{{short description|Turkish state in central Anatolia from 1077 to 1308}} {{Infobox former country | conventional_long_name = Sultanate of Rum | native_name = {{native name|tr|Anadolu Selçuklu Devleti}} <br />{{native name|fa|سلجوقیان روم}}<br/>{{lang|fa-Latn|Saljūqiyān-i Rūm}} | status = {{Plainlist| *Seljuk vassal (1078–1092){{sfn|Özaydın|2020|p=95}} *Independent sultanate (1077–1078) (1092–1243) *Mongol vassal (1243–1256) *Ilkhanid vassal (1256–1308) }} | government_type = {{ubli|Hereditary monarchy|Triarchy (1249–1254)|Diarchy (1257–1262)}} | year_start = 1077 | year_end = 1308 | p1 = Byzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty{{!}}Byzantine Empire | p2 = Seljuk Empire | p3 = Danishmends | p4 = Mengujekids | p5 = Saltukids | p6 = Artuqids | s1 = Anatolian beyliks | s2 = Ilkhanate|<!-- Please do not put the flag-based succession box here: the successor states are far too numerous and none possess verifiable flags.--> | event_pre = Battle of Manzikert | date_pre = 1071 | event_start = Division from the Seljuk Empire | event1 = Battle of Ain Salm | date_event1 = 1086 | event2 = First Crusade | date_event2 = 1096-99 | event3 = Battle of Khabur River | date_event3 = 1107 | event4 = Second Crusade | date_event4 = 1147-1150 | event5 = Battle of Myriokephalon | date_event5 = 1176 | event6 = Third Crusade | date_event6 = 1189–1192 | event7 = Battle of Alaşehir | date_event7 = 1211 | event8 = Siege of Sinope | date_event8 = 1214 | event9 = Kaykubad's Campaigns | date_event9 = 1220-37 | event10 = Battle of Köse Dağ | date_event10 = 1243 | event_end = Karamanid conquest | image_flag = Double-headed eagle of the Sultanate of Rum.svg <!-- The flag was not recorded. --> | flag_size = 100px | flag_type = Double-headed eagle used by the Rum Seljuks | flag_border = no | image_coat = Seljuk Lion and Sun.svg | coa_size = 100px | symbol_type_article = Lion and Sun#Iranian and Turkic dynasties | symbol_type = Lion and Sun adopted by Kaykhusraw II | image_map = Sultanate of Rûm.svg | image_map_size = 285px | image_map_caption = Expansion of the Sultanate, {{circa|1100–1240}} {{legend|#459eb8ff|Sultanate of Rum in 1100}} {{legend|#7dbcd0ff|Conquered from the Danishmendids up to 1174}} {{legend|#95c7d7ff|Conquered from the Byzantines up to 1182}} {{legend|#cde6ecff|Other conquests until 1243}} | capital = {{plainlist| * Nicaea (İznik) * (1077–1097) * Iconium (Konya) * (1097–1308) * Sebastia (Sivas) * (1211–1220) }} | religion = Sunni Islam (official), Greek Orthodox (majority of population){{sfn|Peacock|Yildiz|2015|p=265}} | common_languages = {{ubl | Persian (official, literature){{efn|"...the Seljuk court at Konya adopted Persian as its official language."{{sfn|Grousset|1970|p=157}}}}{{efn|"The literature of Seljuk Anatolia was almost entirely in Persian..."{{sfn|Lewis|1963|p=29}}}}{{sfn|Canby|Beyazit|Rugiadi|Peacock|2016|p=30}} | Arabic (numismatics, religious, scientific, and philosophical writing){{sfn|Mecit|2013|p=82}}{{sfn|Canby|Beyazit|Rugiadi|Peacock|2016|p=30}} | Byzantine Greek{{efn|"''The official use of the Greek language by the Seljuk chancery is well known''".{{sfn|Peacock|Yildiz|2015|p=132}}}} | Old Anatolian Turkish{{sfn|Köprülü|2006|p=207}} }} | title_leader = Sultan | leader1 = Suleiman ibn Qutalmish (first) | year_leader1 = 1077–1086 | leader2 = Kilij Arslan I | year_leader2 = 1092-1107 | leader3 = Mesud I | year_leader3 = 1116–1156 | leader4 = Kilij Arslan II | year_leader4 = 1156–1192 | leader5 = Kaykhusraw I | year_leader5 = 1192-96 / 1205–11 | leader6 = Kayqubad I | year_leader6 = 1220–1237 | leader7 = Mesud II (last) | year_leader7 = 1303–1308 | common_name = Rum | today = Turkey<br>Ukraine<ref>once occupied Sudak in Crimea</ref> }} The '''Sultanate of Rum''', or '''Seljuk Sultanate of Rum''',{{efn|Also referred to as the '''Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate''' ({{langx|fa|سلجوقیان روم|Saljûqiyân-i Rûm|lit=Seljuks of Rûm}}), the '''Sultanate of Iconium''', the '''Anatolian Seljuk State''' ({{langx|tr|Anadolu Selçuklu Devleti}}), the '''Seljuks of Turkey''' ({{lang|tr|Türkiye Selçukluları}}), or the '''Konya Sultanate'''{{sfn|Beihammer|2017|p=15}}{{sfn|Köprülü|1992|p=58}}{{efn|"..the Seljuk Empire of Rum, which later rose to dominate most of Turkoman Anatolia. While Anatolia was gradually transformed into a Turkish dominion, the Great Seljuk Empire, now centered at Isfahan, reached its peak.{{sfn|Shaw|Shaw|1976|p=7}}}}}} was a culturally Turco-Persian, Sunni Muslim state established over conquered Byzantine territories and peoples (Rum) of Anatolia by the Seljuk Turks following their entry into Anatolia after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. The name ''Rum'' was a synonym for the medieval Roman Empire and its peoples, as it remains in modern Turkish.{{sfn|Kazhdan|1991|p=1816}}{{efn|"This state too bore the name of Rûm, if not officially, then at least in everyday usage, and its princes appear in the Eastern chronicles under the name '''Seljuks of Rûm''' (Ar.: {{lang|ar-Latn|Salâjika ar-Rûm}}){{sfn|Wittek|2013|p=81}}}}{{efn|"The Seljuqs called the lands of their sultanate ''Rûm'' because it had been established on territory long considered 'Roman', ''i.e.'' Byzantine, by Muslim armies."{{sfn|Van Gorder|2010|p=215}}}} The name is derived from the Aramaic ({{tlit|syc|romī}}) and Parthian ({{tlit|xpr|frwm}}) names for ancient Rome, which had reached these languages via the Greek {{lang|grc|Ῥωμαῖοι}} ({{tlit|grc|Romaioi}}).{{sfn|Shukurov|2020|p=145}} The Seljuk Turks used the name to refer to Anatolia.{{sfn|Everett-Heath|2018|p=20-21}} The Sultanate of Rum is considered to be the beginning of Turkish history in Anatolia.
The Sultanate of Rum seceded from the Seljuk Empire under Suleiman ibn Qutalmish in 1077. It had its capital first at Nicaea and then at Iconium. It reached the height of its power during the late 12th and early 13th century, when it succeeded in taking key Byzantine ports on the Mediterranean and Black Sea coasts. In the east, the sultanate reached Lake Van. Trade through Anatolia from Iran and Central Asia was developed by a system of caravanserai. Especially strong trade ties with the Genoese formed during this period. The increased wealth allowed the sultanate to absorb other Turkish states that had been established following the conquest of Byzantine Anatolia: Danishmendids, House of Mengüjek, Saltukids, Artuqids.
The Seljuk sultans bore the brunt of the Crusades and eventually succumbed to the Mongol invasion at the 1243 Battle of Köse Dağ. For the remainder of the 13th century, the Seljuks acted as vassals of the Ilkhanate.{{sfn|Saunders|1971|p=79}} Their power disintegrated during the second half of the 13th century. The last of the Seljuk vassal sultans of the Ilkhanate, Mesud II, was murdered in 1308. The dissolution of the Seljuk state left behind many small Anatolian beyliks (Turkish principalities), among them the Ottoman dynasty which eventually conquered the rest and reunited Anatolia to become the Ottoman Empire.
==History== {{Further|Timeline of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum}}
===Establishment=== Since the 1030s, migratory Turkish groups in search of pastureland had penetrated Byzantine borders into Anatolia.{{sfn|Peacock|Yildiz|2015|p=12}} In the 1070s, after the Battle of Manzikert, the Seljuk commander Suleiman ibn Qutulmish, a distant cousin of Alp Arslan and a former contender for the throne of the Seljuk Empire, came to power in western Anatolia. Between 1075 and 1081, he gained control of the Byzantine cities of Nicaea and briefly also Nicomedia. Around two years later, he established a Sultanate that, while nominally still a Byzantine vassal state, became increasingly independent after six to ten years.{{efn|"Although the independent Seljuk sultanate of Rum established by Suleiman (1077–1086) remained nominally under Byzantine suzerainty, it was already clearly lost to Byzantium as a practical matter (...) The Seljukid leaders were only too pleased to see the undisciplined bands of Oghuz warriors carry on their raiding and pillaging as far as possible from Persia proper, and Anatolia was sufficiently large and remote to fully absorb their destructive energies. (...) Anatolia became Turkified, whereas the center of the Seljuk Empire retained its primarily Persian character, language, and culture, although strong Turkic elements took root in Azerbaijan and Khorasan."{{sfn|Sicker|2000|p=65}}}}{{efn|By June 1081, Sulayman had felt himself strong enough to shake off the weak Byzantine suzerainty. Thus the Seljuk sultanate of Rum, which was not recognised by Malikshah until 1084 (and only as a subordinate state), for the first six to ten years of its existence was a Byzantine ‘client’ state.{{sfn|Peacock|Yildiz|2015|p=72}}}} The Sultanate was officially recognized as a vassal state by the Seljuk ruler Malikshah in 1084,{{sfn|Peacock|Yildiz|2015|p=72}} but as late as 1085, Suleiman was tasked by Byzantine emperor Alexios I Komnenos to reconquer Antioch and the former travelled there on a secret route, presumably guided by the Byzantines.{{sfn|Frankopan|2013|p=51}}
Suleiman tried unsuccessfully to conquer Aleppo in 1086 and died in the Battle of Ain Salm, either fighting his enemies or by suicide.{{sfn|Frankopan|2013|p=52}} In the aftermath, Suleiman's son Kilij Arslan I was imprisoned and a general of his, Abu'l-Qasim, took power in Nicaea.{{sfn|Sicker|2000|p=65}} Following the death of sultan Malik Shah in 1092, Kilij Arslan was released and established himself in his father's territories between 1092 and 1094, possibly with the approval of Malik Shah's son and successor Berkyaruq.{{sfn|Frankopan|2013|pp=68–69}}
===Crusades=== Kilij Arslan, although victorious against the People's Crusade of 1096, was defeated by princely soldiers of the First Crusade and driven back into south-central Anatolia, where he set up his state with its capital in Konya. He defeated three Crusade contingents in the Crusade of 1101. In 1107, he ventured east and captured Mosul but died the same year fighting Malik Shah's son, Mehmed Tapar. He was the first Muslim commander against the crusades.{{Cn|date=January 2021}}
Meanwhile, another Rum Seljuk, Malik Shah (not to be confused with the Seljuk sultan of the same name), captured Konya. In 1116 Kilij Arslan's son, Mesud I, took the city with the help of the Danishmends.{{Cn|date=January 2021}} Upon Mesud's death in 1156, the sultanate controlled nearly all of central Anatolia.
The Second Crusade was announced by Pope Eugene III and was the first of the crusades to be led by European kings, namely Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, with help from other European nobles. The armies of the two kings marched separately across Europe. After crossing Byzantine territory into Anatolia, both armies were separately defeated by the Seljuk Turks. The main Western Christian source, Odo of Deuil, and Syriac Christian sources claim that Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos secretly hindered the Crusaders' progress, particularly in Anatolia, where he is alleged to have deliberately ordered Turks to attack them. However, this alleged sabotage was likely fabricated by Odo, who saw the empire as an obstacle, and moreover Emperor Manuel had no political reason to do so. Louis and Conrad and the remnants of their armies reached Jerusalem and participated in 1148 in an ill-advised attack on Damascus, which ended in their retreat. In the end, the crusade in the east was a victory for the Muslims.
[[File:Sultan Kilij Arslan II enthroned in a tile from Alaeddin Palace, Konya, 1156-92.jpg|thumb|left|Sultan Kilij Arslan II enthroned, Alaeddin Palace, Konya, 1156–1192.{{sfn|Oney|1980|p=178 plate 119}}]] Mesud's son, Kilij Arslan II, is the first known Seljuk ruler who is known to have used the title of sultan{{sfn|Peacock|Yildiz|2015|p=73}} and captured the remaining territories around Sivas and Malatya from the last of the Danishmends. At the Battle of Myriokephalon in 1176, Kilij Arslan II defeated a Byzantine army led by Manuel I Komnenos. Despite a temporary occupation of Konya in 1190 by the Holy Roman Empire's forces of the Third Crusade, the sultanate was quick to recover and consolidate its power.{{sfn|Turan|1995|p=244-245}} During the last years of Kilij Arslan II's reign, the sultanate experienced a civil war with Kaykhusraw I fighting to retain control and losing to his brother Suleiman II in 1196.{{sfn|Turan|1995|p=244-245}}{{sfn|Peacock|Yildiz|2015|p=29}}
Following Kilij Arslan II's death, the sultanate was divided amongst his sons.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|p=41}} Elbistan was given to Tughril ibn Kılıç Arslan II, but when Erzurum was taken from the Saltukids at the start of the 13th century, he was installed there.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|pp=137–138}} Tughril governed Erzurum from 1192 to 1221.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|pp=137–138}} During 1211–1212, he broke free from the Seljuk state.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|pp=137–138}} In 1230, Jahan Shah bin Tughril who was allied to the Khwarazmshah Jalal al-Din, lost the Battle of Yassıçemen, allowing for Erzurum to be annexed by the Seljuk sultanate.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|pp=137–138}}
thumb|upright=1|The Sultanate of Rûm and surrounding states, c. 1200 Suleiman II rallied his vassal emirs and marched against Georgia, with an army of 150,000–400,000 and encamped in the Basiani valley. Tamar of Georgia quickly marshaled an army throughout her possessions and put it under command of her consort, David Soslan. Georgian troops under Soslan made a sudden advance into Basiani and assailed the enemy's camp in 1203 or 1204. In a pitched battle, the Seljukid forces managed to roll back several attacks of the Georgians but were eventually overwhelmed and defeated. Loss of the sultan's banner to the Georgians resulted in a panic within the Seljuk ranks. Süleymanshah was wounded and withdrew to Erzurum. Both the Rum Seljuk and Georgian armies suffered heavy casualties, but coordinated flanking attacks won the battle for the Georgians.{{sfn|Mikaberidze|2015|p=186-187}}{{bsn|date=November 2021}}
Suleiman II died in 1204 and was succeeded by his son Kilij Arslan III, whose reign was unpopular.{{sfn|Cahen|Holt|2001|p=42}} Kaykhusraw I seized Konya in 1205 reestablishing his reign.{{sfn|Cahen|Holt|2001|p=42}} Under his rule and those of his two successors, Kaykaus I and Kayqubad I, Seljuk power in Anatolia reached its apogee. Kaykhusraw's most important achievement was the capture of the harbour of Attalia (Antalya) on the Mediterranean coast in 1207. His son Kaykaus captured Sinop{{sfn|Tricht|2011|p=355}} and made the Empire of Trebizond his vassal in 1214.{{sfn|Ring|Watson|Schellinger|1995|p=651}} He also subjugated Cilician Armenia but in 1218 was forced to surrender Aleppo, acquired from al-Kamil. Ala Al-Din Kayqubad I continued to acquire lands along the Mediterranean coast from 1221 to 1225.{{Cn|date=January 2021}} In the 1220s, he sent an expeditionary force across the Black Sea to Crimea.{{sfn|Peacock|2006|p=134-135}} In the east he defeated the Mengujekids and began to put pressure on the Artuqids.{{Cn|date=January 2021}}
===Mongol conquest=== {{main|Mongol conquest of Anatolia}} [[File:Seljuks of Anatolia, horseman relief, Konya Palace, 13th century.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Frieze with Sultanate of Rum horseman, Konya Palace, 1156-1192.{{sfn|Ölçer|2005|p=114-115, 392}}]] Kaykhusraw II (1237–1246) began his reign by capturing the region around Diyarbakır, but in 1239 he had to face an uprising led by a popular preacher named Baba Ishak. After three years, when he had finally quelled the revolt, the Crimean foothold was lost and the state and the sultanate's army had weakened. It is in these conditions that he had to face a far more dangerous threat, that of the expanding Mongols. The forces of the Mongol Empire took Erzurum in 1242 and in 1243, the sultan was crushed by Baiju in the Battle of Köse Dağ (a mountain between the cities of Sivas and Erzincan), resulting in the Seljuk Turks being forced to swear allegiance to the Mongols and became their vassals.{{sfn|Saunders|1971|p=79}} The sultan himself had fled to Antalya after the battle, where he died in 1246; his death started a period of tripartite, and then dual, rule that lasted until 1260.
The Seljuk realm was divided among Kaykhusraw's three sons. The eldest, Kaykaus II (1246–1260), assumed the rule in the area west of the river Kızılırmak. His younger brothers, Kilij Arslan IV (1248–1265) and Kayqubad II (1249–1257), were set to rule the regions east of the river under Mongol administration. In October 1256, Bayju defeated Kaykaus II near Aksaray and all of Anatolia became officially subject to Möngke Khan. In 1260 Kaykaus II fled from Konya to Crimea where he died in 1279. Kilij Arslan IV was executed in 1265, and Kaykhusraw III (1265–1284) became the nominal ruler of all of Anatolia, with the tangible power exercised either by the Mongols or the sultan's influential regents.
[[File:Anatolian Beyliks in 1300.png|thumb|upright=1|The declining Sultanate of Rûm, vassal of the Mongols, and the emerging beyliks, c. 1300]] The Seljuk state had started to split into small emirates (beyliks) that increasingly distanced themselves from both Mongol and Seljuk control. In 1277, responding to a call from Anatolia, the Mamluk Sultan Baibars raided Anatolia and defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Elbistan,{{sfn|Kastritsis|2013|p=26}} temporarily replacing them as the administrator of the Seljuk realm. Following the ensuing chaos, the Karamanids under Shams al-Din Mehmed managed to capture Konya, briefly installing Jimri as a puppet ruler of the Sultanate of Rum. Since the native forces who had called him to Anatolia did not manifest themselves for the defense of the land, Baibars soon had to return to his home base in Egypt, and the Mongol administration was re-assumed, officially and severely. Also, the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia captured the Mediterranean coast from Selinos to Seleucia, as well as the cities of Marash and Behisni, from the Seljuk in the 1240s.
Near the end of his reign, Kaykhusraw III could claim direct sovereignty only over lands around Konya. Some of the beyliks (including the early Ottoman state) and Seljuk governors of Anatolia continued to recognize, albeit nominally, the supremacy of the sultan in Konya, delivering the khutbah in the name of the sultans in Konya in recognition of their sovereignty, and the sultans continued to call themselves Fahreddin, ''the Pride of Islam''. When Kaykhusraw III was executed in 1284, the Seljuk dynasty suffered another blow from internal struggles which lasted until 1303 when the son of Kaykaus II, Mesud II, established himself as sultan in Kayseri. He was murdered in 1308 and his son Mesud III soon afterwards. A distant relative to the Seljuk dynasty momentarily installed himself as emir of Konya, but he was defeated and his lands conquered by the Karamanids in 1328. The sultanate's monetary sphere of influence lasted slightly longer and coins of Seljuk mint, generally considered to be of reliable value, continued to be used throughout the 14th century, once again, including by the Ottomans.
==Culture and society== The Sultanate was founded by militaristic bands of Oghuz warriors who Turkified the Anatolian peninsula, and had little in common with the primarily Persian character, language, and culture of the Seljuk rulers.{{efn|"The Seljukid leaders were only too pleased to see the undisciplined bands of Oghuz warriors carry on their raiding and pillaging as far as possible from Persia proper, and Anatolia was sufficiently large and remote to fully absorb their destructive energies. (...) Anatolia became Turkified, whereas the center of the Seljuk Empire retained its primarily Persian character, language, and culture, although strong Turkic elements took root in Azerbaijan and Khorasan."{{sfn|Sicker|2000|p=65}}}} Still, a Turco-Persian cultural synthesis gradually emerged which, by the 13th century, came to define the intellectual and aesthetic life, to the point of Sultanate of Rum elites naming their sons with New Persian names.<ref name="Hillenbrand 264">{{harvnb|Hillenbrand|1994|p=[https://archive.org/details/artofsaljuqsinir0000unse/page/264/mode/2up 264]}} "While the impact of Iranian institutions and culture in Turkish Anatolia had roots going back to the twelfth century, it became particularly pronounced in the early thirteenth century, beginning with the reigns of Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw I and 'Izz al-Din Kaykā'ūs I. The implantation of Iranian traditions was reinforced, moreover, by a significant influx of Iranian immigrants into Rūm in which many of their members found a second homeland. The result was that in time a sort of Turco-Persian synthesis was achieved which on the level of high culture, at least, came to define the intellectual and aesthetic life of thirteenth-century Anatolia."</ref><ref name="Lindner 3">{{cite book |last1=Lindner |first1=Rudi Paul |title=Explorations in Ottoman prehistory |date=2007 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |location=Ann Arbor |isbn=9780472095070 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JMUAfa3GFVQC&pg=PA3 3]}}</ref> The phenomenon was reinforced by the massive influx of Persian refugees fleeing the Mongol invasions of the 13th century.<ref name="Hillenbrand 264"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Boyce |first1=Mary |title=Diaspora |date=1995 |publisher=Encyclopedia Iranica |url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/diaspora/|quote=The first major migration of Persians to Anatolia in the Islamic era {{sic|?|occurred}} in the 13th century when the invading Mongol armies laid waste much of the country.}}</ref> The Seljuks of Rum made Turco-Persian tradition the culture of their court,{{sfn|Canfield|1991|p=13-14}} and inherited the ''tımar'' and ''tahrir'' methods of Persian statecraft from the Seljuk Empire, which they later passed on to the Ottomans.{{sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=48}} Despites such influences, Seljuk art remained essentially Central Asian in character.{{efn|"Despite the undoubted influence of Iranian culture on the Great Seljuks and the Anatolian Seljuks, Seljuk art remained essentially Central Asian in character."{{sfn|Ölçer|2005|p=106}}}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=450|caption_align=center | align = right | direction =horizontal | image1 = Konya Karatay Ceramics Museum Kubad Abad Palace tile 2389.jpg | caption1 = Sultan Kayqubad I (r.1220–1237) or a notable of his court, seated in Turkic style and holding a flower, symbol of eternal life. Kubadabad Palace, late 1220s.<ref name="OM">{{cite book |last1=Özel |first1=Mehmet |title=Traditional Turkish Arts: Tiles and ceramics |date=1986 |publisher=General Directorate of Fine Arts, Ministry of Culture and Tourism,Turkish Republic |page=15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=22sPm_Xj9FwC&pg=PA15 |language=en |quote=Kubadabad tiles consist of panels of figural tiles linked by cruciform tiles decorated with arabesques. The figural tiles are decorated with figures of the sultan, harem women, courtiers and servants. However, the most interesting figures are the various animals related to hunting and the imaginary or magical animals. Such creatures as the sphinx, siren, single and double-headed eagles, single and paired peacocks, paired birds flanking the tree of life and dragon create a magical world of the imagination. They are all symbolic representations of the rich figural world of the Seljuks. Animals related to hunting, such as the fox, hare, wolf, mountain goat, wild ass, bear, lion, falcon, hawk and antelope are in widely varying and highly artistic compositions.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Art and architecture of Turkey |date=1980 |publisher=New York : Rizzoli |isbn=978-0-8478-0273-9 |pages=175-176 |url=https://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo0000unse_z1s3/page/174/mode/2up?q=kubadabad&view=theater |quote=Usually made in the underglaze technique, the star tiles contain an extremely rich figural design, depicting '''the sultan''', the elite of the palace and animals of the hunt as well as imaginary or so-called 'fabulous' animals. (See figural reliefs and sculptures, p. 171.) The sultan and the palace notables, including in some cases the palace women, are shown sitting cross-legged in the Turkish tradition. In most cases, the figures hold in their hands a symbol representing eternal life-a pomegranate or opium branch or an astrological symbol like the fish. It is interesting to note the parallels with the same motifs in Anatolian Seljuk architecture.}}</ref> | image2 = Enturbaned and bearded figure, holding an inscribed tablet. Large Palace, Kubadabad 1220s.jpg | caption2 = Enturbaned and bearded figure of a likely high-ranking official, holding an inscribed tablet in his hand. Kubadabad Palace, late 1220s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=YAVAŞ |first1=Alptekin |last2=KOÇYİĞİT |first2=Oğuz |title=KUBAD ABAD: Beyşehir Gölü Kıyısında Bir Selçuklu Sitesi |publisher=Konya Büyükşehir Belediyesi Kültür Yayınları |isbn=978-605-389-619-7 |page=Fig.90 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=41nPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT256 |language=tr |quote=(Translation from Turkish): Likely that they are depictions of high-ranking members of the palace or important wise people.}}</ref>}} As an expression of Turco-Persian culture,<ref>{{cite book |title=Turkism in Eurasia: Identity, Ideology and Politics |first=Galina M. |last=Yemelianova |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2025 |page=16 |quote="The Seljuks established an Anatolia-centred Seljukid Rum Sultanate (1077-1308), which at the peak of its territorial expansion embraced most of the territory of modern Turkey, Iran and part of the Middle East..[..]..With time, the Turkic Seljuks, like the Ghaznavids, became politically and culturally Persianized and presided over a sophisticated Turco-Persian material and ideational culture..."}}</ref><ref>{{cite thesis |title=Turco-Persian Civilization and the Role of Scholars’ Travel and Migration in its Elaboration and Continuity |first=Giv |last=Nassiri |publisher=University of California |year=2002 |page=xii |quote="Just as the Saljuq dynasty began to decline under the inherent contradictions of the appanage system and its contradiction with the Persianate dynastic and administrative systems, the nascent Anatolian Saljuqs provided an intensified push toward the continuation, elaboration and further crystallization of Turco-Persian civilization.}}</ref><ref>{{citation | first = Bernard | last = Lewis | title = Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire | page = 29 | quote = Even when the land of Rum became politically independent, it remained a colonial extension of Turco-Persian culture which had its centers in Iran and Central Asia ... The literature of Seljuk Anatolia was almost entirely in Persian ... }}</ref> Rum Seljuks patronized Persian art, architecture, and literature.{{sfn|Khanbaghi|2016|p=202}} Unlike the Seljuk Empire, the Seljuk sultans of Rum had Persian names such as Kay Khosrow, Kay Kawad/Qobad, and Kay Kāvus.{{sfn|Grousset|1931|p=252}}{{sfn|Ölçer|2005|p=106}} The bureaucrats and religious elite of their realm were generally Persian.{{sfn|Hillenbrand|2020|p=15}} In the 13th century, most Muslim inhabitants in major Anatolian urban hubs reportedly spoke Persian as their main language.{{sfn|Shukurov|2020|p=155}}
It was in the 13th century that the proneness of imitating Iran in terms of administration, religion and culture reached its zenith, encouraged by the major influx of Persian refugees fleeing Mongol invasions, who brought Persian culture with them and were instrumental in creating a "second Iran" in Anatolia.<ref>{{harvnb|Hillenbrand|2021|p=211}} "Inner Anatolia was now set to become Muslim gradually, and this process occurred under the leadership of the Turks. In Anatolia, as elsewhere, the Seljuq rulers drank in Persian cultural ways in their cities. This tendency to copy Iran in administration, religion and culture reached its height in the thirteenth century with the fuller development of the Seljuq state in Anatolia and the influx of Persian refugees to Anatolian cities. Thus ‘a second Iran’ was created in Anatolia. It is food for thought that, while it was the Turks who conquered and settled the land of Anatolia in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, it was the Persians who were instrumental in bringing to these territories a developed Islamic religious and secular culture. (...) ''Quote in French:'' Les réfugiés iraniens qui entrèrent en grand nombre en Anatolie à la suite des invasions mongoles de l’Iran – les fonctionnaires, les poètes, les Sufis et, avant tout, les cadres religieux – transformèrent de l’intérieur la culture urbaine de cette région."</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Findley |first1=Carter V. |title=The Turks in World History |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |isbn=978-0-19-517726-8 |page=72 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ToAjDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT89 |language=en |quote=Meanwhile, amid the migratory swarm that Turkified Anatolia, the dispersion of learned men from the Persian-speaking east paradoxically made the Seljuk court at Konya a new center for Perso-Islamic court culture.}}</ref> Iranian cultural, political, and literary traditions deeply influenced Anatolia in the early 13th century.{{sfn|Hickman|Leiser|2016|p=278}} The notable historian Ibn Bibi composed a six-volume Persian language poetic work called the Selçukname, modeled after the Shahnamah, which focused on the Seljuk sultans.{{sfn|Inalcik|2008|p=20}}
[[File:Standing man holding a pomegranate. Late 1220s, Kubadabad.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.6|Standing man holding a pomegranate. Late 1220s, Kubadabad.{{sfn|Ölçer|2005|p=117}}]] Despite their Turkic origins, the Seljuks used Persian for administrative purposes; even their histories, which replaced Arabic, were in Persian.{{sfn|Khanbaghi|2016|p=202}} Their usage of Turkish was hardly promoted at all.{{sfn|Khanbaghi|2016|p=202}} Even Sultan Kilij Arslan II, as a child, spoke to courtiers in Persian.{{sfn|Khanbaghi|2016|p=202}} Khanbaghi states the Anatolian Seljuks were even more Persianized than the Seljuks that ruled the Iranian plateau.{{sfn|Khanbaghi|2016|p=202}} Persian poetry was written by sultans Suleiman II, Kayqubad I, and Kaykhusraw II.{{sfn|Inalcik|2008|p=21}} Written documents used either Persian or Anatolian Turkic, but the army used the Turkic language exclusively.{{efn|"However, scholarship and literature were influences by Iran, and Persian was used alonside Antolian Turkic in written documents during this period, although Turkic was the only language used by the army."{{sfn|Ölçer|2005|p=106}}}}
The ''Rahat al-sudur'', the history of the Great Seljuk Empire and its breakup, written in Persian by Muhammad bin Ali Rawandi, was dedicated to Sultan Kaykhusraw I.{{sfn|Richards|Robinson|2003|p=265}} Even the ''Tārikh-i Āl-i Saldjūq'', an anonymous history of the Sultanate of Rum, was written in Persian.{{sfn|Crane|1993|p=2}} The sultans of Rum were largely not educated in Arabic.{{sfn|Cahen|Holt|2001|p=163}} This clearly limited the Arab influence, or at least the direct influence, to a relatively small degree.{{sfn|Cahen|Holt|2001|p=163}} In contrast, Persian literature and Iranian influence expanded because most sultans and even a significant portion of the townspeople knew the language.{{sfn|Cahen|Holt|2001|p=163}}
One of its most famous Persian writers, Rumi, took his name from the name of the state. Moreover, Byzantine influence in the Sultanate was also significant, since Byzantine Greek aristocracy remained part of the Seljuk nobility, and the native Byzantine (Rûm) peasants remained numerous in the region.<ref>{{citation | chapter = The Oriental Margins of the Byzantine World: a Prosopographical Perspective | first = Rustam | last = Shukurov | editor-last1=Herrin|editor-first1=Judith|editor-last2=Saint-Guillain|editor-first2=Guillaume|title=Identities and Allegiances in the Eastern Mediterranean After 1204|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_mazcfdpVIC|year=2011|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-1-4094-1098-0 | pages = 181–191 }}</ref><ref>{{citation | chapter = A sultan in Constantinople: the feasts of Ghiyath al-Din Kay-Khusraw I | first = Dimitri | last = Korobeinikov | editor-last1 =Brubaker|editor-first1 = Leslie|editor-last2=Linardou|editor-first2=Kallirroe|title=Eat, Drink, and be Merry (Luke 12:19): Food and Wine in Byzantium: Papers of the 37th Annual Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, in Honour of Professor A.A.M. Bryer|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pGfbbVfR9Z8C&pg=PA96|date=2007|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-6119-1 | page = 96 }}</ref> Based on their genealogy, it appears that the Seljuk sultans favored Christian slave-concubines, just like the early Ottoman sultans. Within the Seljuk harem, Greek women were the most dominant.{{sfn|Peacock|Yildiz|2015|p=121}}
In Anatolia, Turkic languages and culture were present, but they stayed at the edges of the Irano-Greek world, mainly kept alive by nomadic Turkic groups through oral tradition. Turkic culture held little prestige, and many viewed it as inferior. As a result, nobles and middle-class Turkic families (and possibly lower classes) often married into what was considered more "cultured" communities, learned Persian and Greek, and adopted urban customs to elevate their social standing.{{sfn|Shukurov|2020|p=158}} Some sultans merged Iranian and Greek identities by claiming to be the ''khusraw-i Yunan'' ("the Chosroes of Greece").{{sfn|Peacock|2025|p=375}} Cultural Turkification in Anatolia first started during the 14th-century, particularly during the gradual rise of the Ottomans.{{sfn|Hillenbrand|2021|p=211}} With a population that included Byzantine Greeks, Armenians, Kurds, Turks, and Persians, the Seljuks were very successful between 1220 and 1250 and set the groundwork for later Islamization of Anatolia.{{sfn|Hillenbrand|2021|p=333}}
From the 12th century onward, Western European chroniclers often referred to Anatolia and the Sultanate of Rum as ''Turchia'', the predecessor of the name ''Turkey''.{{sfn|Cahen|1968|p=144-146}}{{sfn|Ocak|2010|p=354}}
==Religion== The Rum Seljuks sought to establish themselves as orthodox sovereigns dedicated to preserving and defending the structures of Sunni Islam.{{sfn|McCarthy|2014|p=27}} They sponsored the construction of many madrasas, mosques, and mausolea, expressing their religious devotion through sustained patronage of the ʿulamāʾ and affording them institutional platforms from which to preach to—and potentially convert—the Greek and Armenian Christian communities within their domains.{{sfn|Lewis|2014|p=80}}
In 1084, Suleiman ibn Qutalmish transformed the church of Cassianus in Antioch into a mosque.{{sfn|Morton|2016|p=92}} In 1196, the Friday Mosque of Sivas was constructed during the reigns of Kaykhusraw I and Rukn al-Din Suleiman II.{{sfn|Lewis|2014|p=80}} Between 1219 and 1221, Sultan Kayqubad I commissioned the construction of the Alaeddin Mosque in Konya.{{sfn|Petersen|2002|p=154}} After capturing Sinop, Kayqubad I also sponsored the construction of both a mosque and a madrasa in the city.{{sfn|Lewis|2014|p=80}} In 1232, the Alaeddin Mosque of Uluborlu was built, with an inscription attributing its patronage to 'Ismat al-Dunya wa 'l-Din, the wife of Sultan Kayqubad I.{{sfn|Peacock|Yildiz|2015|p=152-154}} In 1253, Kayqubad I's daughter, Khodavand Khatun, patronized the Çifte Minareli Medrese in Erzurum.{{sfn|Lewis|2014|p=80}} In 1271–1272, during the reign of Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw III, the Buruciye Medrese was constructed in Sivas.{{sfn|Blessing|2016|p=119}}
According to Patricia Blessing, by the mid-thirteenth century, the Seljuk sultans had largely ceased direct architectural patronage.{{sfn|Blessing|2016|p=22}} New figures such as high-ranking viziers assumed the role of architectural sponsors.{{sfn|Blessing|2016|p=22}} In 1265, Sahib ‘Ata Fakhr al-Din ‘Ali, vizier to Rukn al-Din Kilij Arslan IV, patronized the construction of the Sahib Ata Complex in Konya, which included a mosque, bathhouse, mausoleum, and khanqah.{{sfn|Blessing|2016|p=22}} In 1271, Sahib Ata also patronized the construction of the Gök Medrese in Sivas.{{sfn|Blessing|2016|p=106}}
== Architecture == {{Main|Anatolian Seljuk architecture}} [[File:Konya citadel (Plate 116b, Voyage de l'Asie Mineure, 1838).jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The Konya citadel (city walls of Konya), built and decorated by Kayqubad I in the 1220s, incorporated many Greco-Roman Classical elements for its decoration. Léon de Laborde, 1838]] Architectural styles of the Sultanate of Rum were rather eclectic. The walls of Konya in particular, built by Kayqubad I, adopted many western decorative elements, such as a statue of Hercules, a frieze from a Roman sarcophagus, courtly scenes with seated figures in toga, winged deities around the figure of the sun, mixed with inscriptions in Arabic.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yalman |first1=Suzan |title=‘ALA AL-DIN KAYQUBAD ILLUMINATED: A RUM SELJUQ SULTAN AS COSMIC RULER |journal=Muqarnas Online |date=1 January 2012 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=151–186 |doi=10.1163/22118993-90000186 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274996239_'ALA_AL-DIN_KAYQUBAD_ILLUMINATED_A_RUM_SELJUQ_SULTAN_AS_COSMIC_RULER |quote=In some cases—such as the sultan’s well-known city walls in Konya—there appears to be, at first sight, an antiquarian penchant for the “classical” or “Roman” past (fig. 1). (...) Nevertheless, the portrait’s classicizing aspect is important in that it resonates with the use of spoliated classical sculpture in the walls of Konya (fig. 1). (...) Kayqubad’s walls in Konya. (...) above the statue of Hercules was a reused Roman sarcophagus frieze carved in high relief; the latter featured a courtly scene with a seated figure wearing a toga and holding an orb (“a ball, the symbol of the world” according to Kinneir). Above this image was an Arabic inscription and then winged “genies” making offerings to the “sun” (as described by Olivier).}}</ref> It would seem that such symbolism mixing Western and Eastern elements was mostly derived from the influence of the Artuqids, who were adept at combining Classical and Perso-Islamic approaches.<ref name="SY">{{cite journal |last1=Yalman |first1=Suzan |title=‘ALA AL-DIN KAYQUBAD ILLUMINATED: A RUM SELJUQ SULTAN AS COSMIC RULER |journal=Muqarnas Online |date=1 January 2012 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=151–186 |doi=10.1163/22118993-90000186 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274996239_'ALA_AL-DIN_KAYQUBAD_ILLUMINATED_A_RUM_SELJUQ_SULTAN_AS_COSMIC_RULER |quote=As I will argue below, in addition to obvious “Western” links, Kayqubad was also inspired by sources further “East,” such as the Artuqids of Hisn Kaifa and Amid (1102-1232), which combining Classical and Perso-Islamic impulses, seemed better suited as models. In fact, upon closer examination, these pagan/secular Roman imperial (“Western”) signs seemed to be infused with mystical/Sufi (“Eastern”) readings that imbued them with new meaning. Most significant was the emergence of an unexpected undercurrent of light symbolism.}}</ref>
In their construction of caravanserais, madrasas and mosques, the Rum Seljuks translated the Iranian Seljuk architecture of bricks and plaster into the use of stone.<ref>{{citation | chapter = West Asia: 1000–1500 | first1 = Sheila | last1 = Blair | first2 = Jonathan | last2 = Bloom | title = Atlas of World Art | editor-first = John | editor-last = Onians | publisher = Laurence King Publishing | date = 2004 | page = 130 }}</ref> Among these, the ''caravanserais'' (or ''hans''), used as stops, trading posts and defense for caravans, and of which about a hundred structures were built during the Anatolian Seljuk period, are particularly remarkable. Along with Persian influences, which had an indisputable effect,<ref>''Architecture (Muhammadan)'', H. Saladin, ''Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics'', Vol.1, Ed. James Hastings and John Alexander, (Charles Scribner's son, 1908), 753.</ref> Seljuk architecture was inspired by local Byzantine architects, for example in the Celestial Mosque in Sivas, and by Armenian architecture.<ref>''Armenia during the Seljuk and Mongol Periods'', Robert Bedrosian, ''The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times: The Dynastic Periods from Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century'', Vol. I, Ed. Richard Hovannisian, (St. Martin's Press, 1999), 250.</ref> Anatolian architecture represents some of the most distinctive and impressive{{opinion|date=January 2025}} constructions in the entire history of Islamic architecture. Later, this Anatolian architecture would be inherited by the Sultanate of India.<ref>''Lost in Translation: Architecture, Taxonomy, and the "Eastern Turks"'', Finbarr Barry Flood, ''Muqarnas: History and Ideology: Architectural Heritage of the "Lands of Rum'', 96.</ref>
[[File:Gok_Medresesi1.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Gök Medrese (Celestial Madrasa) of Sivas, built by a Greek (Rûm) subject in the periodic capital of the Sultanate of Rum in 1271]] The largest caravanserai is the Sultan Han (built 1229) on the road between Konya and Aksaray, in Sultanhanı, covering {{convert|3900|m2|abbr=on}}. Two caravanserais carry the name ''Sultan Han'', the other one being between Kayseri and Sivas. Furthermore, apart from Sultanhanı, five other towns across Turkey owe their names to caravanserais built there. These are Alacahan in Kangal, Durağan, Hekimhan and Kadınhanı, as well as the township of Akhan within the Denizli metropolitan area. The caravanserai of Hekimhan is unique in having, underneath the usual inscription in Arabic with information relating to the tower, two further inscriptions in Armenian and Syriac, since it was constructed by the sultan Kayqubad I's doctor (''hekim''), who is thought to have been a Christian convert to Islam.
There are other particular cases, like the settlement in Kalehisar contiguous to an ancient Hittite site near Alaca, founded by the Seljuk commander Hüsameddin Temurlu, who had taken refuge in the region after the defeat in the Battle of Köse Dağ and had founded a township comprising a castle, a madrasa, a habitation zone and a caravanserai, which were later abandoned apparently around the 16th century. All but the caravanserai, which remains undiscovered, was explored in the 1960s by the art historian Oktay Aslanapa, and the finds as well as several documents attest to the existence of a vivid settlement in the site, such as a 1463 Ottoman firman which instructs the headmaster of the madrasa to lodge not in the school but in the caravanserai.{{Cn|date=January 2021}}
The Seljuk palaces, as well as their armies, were staffed with ghilmān ({{langx|ar|غِلْمَان}}), singular ''ghulam''), slave-soldiers taken as children from non-Muslim communities, mainly Greeks from former Byzantine territories. The practice of keeping ghilmān may have offered a model for the later devşirme during the time of the Ottoman Empire.<ref>{{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Junius P.|author-link=Junius P. Rodriguez|title=The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery|url=https://archive.org/details/historicalencycl01rodr|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/historicalencycl01rodr/page/306 306]|year=1997|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-87436-885-7 }}</ref>
==Literature== [[File:Gulshah (right) disguised as a man, watches as her lover Varqa (centre) and his rival Rabi fight on horseback.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Battle scene in ''Varka and Golshah'', 1225–1250 miniature, Konya, Sultanate of Rum.<ref>These knights were equipped with long swords and bows, and for protection used large shields ("kite-shields"), lamellar armour and ''hauberk'' mail {{cite book |last1=Gorelik |first1=Michael |title=Oriental Armour of the Near and Middle East from the Eighth to the Fifteenth Centuries as Shown in Works of Art (in Islamic Arms and Armour) |date=1979 |publisher=Robert Elgood |page=Fig. 38 |location=London |isbn=978-0859674706 |url=http://warfare.6te.net/Gorelik-Oriental_Armour.htm}}</ref><ref name="AAOS">{{cite journal |last1=Sabuhi |first1=Ahmadov Ahmad oglu |title=The miniatures of the manuscript "Varka and Gulshah" as a source for the study of weapons of XII–XIII centuries in Azerbaijan |journal=Austrian Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences |date=July–August 2015|issue=7–8 |pages=14–16 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305236939}}</ref>]] The earliest known illustrated manuscript in the Persian language is an early 13th century copy of the epic ''Varka and Golshah'', which was most probably created in Konya, under the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Porter |first1=Yves |last2=Flood |first2=Finbarr Barry |title=Under the adorned dome: four essays on the arts of Iran and India |date=2023 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden Boston |isbn=978-90-04-54971-5 |page=17, note 30 |quote= The Varqa and Gulshāh was probably made in the Konya sultanate.}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hillenbrand|2021|p=208}} "The earliest illustrated Persian manuscript, signed by an artist from Khuy in north-west Iran, was produced between 1225 and 1250, almost certainly in Konya. (Cf. A. S. Melikian-Chirvani, ‘Le roman de Varqe et Golsâh’, Arts Asiatiques XXII (Paris, 1970))"</ref><ref name="SSB">{{cite book |last1=Blair |first1=Sheila S. |title=Islamic Calligraphy |date=19 January 2020 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-1-4744-6447-5 |page=366 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m6QxEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA366 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Necipoğlu |first1=Gülru |last2=Leal |first2=Karen A. |title=Muqarnas |date=1 October 2009 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-17589-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gq6obUbnqsMC&pg=PA235 |language=en}}</ref> It can be dated to c.1250.<ref name="JB214">{{cite book |last1=Bloom |first1=Jonathan |last2=Blair |first2=Sheila |title=Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set |date=14 May 2009 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=RA1-PA214 |page=214–215 |language=en}}</ref>{{efn|The two scenes in the top and bottom registers (...) may be strongly influenced by contemporary Seljuk Persian (...) like those in the recently discovered Varqeh and Gulshah (p.92) (...) In the painting the facial cast of these Turks is obviously reflected, and so are the special fashions and accoutrements they favored. (p.162, commentary on image from p.91).{{sfn|Ettinghausen|1977|p=91, 162}}}}
The miniatures represent typical Central Asian people, thickset with large round heads.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Waley |first1=P. |last2=Titley |first2=Norah M. |title=An Illustrated Persian Text of Kalīla and Dimna Dated 707/1307-8 |journal=The British Library Journal |date=1975 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=42–61 |jstor=42553970 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42553970 |issn=0305-5167 |quote="A unique Seljùq manuscript in the Topkapi Sarayi Museum Library (Hazine 841) (fig. 7). This manuscript, the romance Varqa va Gulshah, probably dates from the early thirteenth century . The figures in the miniatures with the typical features of Central Asian people are squat and thickset with large round heads. They are to be seen again in a more sophisticated form in the so-called Turkman style miniatures produced in Shiraz c. 1460 – 1502 under the patronage of another dynasty of Turkman invaders."}}</ref> They also provide rare depictions of the contemporary military of the Seljuk period, and may have influenced other known depictions of Turkic Seljuk soldiers.{{sfn|Ettinghausen|1977|p=91-92}} All depicted costumes and accoutrements are contemporary to the artist, in the 13th century.<ref name="AAOS"/> The miniatures constitute the first known example of illustrated Persian-language manuscript, dating from the pre-Mongol era, and are useful in studying weapons of the period.<ref name="AAOS" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gorelik |first1=Michael |title=Oriental Armour of the Near and Middle East from the Eighth to the Fifteenth Centuries as Shown in Works of Art (in Islamic Arms and Armour) |date=1979 |publisher=Robert Elgood |page=Fig.38 |location=London |isbn=978-0859674706 |url=http://warfare.6te.net/Gorelik-Oriental_Armour.htm}}</ref> Particularly, metal face masks and chainmail helmets in Turkic fashion, and armor with small metal plates connected through straps, large round shields (the largest of them called "kite-shields") and long teardrop shields, armoured horses are depicted.<ref name="AAOS"/> The weapons and armour types depicted in the miniatures were common in the Middle East and the Caucasus in the Seljuk era.<ref name="AAOS"/>
Persian was the preferred language for literature, while Arabic remained the standard language for religious, scientific, and philosophical writing.{{sfn|Canby|Beyazit|Rugiadi|Peacock|2016|p=30}} "For literary works, however, Persian remained the preferred language while, as elsewhere in the Middle East, Arabic remained the standard medium for religious, scientific, and philosophical writing."</ref>
==Numismatics== The earliest documented Rum Seljuq copper coins were made in the first part of the twelfth century in Konya and the eastern Anatolian emirates.{{sfn|Beihammer|2017|p=20}} Extensive numismatic evidence suggests that, starting in the middle of the thirteenth century and continuing until the end of the Seljuk dynasty, silver-producing mints and silver coinage flourished, particularly in central and eastern Anatolia.{{sfn|Pamuk|2000|p=28}} [[File:Suleyman II of Rum, Qunya, 597 H (1200-1201).jpg|thumb|left|Gold coinage of Suleiman II of Rum, Konya, 597 H (1200–1201 CE)]] Most of Kilij Arslan II's coins were minted in Konya between 1177–78 and 1195, with a small amount also occurring in Sivas, which the Rum Seljuks conquered from the Danishmendids.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|p=41}} Sivas may have started minting coins in 1185–1186.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|p=41}} The majority of Kılıj Arslan II's coins are silver dirhams; however, there are also a few dinars and one or two fulūs (small copper coins) issues.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|p=41}} Following his death the sultanate was divided among his sons. Muhyiddin Mesut, son of Kilij Arslan II, minted coins in the northwesterly cities of Ankara, Çankırı, Eskişehir, and Kaztamunu from 1186 to 1200.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|p=41}} Tughril ibn Kılıç Arslan II's reign in Erzurum, another son of Kilij Arslan II, minted silver dirhams in 1211–1212.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|p=41}}
[[File:Dirham of Ghiyath al-Din Kai Khusrau II (r. 1239–46) Astrological Device (Sun-Lion) dated 638 AH (1240–41 CE).jpg|thumb|Dirham of Kaykhusraw II (r. 1239–46). Astrological Device (Sun-Lion, symbol of an ideal ruler in the Great Age of the Seljuqs) dated 638 AH (1240–41 AD). Legend in Arabic.<ref>{{harvnb|Canby|Beyazit|Rugiadi|Peacock|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BPrjCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA66 66, b]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Dirham of Ghiyath al-Din Kai Khusrau II (r. 1239–46); Astrological Device (Sun-Lion) |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/454764 |website=www.metmuseum.org |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |language=en}}</ref>]] The sun-lion and the equestrian are the two central motifs in the Rum Seljuq numismatic figural repertoire.{{sfn|Canby|Beyazit|Rugiadi|Peacock|2016|p=69}} The image of a horseman with two more arrows ready and his bow taut represents strength and control and is a representation of the ideal Seljuq king of the Great Age.{{sfn|Canby|Beyazit|Rugiadi|Peacock|2016|p=69}} The image initially appeared on Rum Seljuq copper coins in the late eleventh century.{{sfn|Canby|Beyazit|Rugiadi|Peacock|2016|p=69}} The first to add equestrian iconography to silver and gold coins was Suleiman II of Rûm.{{sfn|Canby|Beyazit|Rugiadi|Peacock|2016|p=69}} Antalya minted coins with Kaykaus I's name from November 1261 to November 1262.{{sfn|Shukurov|2016|p=104}} Between 1211 and 1219, the bulk of his coins are minted at Konya and Sivas.{{sfn|Sinclair|2020|p=41}}
A significant portion of the Islamic Near East may have experienced a "silver famine" owing to little, or very little, silver mintings from the eleventh and most of the twelfth centuries. However, at the start of the thirteenth century a "silver flood" occurred in Rum Seljuq territory when Anatolian silver mines were discovered.{{sfn|Canby|Beyazit|Rugiadi|Peacock|2016|p=68}} The fineness of Rum Seljuq dirhams is similar to that of dinars; frequently, both were struck using the same dies.{{sfn|Canby|Beyazit|Rugiadi|Peacock|2016|p=68}} The Seljuq silver coinage's superior quality and prominence contributed to the dynasty's affluence throughout the early part of the thirteenth century and explains why it served as a kind of anchor for the local "currency community."{{sfn|Canby|Beyazit|Rugiadi|Peacock|2016|pp=68–69}} The Empire of Trebizond and Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia silver coins were modeled after the fineness and weight specifications of Rum Seljuq coins.{{sfn|Canby|Beyazit|Rugiadi|Peacock|2016|p=69}}
==Dynasty== {{further|Seljuk dynasty}} [[File:Double-headed eagle, with al-Sultan inscription on the chest. Kubadabad, 1220s.jpg|thumb|Double-headed eagle, with ''"al-Sultan"'' inscription on the chest. Kubadabad Palace, 1220s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Redford |first1=Scott |title=Thirteenth-Century Rum Seljuq Palaces and Palace Imagery |journal=Ars Orientalis |date=1993 |volume=23 |page=231, Fig.10 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629450 |issn=0571-1371}}</ref>]] {{History of Turkey}} {{History of the Turks pre-14th century}} As regards with the names of the sultans, there are variants in form and spelling depending on the preferences displayed by one source or the other, either for fidelity in transliterating the Persian variant of the Arabic script which the sultans used, or for a rendering corresponding to the modern Turkish phonology and orthography. Some sultans had two names that they chose to use alternatively in reference to their legacy. While the two palaces built by Alaeddin Keykubad I carry the names Kubadabad Palace and Keykubadiye Palace, he named his mosque in Konya as Alâeddin Mosque and the port city of Alanya he had captured as "Alaiye". Similarly, the medrese built by Kaykhusraw I in Kayseri, within the complex (''külliye'') dedicated to his sister Gevher Nesibe, was named Gıyasiye Medrese, and the one built by Kaykaus I in Sivas as Izzediye Medrese.{{Cn|date=January 2021}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" |- !Sultan !Reign !Notes |- style="background:#fff;" |1. Qutalmish |1060–1064 |Contended with Alp Arslan for succession to the Imperial Seljuk throne. |- |2. Suleiman ibn Qutulmish |1075–1077 ''de facto'' rules Turkmen around İznik and İzmit;<br />1077–1086 recognised Sultan of Rûm by Malik-Shah I of the Great Seljuks |Founder of Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate with capital in İznik |- style="background:#fff;" |3. Kilij Arslan I |1092–1107 |First sultan in Konya |- |4. Malik Shah |1107–1116 | |- style="background:#fff;" |5. Mesud I |1116–1156 | |- |6. 'Izz al-Din Kilij Arslan II |1156–1192 | |- style="background:#fff;" |7. Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw I |1192–1196 |First reign |- |8. Rukn al-Din Suleiman II |1196–1204 | |- style="background:#fff;" |9. Kilij Arslan III |1204–1205 | |- |(7.) Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw I |1205–1211 |Second reign |- style="background:#fff;" |10. 'Izz al-Din Kayka'us I |1211–1220 | |- |11. 'Ala al-Din Kayqubad I |1220–1237 | |- style="background:#fff;" |12. Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw II |1237–1246 |After his death, sultanate split until 1260 when Kilij Arslan IV remained the sole ruler |- |13. 'Izz al-Din Kayka'us II |1246–1262 | |- style="background:#fff;" |14. Rukn al-Din Kilij Arslan IV |1249–1266 | |- |15. 'Ala al-Din Kayqubad II |1249–1254 | |- style="background:#fff;" |16. Ghiyath al-Din Kaykhusraw III |1266–1284 | |- |17. Ghiyath al-Din Masud II |1282–1296 |First reign |- style="background:#fff;" |18. 'Ala al-Din Kayqubad III |1298–1302 | |- |(17.) Ghiyath al-Din Masud II |1303–1308 |Second reign |}
===Family tree=== The colors of the boxes are as follows<br> {{legend2|AliceBlue|Seljuks of Anatolia |border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}: {{legend2|#F5FFFA|Great Seljuk|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}: {{legend2|Linen|Non reigning members|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}: {{col-begin|width=95%}} | {{tree chart/start}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background: #F5FFFA;| | | | | | | | | | | | | DUQ| | | | | | | | |DUQ='''Tukak Temur<br />Yalig Beg'''<br />''Commander-in-chief <br /> of The Oghuz army or Khazar army''}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background: #F5FFFA;| | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | |}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background: #F5FFFA;| | | | | | | | | | | | | SEL | | | | | | | | |SEL='''Seljuk Beg'''<br />''The founder of <br /> Seljuk dynasty''}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:#F5FFFA;| | | | | | | | | | | | | |)|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.|}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:#F5FFFA;| | | | | | | | | | | | |ARS | |MIK | |MUS | |YUN | | |YUN=Yunus|MUS=Musa Yabgu |MIK=Mikail| ARS='''Arslan Yabgu'''<br />''Chief of Seljuk dynasty'' |boxstyle_ARS= background-color: #F5FFFA;|boxstyle_MUS= background-color: Linen;|boxstyle_YUN= background-color: Linen;|boxstyle_MIK= background-color: Linen;}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:#F5FFFA;| | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |)|-|-|-|.| |}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:#F5FFFA;| | | | | | | | | | | | |QBA | |CHG | | TOG | | |TOG=Toghrul I<br />''Sultan of Great Seljuk'' | CHG=Chaghri-Beg<br />''Governor of Khorasan'' | IBR=Ibrahim Inal | ERD=Er-Dash|QBA='''Qutalmish'''<br />''Father of the founder of<br />Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate''|boxstyle_QBA= background-color: AliceBlue;|boxstyle_CHG= background-color: #F5FFFA;}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background: #F5FFFA;| | | |~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|t|~|~|~|t|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | | | | |AA|AA='''Suleyman I of Rum'''<br>(1077–1086)| |Bb | | | | |Bb=Alp Arslan<br />''Sultan of Great Seljuk''|boxstyle_Bb= background-color:#F5FFFA;}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | | | | | |!|}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | | | | |AA|AA='''Kilij Arslan I'''<br>(1092–1107)}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|.}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | |Aa | | | | | |Bb| Aa='''Mesut I'''<br>(1116–1156)|Bb= '''Melikshah'''<br>(1110–1116)}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | }} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | |Aa | | | | | | | | |Aa='''Kilij Arslan II'''<br>(1156–1192)}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|.| | | }} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Aa | | | | | |Bb| | | | | | |Bb='''Keyhusrev I'''<br>(1192–1196) & (1205–1211)|Aa='''Suleyman II'''<br>(1196–1204)}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|.}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Cc | |Aa | | | |Bb| |Aa='''Keykaus I'''<br>(1211–1220)|Bb='''Ala Al-Din Kayqubad I'''<br>(1220–1237)|Cc='''Kilij Arslan III'''<br>(1204–1205)}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| }} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Aa|Aa='''Keyhusrev II'''<br>(1237–1246)}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|-|-|.}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | |Aa | | | |Bb| | | |Cc |Aa='''Kilij Arslan IV''' <ref group="Note"> After 1249 triple reign of three brothers</ref> <br>(1249–1266)|Bb='''Keykaus II'''<br>(1246–1257)|Cc='''Kayqubad II'''<br>(1249–1254)}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | |!| | | |,|-|^|-|.| | | | | |}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | |Cc| |Aa | |Bb| | | |Aa=Faramurz|Bb='''Mesut II'''<br>(1284–1296) & (1303-1307)|Cc='''Keyhusrev III'''<br>(1266–1284)|boxstyle_Aa= background-color: Linen;}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | }} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | | | | |Aa|Aa=Kayqubad III<br>(1296–1302)|boxstyle_Aa= background-color:AliceBlue;}} {{tree chart/end}} {{col-end}}
===Comparative genealogy=== {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" border="1" style="width:77%; text-align:center;" !<small>The comparative genealogy of the Sultanate of Rûm with their contemporary neighbors in Central Asia </small> |- | {{col-begin|width=125%}} {{col-break}} {{tree chart/start}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:PaleTurquoise;|boxstyle_DUQ=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:3px solid #0000FF;| | | | | | | | |DUQ| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |MAM|MAM=Ma'munid rulers in Chorasmia<br /><small>(''r''. 995-1017)</small> |DUQ='''Tuqaq Temur<br />Beg'''<br />''Commander-in-chief <br /> of the Oghuz army''|boxstyle_MAM=background-color:Cyan;}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:PaleTurquoise;| | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |:| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:PaleTurquoise;| | | | | | | | |SEL | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |ALT | | | | | | | | | |SEL='''Seljuk Beg'''<br />''The founder of Seljuk dynasty''|ALT=Altun Tash<br /><small>(1017-1032)</small>|boxstyle_ALT=background-color:Aquamarine;|boxstyle_SEL=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:4px solid #0000FF;}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:PaleTurquoise;| | | | | | | | | |)|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | | |,|-|^|-|.|}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | |ARS | | MIK |v|MOD |v| YUS | | YUN | | MUS | | |Ii| |Jj| YUN=Yûnus<ref name="Râvendî">Râvendî, Muhammed b. Ali, ''Râhatü’s-sudûr,'' (Ateş Publications), vol. I, p. 85.</ref><ref name="Müstevfî">Müstevfî, ''Târîḫ-i Güzîde,'' (Nevâî Publications), p. 426.</ref> | YUS=Yûsuf Inal<ref name="Zahîrüddîn">Zahîrüddîn-i Nîsâbûrî, ''Selcûḳnâme,'' (Muhammed Ramazânî Publications), Tahran 1332, p. 10.</ref><ref name="Reşîdüddin">Reşîdüddin Fazlullāh-ı Hemedânî, ''Câmiʿu’t-tevârîḫ,'' (Ahmed Ateş Publications), Ankara 1960, vol. II/5, p. 5.</ref>| MUS=Mûsâ<ref name="İnanç1">{{cite book|author=Osman Gazi Özgüdenli| title=MÛSÂ YABGU|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/musa-yabgu|volume=EK-2|date=2016|publisher=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi|place=Istanbul|pages=324–325}}</ref>''(İnanç)''Yabgu | MOD=The mother of Toghrul, Chaghri,<br />Ibrahim & Artash | MIK=Mikail ibn Seljuk|Ii=Harun ''(Ghaznavid Governor of Khwarezm)''<br /><small>(''r''. 1032-1035)</small>|Jj=Ismail Khandan<br /><small>(''r''. 1035-1041)</small>| ARS='''Arslan Yabgu'''<br />''Chief of Seljuk dynasty''|boxstyle_MOD= background-color:LightCyan;border:3px solid DarkGreen;|boxstyle_Ii= background-color:Aquamarine;|boxstyle_Jj=background-color:Aquamarine;|boxstyle_ARS=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:#F5FFFA;| | | | | |,|-|-|-|(| | | |,|-|^|-|.| |`|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | |)|-|-|-|.| | | | |:| |}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:LightCyan;| | | | |RSG | |QBA | |TOG | |CHG |.|IBR | |ERD | |HAS | |MUS | | |Ii|Ii=Shah Malik<br /><small>(''r''. 1041-1042)</small>|MUS=Yûsuf,<ref>Beyhakī, ''Târîḫ,'' (Behmenyâr), p. 71.</ref> Kara Arslan, Abu Bakr, Umar, Bori & Dawlatshah| TOG=Toghrul I<br />''The first sultan of Seljuks''<br />(r. 1037–1063)| CHG=Chaghri Beg<br />''Co-ruler of<br />the Seljuk Empire'' | IBR=Ibrahim Inal<ref name="Kutalmış1"/> |HAS=Abu Ali Hasan Yabgu<ref name="İnanç">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Osman Gazi Özgüdenli| title=MÛSÂ YABGU|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/musa-yabgu|volume=Supplement 2|pages=324–325}}</ref><ref name="Kutalmış1"/>|RSG= Rasūl Tagīn<ref name="SÜLEYMAN_ŞAH_I"/>|QBA='''Qutalmish'''<ref name="Kutalmış1">{{cite book|author=Faruk Sümer| title=KUTALMIŞ|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/26/C26008628.pdf|volume=26|date=2002|publisher=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi|place=Istanbul|isbn= 978-9-7538-9406-7|pages=480–481}}</ref><br />''Father of the founder of Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate''|ERD=Artash Inal<ref name="İnanç"/> |boxstyle_HAS= background-color:AliceBlue; |boxstyle_MUS= background-color:AliceBlue;|boxstyle_TOG= background-color:LightCyan;border:6px solid DarkGreen;|boxstyle_CHG= background-color:LightCyan;border:4px solid DarkGreen;|boxstyle_IBR= background-color:LightCyan;border:2px solid DarkGreen;|boxstyle_ERD= background-color:LightCyan;border:1px solid DarkGreen;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:Turquoise;|boxstyle_QBA=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:6px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_RSG=background-color:AliceBlue;border:1px solid #0000FF;}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| |~|~|~|~|,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.|~|~|~|,|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|:| |}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |MAN |F|AA| |AİL |MAN= Mānsūr<ref name="SÜLEYMAN_ŞAH_I"/>|AA=<ref name="SÜLEYMAN_ŞAH_I">{{cite book|author=Sevim, Ali|title=SÜLEYMAN ŞAH I|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/38/C38012445.pdf|volume=38|date=2010|publisher=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi|place=Istanbul|isbn= 978-9-7538-9590-3|pages=103–105}}</ref>'''Suleyman I Shah of Rûm'''<ref name="AnadoluSelçukluları">{{cite book|author=Sümer, Faruk| title=ANADOLU SELÇUKLULARI|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/36/C36015917.pdf|volume=36|date=2009|publisher=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi|place=Istanbul|isbn= 978-9-7538-9566-8|pages=380–384}}</ref><br />(''r''. 1077–1086)| |AİL=Alp Ilig and Dawlat<ref name="SÜLEYMAN_ŞAH_I"/>|SUL |Bb=Alp Arslan<br />(''r''. 1063–1072)| |Bb| | | | | |QAW | | | | | | |Ii|Ii=Seljuk rule <br /><small>in Khwarazm<br />(''r''. 1042-1077)</small>|QAW=Kavurt<ref name="Kavurd1">{{cite book|author=Özaydın, Abdülkerim|title=KAVURD BEY|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/25/C25008111.pdf|volume=25|date=2002|publisher=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi|place=Istanbul|isbn= 978-9-7538-9403-6 |pages=73–74}}</ref> Beg<br /><small>(''r''. 1048–1073)</small><br />''Kirman Seljuks''|boxstyle_QAW= background-color:#E9FFDB;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:LightCyan;|boxstyle_AA=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:7px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Bb= background-color:LightCyan;border:7px solid DarkGreen;|SUL=Suleiman<ref name="Çağrı">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Sevim, Ali|title=ÇAĞRI BEY|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/8/C08003025.pdf|volume=8|pages=183–186}}</ref><br />(''r''. 1063)<ref name="Selçuklular">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Sümer, Faruk| title=SELÇUKLULAR|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/36/C36015912.pdf|volume=36|pages=365–371}}</ref>|boxstyle_SUL= background-color:LightCyan;border:3px solid DarkGreen;}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |F|~|J| |!| | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| | | | |:| |}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |ABQ |~|~|t|~|~|ABG | | | | |,|MLK | |Cc| |Dd| |Ee| | |Ii|Ii=Anūsh Tekīn<br /><small>(''r''. 1077-1097)</small>|ABQ=Abu'l-Qasim <small>(İznik)<br />(''r''. 1086-1092)</small>|MLK=Malik-Shah I<br />(''r''. 1072–1092)|ABG= Abu'l Ghazi Hasan Bey <small>(Kayseri)</small>|boxstyle_MLK= background-color:LightCyan;border:6px solid DarkGreen;|boxstyle_ABQ= background-color:Moccasin;|boxstyle_ABG= background-color:Moccasin;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:Aqua;|Cc=Kīrmān<ref name="Kirmanşah1">{{cite book|author=Sümer, Faruk|title=Kirman Selçuks|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/36/C36015915.pdf|volume=36|date=2009|publisher=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi|place=Istanbul|isbn= 978-9-7538-9566-8 |pages=377–379}}</ref> Shah<br /><small>(''r''. 1073–1074)</small>|boxstyle_Cc= background-color:#E9FFDB;|Dd=Sultan Shah<ref name="Kirmanşah1"/><br /><small>(''r''. 1074–1085)</small>|boxstyle_Dd= background-color:#E9FFDB;|Ee=Turan I Shah<ref name="Kirmanşah1"/><br /><small>(''r''. 1085–1097)</small>|boxstyle_Ee= background-color:#E9FFDB;}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | |f|~|~|~|7| | | |,|-|+|-|.| | | |!| | | | | | | |!| | |,|-|l3| | }} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Dd|v|AA| |Bb| |MAH |!|BAR | |Ee|-|Ff| |Cc| |!|Ii|Ii=Ekinchi<br /><small>(''r''. 1097)</small>|AA='''Kilij Arslan I'''<br>(''r.'' 1092–1107)| | |BAR=Barkiyaruq<ref name="Selçuklular1">{{cite book|author=Sümer, Faruk| title=SELÇUKLULAR|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/36/C36015912.pdf|volume=36|date=2009|publisher=TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi|place=Istanbul|isbn= 978-9-7538-9566-8|pages=365–371}}</ref><br />(''r''. 1092–1104)|boxstyle_BAR= background-color:LightCyan;border:6px solid DarkGreen;|MAH=Mahmud I<ref name="TerkenHatun">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Bezer, Gülay Öğün|title=TERKEN HATUN, the mother of MAHMÛD I|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/40/C40013256.pdf|volume=40|page=510}} Terken Khatun (wife of Malik-Shah I).</ref><ref name="Melikşah">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Özaydın, Abdülkerim|title=MELİKŞAH|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/29/C29009379.pdf|volume=29|pages=54-57}}</ref><ref name="Berkyaruk">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Özaydın, Abdülkerim|title=BERKYARUK|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/5/C05002147.pdf|volume=5|pages=514-516}}</ref><br />(''r''. 1092–1094)|boxstyle_MAH= background-color:LightCyan;border:4px solid DarkGreen;|Dd=Ayisha<ref name="AnadoluSelçukluları"/> Khātun<br />(''r.'' in Malatya)|Bb=Kulan Arslan (Dāvûd)<ref name="AnadoluSelçukluları"/>|Cc= Îrânshah<br /><small>(''r''. 1097–1101)</small>|boxstyle_Cc= background-color:#E9FFDB;|boxstyle_Dd= background-color:Seashell;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:Aqua;|boxstyle_AA=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:6px solid #0000FF;|Ee= Arslan Shah I<br /><small>(''r''. 1101–1142)</small>|boxstyle_Ee= background-color:#E9FFDB;|Ff=Muhammad I Mālīk Shah<br /><small>(''r''. 1142–1156)</small>|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:#E9FFDB;}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |,|-|'| |)|-|.| | | |,|-|v|-|'| |!| | | |,|-|-|-|'| | | | | | |`|-|.| | |boxstyle_Cc= background-color:#E9FFDB;}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Aa|F|Bb|!| | | |!|TAP |.|MLK | |Cc|-|Gg|~|Jj| | |Ii|Ii=Qutbū'd-Dīn<br />Muhammad<br /><small>(''r''. 1097-1127)</small>|Aa=Toghrul Arslan<ref name="AnadoluSelçukluları"/><br />(''r.'' 1107-1124)|Bb= '''Malīk Shah of Rûm'''<br />(''r.'' 1110–1116)|MLK=Malik-Shah II<br />(''r''. 1104-1105)|Cc=Toghrul Shah<ref name="Kirmanşah1"/><br /><small>(''r''. 1156–1170)</small>|boxstyle_Cc= background-color:#E9FFDB;|TAP=Muhammad I Tapar<br />(''r''. 1105–1118)|boxstyle_TAP= background-color:LightCyan;border:6px solid DarkGreen;|boxstyle_Aa= background-color:Seashell;|boxstyle_Bb=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:Aqua;|boxstyle_MLK= background-color:LightCyan;border:5px solid DarkGreen;|Gg=Bahrām Shah<br /><small>(''r''. 1170 - 1175)</small><ref name="Kirmanşah1"/><br />Arslan II Shah<br /><small>(''r''. 1170 - 1177)</small><ref name="Kirmanşah1"/>|boxstyle_Gg= background-color:#E9FFDB;|Jj=Turan II Shah<br /><small>(''r''. 1177–1183)</small><br />Muhammad II<br /><small>(''r''. 1183–1187)</small>|boxstyle_Jj= background-color:#E9FFDB;}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |F|~|J| |,|-|^|-|.| |`|-|.| |`|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.| | | | | | | | |!| | |}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |GA | |Aa | |Dd | |SAN | |MAH| |Ff| |Jj|F|Gg| | |Ii|Ii=ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Ātsız<br /><small>(''r''. 1127-1156)</small>|SAN=Ahmad Sanjar<br />(''r''. 1118-1153)<br />Last Sultan of The Great Seljuk|Aa='''Rukn ad-Dīn Mas'ūd I'''<br>(''r''. 1116–1156)|boxstyle_SAN= background-color:#00CC99;border:7px solid DarkGreen;|GA=Gündüz Alp<ref name="Düstûrnâme">Enverî, ''Düstûrnâme-i Enverî,'' pp. 78-80, 1464.</ref>|boxstyle_GA= background-color:#F5FFFA;|Dd=Malīk Arab<ref name="AnadoluSelçukluları"/><br /> (''r.'' 1116-1127) <br />in Ankara|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:7px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:Aqua;|MAH=Mahmud II<ref name="IrakSelçuks"/><ref name="MahmudBinTapar">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Özaydın, Abdülkerim|title=MAHMÛD b. MUHAMMED TAPAR|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/27/C27008916.pdf|volume=27|pages=371-372}}</ref><br /><small>(''r''. 1118–1131)</small><br />First sultan of<br />The Iraqi Seljuks|boxstyle_MAH= background-color:LightCyan;border:5px solid DarkGreen;|Ff=Toghrul II<ref name="IrakSelçuks"/><ref name="TuğrulBinTapar">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Sümer, Faruk|title=TUĞRUL I|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/41/C41013431.pdf|volume=41|pages=341-342}}</ref><br /><small>(''r''. 1132–1134)</small><br />Masud<ref name="IrakSelçuks"/><ref name="MesudBinTapar">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Sümer, Faruk|title=MES‘ÛD b. MUHAMMED TAPAR|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/29/C29009546.pdf|volume=29|pages=349-351}}</ref><br /><small>(''r''. 1134–1152)</small>|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:LightCyan;border:5px solid DarkGreen;|Gg=Qizil Arslan<br /><small>(''r''. 1191)<br />''de facto ruler of Toghrul III''</small><br />Atabeg of the Eldiguzids|boxstyle_Gg= background-color:Moccasin;border:3px solid DarkGreen;|Jj=Suleiman-Shah<ref name="IrakSelçuks"/><br /><small>(''r''. 1159–1160)</small>|boxstyle_Jj= background-color:LightCyan;border:3px solid DarkGreen;}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |F|~|~|~|t|~|~|~|7| | | |,|-|-|-|(| | | |!| | | | | |:| | | | | | |!| | | }} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Bb | |Aa | |Gg | |MAH | |QAW | |Ff|-|TOG|J| |Hh|v|Ii|Ii=Tāj ad-Dīn<br />İl-Arslan<br /><small>(''r''. 1156-1172)</small>|QAW=Malik-Shah III<ref name="IrakSelçuks"/><br /><small>(''r''. 1152–1153)</small><br />Muhammad II<ref name="IrakSelçuks"/><br /><small>(''r''. 1153–1159)</small>|boxstyle_QAW= background-color:LightCyan;border:3px solid DarkGreen;|MAL='''5.Malik-Shah III'''<ref name="IrakSelçuks"/><br />(''r''. 1152–1153)|Aa='''ʿIzz ad-Dīn<br />Kilij Arslan II'''<br />(''r''. 1156–1192)|TOG=Toghrul III<ref name="IrakSelçuks"/><ref name="TuğrulTheThirdBinArslanşah">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Sümer, Faruk|title=Ebû Tâlib TUĞRUL b. ARSLANŞAH b. TUĞRUL|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/41/C41013432.pdf|volume=41|pages=342-344}}</ref><br /><small>(''r''. 1177–1191, 1192–1194)</small><br />Last sultan|boxstyle_TOG= background-color:#ACE1AF;border:5px solid DarkGreen;|Bb=Danismendli Grooms Yağıbasan <small>(Sivas)</small> & ZūnNūn <small>(Kayseri)</small>|Gg=Malīk Shāhīn Shāh <small>(Ankara, Çankırı, Kastamonu)</small>; Daulat|Hh=Terken Khatun|boxstyle_Bb= background-color:LavenderBlush;|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:6px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:Aqua;|boxstyle_Hh=background-color:Aqua;|Ff=Arslan-Shah<ref name="IrakSelçuks"/><ref name="ArslanşahBinTuğrul">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Sümer, Faruk|title=ARSLANŞAH b. TUĞRUL |url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/3/C03001268.pdf|volume=3|pages=404-406}}</ref><br />(''r''. 1160–1177)|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:LightCyan;border:5px solid DarkGreen;|Jj=Turan II Shah<br /><small>(''r''. 1177–1183)</small><br />Muhammad II<br /><small>(''r''. 1183–1187)</small>|boxstyle_Jj= background-color:#E9FFDB;|MAH=Dawud<ref name="IrakSelçuks">{{TDV Encyclopedia of Islam|author=Sümer, Faruk|title=IRAK SELÇUKLULARI|url=https://cdn.islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/dosya/36/C36015921.pdf|volume=36|page=387}}</ref><br />(''r''. 1131–1132)|boxstyle_MAH= background-color:LightCyan;border:2px solid DarkGreen;}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |,|-|-|-|^|-|-|-|v|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|V|~|V|~|7| | | | | | | | |,|-|^|-|.| |}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Aa| |Dd|v|Bb|v|Cc| |Ee|:|Ff| | |Gg|v|Ii| |Hh| |Bb='''Ghiyāth ad-Dīn<br />Kay Khusraw I'''<br />(''r.'' 1192–1196) &<br />(''r.'' 1205–1211)|Aa='''Rukn ad-Dīn Suleyman II Shah of Rûm'''<br />(''r.'' 1196–1204)|Cc= Dawlat Raziya Khatun|Dd=The mothers of<br />ʿIzz ad-Dīn<br />Kay Kāwus I and<br />Jalāl ad-Dīn Kay Farīdûn|Ff=Qutbū'd-Dīn<br />Malīk Shāh <br /><small>(Sivas, Aksaray)</small><br />Arslan Shāh<br /><small>(Niğde)</small>|Ee=Malīka İsmetū'd-DīnGevher Nesibe Sultan|Gg=Terken Khatun<br /><small>''de facto ruler of Muhammad''</small>|Hh=Jalāl ad-Dīn Sultān Shāh<br /><small>(''r''. 1172-1193)</small>|Ii=ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Takish<br /><small>(''r''. 1172-1200)</small>|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:6px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Bb=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:6px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Hh=background-color:Aqua;|boxstyle_Ii=background-color:Aqua;|boxstyle_Gg=background-color:Aqua;}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |!| |F|~|v|-|'| | | |`|-|.| | | | | |L|~|V|~|~|~|V|~|7|`|-|.| |}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Cc|:|Aa| |Hh|v|Bb|j|Gg| |Ii| |Kk|:| |Ll|-|Mm| | |Aa='''ʿIzz ad-Dīn<br />Kay Kāwus I'''<br />(''r.'' 1211–1220)|Bb='''ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn<br />Kay Qubād I'''<br />(''r.'' 1220–1237)|Cc='''Kilij Arslan III'''<br>(''r.'' 1204–1205)|Hh=Hunad-Māh Pari Khātun of Kir Fard of Alanya Castle|Gg=Malīka Ādīla Ghāzīya Khātun of Ayyubids|boxstyle_Gg= background-color:PeachPuff;|Ii=Muhyi'd-Dīn Masud Shāh <small>(Ankara, Çankırı, Eskişehir)</small>|Kk=Nurū'd-[Dīn Mahmud Sultān Shāh <small>(Kayseri)</small>|Ll=ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Muhammad<br /><small>(''r''. 1200-1220)</small>|Mm=Jalāl al-Dīn Mangubardī<br /><small>(''r''. 1220-1231)</small>|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:6px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Bb=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:7px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Cc=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Ll=background-color:Aqua;|boxstyle_Mm=background-color:Aqua;}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |F|~|J| | | | | | | |`|-|.| |L|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|7| |D|~|7| | | | |:|}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Hh| |Ff|j|Cc|v|Aa|v|Bb|-|Ee| |Dd|:|Gg| | |Mm||Mm=<small>Ögedei established the Mongol rule<br />in Khwarezmia<br />(''r''. 1229–1241)</small>|Aa='''Ghiyāth ad-Dīn<br>Kay Khusraw II'''<br />(''r.'' 1237–1246)|Bb=Gurju Khatun ''(Bagrationi dynasty of Georgians)''|Cc=Bardūlīya Khātun (Prodoulia)|Ff=Sāhīp Shams<br />ad-Dīn Īsfahānī (1246–1249)<ref group="Note">Grand Vizier Sāhīp Shams ad-Dīn Īsfahānī ruled the country on behalf of ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II between 1246 and 1249</ref>|Hh=Jalāl ad-Dīn<br />Kay Farīdûn<br /><small>(Koyulhisar)</small>|Dd=ʿIzz ad-Dīn<br />Kilij Arslan,<br />Rukn ad-Dīn and two daughters|Ee=Mu‘in ad-Dīn Suleyman<ref group="Note">Grand Vizier Parwāna Mu‘in al-Din Suleyman ruled the country on behalf of Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Kay Khusraw III between 1266 and 2 August 1277 (1 Rabi' al-awwal 676)</ref> <small>('''Parwāna''')</small>|boxstyle_Ee= background-color:MistyRose;|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:#FAE7B5;|boxstyle_Dd= background-color:PeachPuff;|Gg=Mugisū'd-Dīn Toghrul Shāh <small>(Elbistan)</small><br />Muizū'd-Dīn Kāysar Shāh <small>(Malatya)</small>|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:6px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Mm= background-color:Coral;}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | |F|~|J| |,|-|'| |!| |`|-|.| | | |!| | | |F|~|A|~|7| | | | |:|}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Ff| |Dd| |Bb| |Aa|.|Cc| |Ee| |Nn| |Mm| |,|Hh|Hh=<small>Möngke appointed Hulagu, the son of Tolui, as Il khan of the Mongol Empire in 1253</small>|Ff=Karîm ad-Dīn Karaman Bey<br /><small>(''r''. 1256–1263)</small><br /><small>(Karamanoğulları<br />Anatolian Beylik)</small>||Aa='''Rukn ad-Dīn<br />Kilij Arslan IV'''<br /><small>(''r.'' 1249–1254) & <br />(''r.'' 1257-1262) & <br />(1262-1266)</small><ref group="Note">Between 1262 and 1266 Rukn ad-Dīn Kilij Arslan IV reigned alone</ref>|Bb='''ʿIzz ad-Dīn<br />Kay Kāwus II''' <small><br />(1246–1249)</small><ref group="Note">Between 1246 and 1249 ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II reigned alone</ref> <small> <br />(''r.'' 1249–1254) & <br />(''r.'' 1254-1262)</small><ref group="Note">ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kay Kāwus II was defeated on October 14, 1256 in Sultanhanı (Sultan Han, Aksaray) and he acceded to the throne on May 1, 1257 again after the departure of Baiju Noyan from Anatolia</ref>|Cc='''ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Kay Qubād II''' <ref group="Note">Between 1249 and 1254 triple reign of three brothers</ref> <small><br />(''r.'' 1249–1254)</small>|Dd=Unknown son{{sfn|Shukurov|2016|pp=108–109}}| boxstyle_Dd= background-color:#FFFFCC;|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Bb=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Cc=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;|Mm=Nasirū'd-Dīn Barkyāruk Shāh <small>(Niksar, Koyulhisar)</small><br />|Nn=Nizāmū'd-Dīn Argun Shāh <small>(Amasya)</small><br />Sanjar Shāh<br /><small>(Ereğli)</small>|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:#F7E7CE;|boxstyle_Hh= background-color:LightPink;|Ee=Pervâneoğulları Anatolian Beylik <small>(established in<br />Sinop in 1277)</small>|boxstyle_Ee= background-color:MistyRose;}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| |`|-|.| | | |)|-|-|-|.| | |,|-|v|-|^|-|.|}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | |Aa|~|Bb| |Jj| |Hh| |Cc| |Ee|,|Gg| |!|Dd| |Ff|Gg=Mū'hazzab<br />ūd-Dīn Ali|boxstyle_Gg=background-color:#FAE7B5|Dd=<small>Kubilai endorsed Abaqa, the son of Hulagu, as Il-Khan in 1270<br />(''r.'' 1265–1282)</small>|Ff=Ahmad Tagüdar<br /><small>(''r.'' 1282–1284)</small>|Cc='''Ghiyāth ad-Dīn<br />Kay Khusraw III'''<br /><small>(''r.'' 1266–1282) & <br />(''r.'' 1282–1284)</small>|Bb=ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Sīyāvuş<br /><small>(15 May 1277 - 20 June 1277)</small> <ref group="Note">According to İbn Bîbî, ''el-Evâmirü’l-ʿAlâʾiyye,'' p. 727. (10 Dhu al-Hijjah 675 - 17 Muharram 676)</ref> ''or'' <ref group="Note">According to Yazıcıoğlu Ali, ''Tevârih-i Âl-i Selçuk,'' p. 62. (10 Dhu al-Hijjah 677 - 17 Muharram 678)</ref><br /><small>(24 April 1279 - 30 May 1279)</small>|Aa=Karamanoğlu Shams ad-Dīn Mehmed Bey <br /><small>(Grand Vizier of ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Sīyāvuş)</small>|boxstyle_Aa= background-color:#F7E7CE;|Ee=Mu‘in ad-Dīn Mehmed<br /><small>(''r''. 1277-1297)</small>|boxstyle_Ee= background-color:MistyRose;|boxstyle_Cc=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Jj=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:5px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Dd= background-color:LightPink;|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:LightPink;|Jj='''Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Mas'ūd II''' <small><br />(''r.'' 1282–1284) & <br />(''r.'' 1284–1296)</small>|Hh=Farāmurz|boxstyle_Hh=background-color:AliceBlue;border:2px solid #0000FF;|boxstyle_Bb=background-color:AliceBlue;border:2px solid #0000FF;}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | |:| |!| | | | |!| |)|-|-|-|.| }} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:4px solid #0000FF;|border_Cc=2| | | | |Ff|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|~|Aa| | | | | |Cc|'| |Gg|'|Dd| |Ee| | | |Dd=Arghun<br /><small>(''r.'' 1284–1291)</small>|boxstyle_Dd= background-color:LightPink;|Ee= Gaykhatu<br /><small>(''r.'' 1291–1295)</small>|boxstyle_Ee= background-color:LightPink;|Cc=Mū'hazzab<br />ūd-Dīn Masūd<br /><small>(''r''. 1297-1300)</small>|boxstyle_Cc= background-color:MistyRose;|Ff=Uç Beylik of Osman established |Aa='''ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Kay Qubād III'''<br /><small>(''r''. 1298-1302)</small><ref name="AnadoluSelçukluları"/>|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:MediumSpringGreen;|Gg=Taraqay|boxstyle_Gg= background-color:LightYellow;}} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;| | | | | |!| | | | | | | |F|~|~|~|J| | | | | | | |!| | | | |!| | | |)|-|-|-|.| }} {{tree chart|boxstyle=background:AliceBlue;|boxstyle_Aa=background-color:PaleTurquoise;border:4px solid #0000FF;|border_Cc=2| | | | |Cc| | | | | |Aa| | | | | | | | | |Ee| | |Gg| |Dd| |Ff|Cc=Osman of Ottomans<br /><small>(''r''. 1299-1323/4)</small>|Aa='''Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Mas'ūd II'''<br /><small>(''r''. 1303-1308)</small><ref name="AnadoluSelçukluları"/>|Ee=Gazi Chelebi<br /><small>(''r''. 1300-1322)</small>|boxstyle_Ee= background-color:MistyRose;|boxstyle_Cc= background-color:MediumSpringGreen;|Gg= Baydu<br /><small>(''r.'' 1295)</small>|boxstyle_Gg= background-color:LightPink;|Dd=Ghazan<br /><small>(''r.'' 1295–1304)</small>|boxstyle_Dd= background-color:LightPink;|Ff= Öljaitü<br /><small>(''r.'' 1304–1316)</small>|boxstyle_Ff= background-color:LightPink;}} {{tree chart/end}} {{col-break}} *'''The list of important historical events''' *. *. *. *. *. *. *. *. *. *. *. *. *. *. *<small>'''Chaghri Beg defeated Shah-Malik ibn Ali in Makran in 1042 and ended Ghaznevid rule in Khwarazm'''</small> *. *. *Establishment *. *<small>'''Alp Arslan defeated Byzantine Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes in the Battle of Malazgirt in 1071'''</small> *. *. *. *. *. *. *. *<small>'''The First Crusade'''</small> *<small>'''Crusade of 1101'''</small> *. *. *. *. *. *. *. *. *. *. *. *. *. *. *. *Second Crusade *. *. *. *<small>''' ʿIzz ad-Dīn Kilij Arslān defeated Manuel I Komnenos in the Battle of Myriokephalon'''</small> *. *Third Crusade *. *<small>'''Ala ad-Din Tekish-Khwarazmshah ended The Great Seljuk Empire in Ray, Khorasan in 1194'''</small> *. *<small>'''Zenith of Anatolian Seljuks'''</small> *. *<small>'''Kayqubad the Great defeated Jalal al-Din Mangburni in the Battle of Yassıçimen in 1230'''</small> *. *<small>'''Chormaqan defeated Mangubartī in the Battle of Indus on August 1231 and ended Khwarazmshahs'''</small> *. *<small>'''Babai Revolt'''</small> *. *<small>'''Baiju Noyan defeated Kay Khusraw II in the Battle of Kösedağ in 1243 and Anatolian Seljuks became a vassal state of Mongol Empire'''</small> *. *<small>'''Güyük designated Kilij Arslan IV the Sultan of Rum in 1248'''</small> *<small>'''Triple reign''' (1249–1254)<ref name="AnadoluSelçukluları"/></small> *<small>'''Hulagu captured Alamut in 1256'''</small> *<small>'''Anatolian Seljuks were divided into two by a firman of Möngke Khan in 1258/1259'''</small> *. *<small>'''Ilkhanate gained independence from the Mongol Empire in 1295 after the demise of Kublai Khan on February 18, 1294'''</small> *. *<small>'''Ottoman State emerged in Söğüt, Bilecik in 1299'''</small> *. *Disestablishment period of *The Anatolian Seljuks *. *<small>'''Ilkhanate disintegrated after 1336'''</small>
{{col-end}} |}
==See also== *Constantine Melik *Babai Revolt *Byzantine–Seljuk Wars *List of battles involving the Seljuk Empire *List of wars involving the Sultanate of Rum *Rûm Eyalet, Ottoman Empire
==Notes== {{notelist}} {{reflist|group=note}}
==Footnotes== {{Reflist|group=Note}}
==References== {{Reflist}}
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The sultan, sitting cross-legged on his throne, is holding a pomegranate in one hand; there are tiraz bands on his arms and two guards next to him. 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==External links== * {{cite web|url=http://archnet.org/library/pubdownloader/pdf/8967/doc/DPC1304.pdf|title=The concepts that shape Anatolian Seljuq caravanserais|author=Yavuz, Ayşıl Tükel|publisher=ArchNet|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070704025025/http://archnet.org/library/pubdownloader/pdf/8967/doc/DPC1304.pdf|archive-date=2007-07-04}} * {{cite web|url = http://archnet.org/library/places/places.tcl?country_code=tr|title = List of Seljuk edifices|publisher = ArchNet|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070405010452/http://archnet.org/library/places/places.tcl?country_code=tr|archive-date = 2007-04-05}} * {{cite web |url = http://www.turkishhan.org|title = Examples of caravanserais built by the Anatolian Seljuk Sultanate|author=Katharine Branning|publisher=Turkish Hans}}
{{Seljuk Sultanate of Rum and Turkish Beyliks}} {{Seljuk dynasty}} {{Medieval states in Anatolia}} {{History of Turkey timeline|state=collapsed}} {{Campaignbox Crusades Battles}} {{Turkey topics}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Rum, Sultanate of}} Category:Sultanate of Rum<!--please leave the empty space as standard--> Category:1077 establishments in Asia Category:1308 disestablishments in Asia Category:Diarchies Category:Former sultanates Category:History of Konya Province Category:Vassal and tributary states of the Mongol Empire Category:States and territories established in 1077 Category:States and territories disestablished in the 1300s