik, 2017 – Iran * ''Camillina'' Berland, 1919 – Africa, Italy, North America, South America. Introduced to Malaysia * ''Canariognapha'' Wunderlich, 2011 – Canary Islands * ''Ceryerda'' Simon, 1909 – Australia * ''Cesonia'' Simon, 1893 – Turkey, Cyprus, Greece, North America, Azerbaijan, Bahama Is, Dominican Rep, Nevis, St, St. Kitts, Vincent, Virgin Is * ''Chatzakia'' Lissner & Bosmans, 2016 – Spain * ''Civizelotes'' Senglet, 2012 – Morocco, Asia, Europe * ''Cladothela'' Kishida, 1928 – China, Japan, Korea * ''Coillina'' Yin & Peng, 1998 – China, Myanmar, India * ''Coreodrassus'' Paik, 1984 – Asia * ''Cryptodrassus'' Miller, 1943 – Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Asia, Russia, Southern Europe * ''Cryptoerithus'' Rainbow, 1915 – Australia * ''Cubanopyllus'' Alayón & Platnick, 1993 – Cuba * ''Dai'' Liu & Zhang, 2024 – China * ''Diaphractus'' Purcell, 1907 – Southern Africa, East Africa * ''Drassodes'' Westring, 1851 – Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, Brazil, Chile, Peru * ''Drassodex'' Murphy, 2007 – Turkey, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, France * ''Drassyllus'' Chamberlin, 1922 – Asia, Mexico, North America, Europe * ''Echemella'' Strand, 1906 – DR Congo, Ethiopia * ''Echemographis'' Caporiacco, 1955 – Venezuela * ''Echemoides'' Mello-Leitão, 1938 – South America * ''Echemus'' Simon, 1878 – Africa, Asia, southern Europe, Australia * ''Eilica'' Keyserling, 1891 – South Africa, Zimbabwe, India, Cuba, Jamaica, Panama, Australia, South America, USA to Honduras * ''Encoptarthria'' Main, 1954 – Australia * ''Epicharitus'' Rainbow, 1916 – Australia * ''Fedotovia'' Charitonov, 1946 – Afghanistan, Mongolia, Iran * ''Gaviphosa'' Sankaran, 2021 – India * ''Gertschosa'' Platnick & Shadab, 1981 – Jamaica, Panama, Mexico, United States * ''Gnaphosa'' Latreille, 1804 – North Africa, Europe, North America, Asia, Central America * ''Haplodrassus'' Chamberlin, 1922 – Africa, Asia, Europe, North America * ''Herpyllus'' Hentz, 1832 – Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Korea, Mexico, North America, Argentina * ''Heser'' Tuneva, 2004 – Algeria, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, India, Mediterranean. Introduced to Burkina Faso, Mexico, United States * ''Hitobia'' Kamura, 1992 – Asia * ''Homoeothele'' Simon, 1908 – Australia * ''Hongkongia'' Song & Zhu, 1998 – Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, China, Japan, Taiwan, Indonesia, Philippines, India * ''Hotwheels'' Liu & Zhang, 2024 – China * ''Hypodrassodes'' Dalmas, 1919 – Australia, New Caledonia, New Zealand * ''Ibala'' FitzPatrick, 2009 – Mozambique, Southern Africa * ''Intruda'' Forster, 1979 – Australia. Introduced to New Zealand * ''Iranotricha'' Zamani & Marusik, 2018 – Iran * ''Kaitawa'' Forster, 1979 – New Zealand * ''Kikongo'' Rodrigues & Rheims, 2020 – Kenya, D.R. Congo * ''Kishidaia'' Yaginuma, 1960 – Asia, Russia, Italy * ''Kituba'' Rodrigues & Rheims, 2020 – D.R. Congo * ''Ladissa'' Simon, 1907 – Benin, Sierra Leone, Pakistan * ''Laronius'' Platnick & Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001 – China, Indonesia, Thailand * ''Lasophorus'' Chatzaki, 2018 – Turkey, Cyprus, Greece * ''Latica'' Silva, Guerrero, Bidegaray-Batista & Simó, 2020 – Argentina, Uruguay * ''Latonigena'' Simon, 1893 – South America * ''Leptodrassex'' Murphy, 2007 – Mozambique, Algeria, Libya, South Africa, Lebanon, Portugal, Spain, France * ''Leptodrassus'' Simon, 1878 – Ethiopia, Algeria, Libya, Tunisia, South Africa, Sierra Leone, Israel, Azores, Canary Islands, Southern Europe, Mexico * ''Leptopilos'' Levy, 2009 – Africa, Asia, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Russia, Greece * ''Litopyllus'' Chamberlin, 1922 – Bahamas, Cuba, Mexico, United States * ''Macarophaeus'' Wunderlich, 2011 – Canary Islands, Madeira * ''Marinarozelotes'' Ponomarev, 2020 – Ethiopia, Algeria, Egypt, Asia, Europe. Introduced to South Africa, Senegal, St. Helena, Hawaii, Mexico, United States, Samoa, South America, Ascension Is * ''Marjanus'' Chatzaki, 2018 – China, Iran, Turkey, Greece * ''Marusik'' Lin & Li, 2023 – Vietnam * ''Matua'' Forster, 1979 – New Zealand * ''Megamyrmaekion'' Reuss, 1834 – Africa, India, Iran, Israel, Australia * ''Meizhelan'' Lin & Li, 2023 – China * ''Micaria'' Westring, 1851 – Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, Australia * ''Microdrassus'' Dalmas, 1919 – Seychelles * ''Microsa'' Platnick & Shadab, 1977 – Cuba, Bahama Is, Virgin Is * ''Micythus'' Thorell, 1897 – China, Indonesia, Myanmar, Thailand * ''Minosia'' Dalmas, 1921 – Africa, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Western Asia, Spain, France * ''Minosiella'' Dalmas, 1921 – Somalia, Northern Africa, Afghanistan, Western Asia, Greece * ''Molycria'' Simon, 1887 – Australia * ''Montebello'' Hogg, 1914 – Australia * ''Myandra'' Simon, 1887 – Australia * ''Nauhea'' Forster, 1979 – New Zealand * ''Neodrassex'' Ott, 2012 – Argentina, Brazil * ''Nodocion'' Chamberlin, 1922 – Canada, Mexico, United States * ''Nomindra'' Platnick & Baehr, 2006 – Australia, Southern Australia * ''Nomisia'' Dalmas, 1921 – Africa, Asia, Europe, Mediterranean, Middle East * ''Notiodrassus'' Bryant, 1935 – New Zealand * ''Odontodrassus'' Jézéquel, 1965 – Egypt, South Africa, Ivory Coast, Asia, Russia, New Caledonia, North Africa, Salomon Is. Introduced to Seychelles, Jamaica, Pacific Is * ''Orodrassus'' Chamberlin, 1922 – Canada, United States * ''Parabonna'' Mello-Leitão, 1947 – Brazil * ''Parasyrisca'' Schenkel, 1963 – Asia, Hungary, Ukraine, Russia, North America * ''Phaeocedus'' Simon, 1893 – Asia, Russia, Southern Europe, France * ''Platnickus'' Liu & Zhang, 2023 – China * ''Poecilochroa'' Westring, 1874 – Africa, Korea, Indonesia, Philippines, India, Canary Islands, Italy, Portugal, Spain, France, French Polynesia, Brazil, Galapagos, Peru, Europe to Central Asia, São Tomé and Príncipe * ''Pseudodrassus'' Caporiacco, 1935 – Libya, China, Turkey * ''Pterotricha'' Kulczyński, 1903 – Africa, Asia, Russia, Southern Europe * ''Pterotrichina'' Dalmas, 1921 – Northern Africa, Pakistan, Malta * ''Rastellus'' Platnick & Griffin, 1990 – Southern Africa * ''Sanitubius'' Kamura, 2001 – China, Japan, Korea * ''Scopoides'' Platnick, 1989 – Mexico, United States * ''Scotocesonia'' Caporiacco, 1947 – Guyana * ''Scotognapha'' Dalmas, 1920 – Canary Islands, Savage Is * ''Scotophaeus'' Simon, 1893 – Africa, Asia, Europe, New Zealand, Argentina, East Africa, Salvages. Introduced to Hawaii, Peru * ''Sergiolus'' Simon, 1892 – China, Japan, Korea, North America * ''Sernokorba'' Kamura, 1992 – China, Japan, Korea, Hungary, Bulgaria, Russia, Spain, France * ''Setaphis'' Simon, 1893 – Africa, Asia, Canary Islands, Southern Europe * ''Shaitan'' Kovblyuk, Kastrygina & Marusik, 2013 – Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Iran, Russia * ''Shiragaia'' Paik, 1992 – Korea * ''Sidydrassus'' Esyunin & Tuneva, 2002 – Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, Azerbaijan, Iran, Russia * ''Smionia'' Dalmas, 1920 – Mozambique, Botswana, South Africa, Cape Verde * ''Solitudes'' Lin & Li, 2020 – China * ''Sorkinius'' Sherwood, Jocqué, Cazanove & Derepas, 2025 – Eastern Africa, South Africa, Yemen * ''Sosticus'' Chamberlin, 1922 – Kazakhstan, China, Caucasus, Iran, Russia, Canada, United States * ''Symphanodes'' Rainbow, 1916 – Australia * ''Synaphosus'' Platnick & Shadab, 1980 – Africa, Asia, Europe, United States. Introduced to Cape Verde, Mexico, Ascension Island * ''Talanites'' Simon, 1893 – Egypt, Tunisia, Asia, Ukraine, Russia, Cyprus, Mexico, United States * ''Talanitoides'' Levy, 2009 – Israel * ''Titus'' O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1901 – Zimbabwe * ''Trachyzelotes'' Lohmander, 1944 – Caucasus, Iran, Turkey * ''Trephopoda'' Tucker, 1923 – Botswana, Namibia, South Africa * ''Trichothyse'' Tucker, 1923 – Africa, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, India, Iran, Israel, Turkey, Europe, Portugal to Turkmenistan. Introduced to Cape Verde * ''Turkozelotes'' Kovblyuk & Seyyar, 2009 – Morocco, Kazakhstan, Western Asia, Europe * ''Urozelotes'' Mello-Leitão, 1938 – Zambia, India, Russia, Italy, Portugal, France. Introduced to Australia, both Americas, tropical Africa * ''Verita'' Ramírez & Grismado, 2016 – Argentina * ''Wesmaldra'' Platnick & Baehr, 2006 – Australia * ''Wydundra'' Platnick & Baehr, 2006 – Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia * ''Xerophaeus'' Purcell, 1907 – Africa, Yemen * ''Xizangiana'' Sherwood, Li & Zhang, 2022 – China, India * ''Yoruba'' Rodrigues & Rheims, 2020 – Ivory Coast, Nigeria * ''Yuqilin'' Lin & Li, 2023 – China * ''Zagrotes'' Zamani, Chatzaki, Esyunin & Marusik, 2021 – Iran * ''Zelanda'' Özdikmen, 2009 – New Zealand * ''Zelominor'' Snazell & Murphy, 1997 – Algeria, Portugal, Spain * ''Zelotes'' Gistel, 1848 – Africa, Asia, Europe, North America to South America * ''Zelotibia'' Russell-Smith & Murphy, 2005 – Congo, Eastern Africa * ''Zelowan'' Murphy & Russell-Smith, 2010 – Congo, Burundi, Namibia * ''Zimiromus'' Banks, 1914 – Jamaica, Trinidad, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Panama, Mexico, South America, Bahama Is, Virgin Is {{Div col end}}

==References== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="wsc">{{cite web | url=https://wsc.nmbe.ch/lsid/urn:lsid:nmbe.ch:spiderfam:000036 | title=Family Gnaphosidae Banks, 1892 | publisher=World Spider Catalog | doi=10.24436/2 | accessdate=2026-01-26}}</ref> <ref name="azevedo2018">{{cite journal |author=Azevedo |display-authors=etal |year=2018 |title=To complicate or to simplify? Phylogenetic tests of complexity trends and genital evolution in ground spiders (Araneae: Dionycha: Gnaphosidae) |journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=184 |issue=3 |pages=673–694 |doi=10.1093/zoolinnean/zly016}}</ref> <ref name="blick2004">{{cite book |author=Blick |display-authors=etal |year=2004 |title=Checklist of the spiders of Central Europe. (Arachnida: Araneae) |url=http://www.arages.de/files/checklist2004_araneae.pdf}}</ref> <ref name=ednieuw>{{cite web| first=Ed| last=Nieuwenhuys| year=2000| url=http://www.xs4all.nl/~ednieuw/Spiders/spidhome.htm| title=Spiders of NW-Europe| access-date=2007-01-03}}</ref> <ref name="wolff2017">{{cite journal |author=Wolff |display-authors=etal |year=2017 |title=Hunting with sticky tape: functional shift in silk glands of araneophagous ground spiders (Gnaphosidae) |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=220 |issue=12 |pages=2250–2259 |doi=10.1242/jeb.154682 |pmid=28615490 |doi-access=free}}</ref> }}

{{Refbegin}} * {{aut|Platnick, N.I. & Shadab, M.U.}} (1983): A revision of the American spiders of the genus ''Zelotes'' (Araneae, Gnaphosidae). ''Bulletin of the AMNH'' '''174''': 99-191. [https://web.archive.org/web/20231017013733/https://digitallibrary.amnh.org/dspace/bitstream/2246/1035/1/B174a02.pdf PDF (29Mb)] - [http://hdl.handle.net/2246/1035 Abstract] {{Refend}}

==External links== * {{inaturalist taxon}}

*[https://web.archive.org/web/20031208183121/http://www.arachnology.org/Arachnology/Pages/Araneae.html Arachnology Home Pages: Araneae] * [http://www.forestryimages.org/browse/subimages.cfm?SUB=11515 Pictures of ''Herpyllus ecclesiastus''] (free for noncommercial use) * AMNH: [http://research.amnh.org/entomology/blackrock2/families/gnaphosidae.htm Key to some genera] * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0luHFRFoezM A video of ''Sergiolus'', a ground spider in Texas]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ground Spider}} *