Chinantecan languages

{{Short description|Oto-Manguean language branch of Mexico}} {{cleanup-lang|date=May 2026}} {{Infobox language | name = Chinantec | nativename = {{lang|mul|Tsa Jujmi}} | states = Mexico | region = Oaxaca | ethnicity = Chinantecs | speakers = {{sigfig|144394|2}} | date = 2020 census | ref = {{r|INEGI2020}} | familycolor = oto-manguean | fam1 = Oto-Manguean | fam2 = Western | fam3 = Oto-Pame–Chinantecan | lc1 = cco | ld1 = Comaltepec Chinantec | lc2 = chj | ld2 = Ojitlán Chinantec | lc3 = chq | ld3 = Quiotepec Chinantec | lc4 = chz | ld4 = Ozumacín Chinantec | lc5 = cle | ld5 = Lealao Chinantec | lc6 = cnl | ld6 = Lalana Chinantec | lc7 = cnt | ld7 = Tepetotutla Chinantec | lc8 = cpa | ld8 = Palantla Chinantec | lc9 = csa | ld9 = Chiltepec Chinantec | lc10 = cso | ld10 = Sochiapan Chinantec | lc11 = cte | ld11 = Tepinapa Chinantec | lc12 = ctl | ld12 = Tlacoatzintepec Chinantec | lc13 = cuc | ld13 = Usila Chinantec | lc14 = cvn | ld14 = Valle Nacional Chinantec | glotto = chin1484 | glottorefname = Chinantecan | ELP = 9873 | ELPname = Central Chinantec | map = Otomanguean Languages.png | mapcaption = The Chinantecan languages, number 9 (chartreuse), east. }}

The '''Chinantec''' or '''Chinantecan''' languages constitute a branch of the Oto-Manguean family. Though traditionally considered a single language, ''Ethnologue'' lists 14 partially mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinantec.{{r|Palancar2014b}} The languages are spoken by the indigenous Chinantec people who live in Oaxaca and Veracruz, Mexico, especially in the districts of Cuicatlán, Ixtlán de Juárez, Tuxtepec and Choapan, and in Staten Island, New York.{{r|Torrens2011}}

==Internal classification== Egland and Bartholomew (1978){{r|EglandBartholomew1978}} established fourteen Chinantec languages on the basis of 80% mutual intelligibility. ''Ethnologue'' found that one that had not been adequately compared (Tlaltepusco) was not distinct, but split another (Lalana from Tepinapa). At a looser criterion of 70% intelligibility, Lalana–Tepinapa, Quiotepec–Comaltepec, Palantla–Valle Nacional, and geographically distant Chiltepec–Tlacoatzintepec would be languages, reducing the count to ten. Lealao Chinantec (Latani) is the most divergent.

On the basis of shared phonological innovations, Rensch (1989) groups the Chinantecan languages into 5 clusters, which largely agree with previous ethnographic classifications of the population centers of the Chinantla. He additionally proposes a division into a Northern area represented by group {{Roman|1}}, a Transitional area represented by group {{Roman|2}}, and a Southern area represented by groups {{Roman|3}}-{{Roman|5}}. The northern languages are considered more innovative both phonologically and lexically, while the southern languages are more conservative in both respects. Phonologically, Ojitlán is found to the most innovative, and Comaltepec the most conservative.{{r|Rensch1989|pp=3-9}}

{{Table alignment}} {| class="wikitable" style="border-collapse:collapse;" ! Language area ! Distribution ! colspan="2" |Rensch (1989) |- |Ojitlán |Northern Oaxaca and Veracruz municipios of Minatitlán and Hidalgotitlán | rowspan="5" |I | rowspan="5" |Northern |- |Usila |Oaxaca, one town in Veracruz |- |Tlacoatzintepec |Northern Oaxaca |- |Chiltepec |San José Chiltepec, Oaxaca |- |Sochiapan |Northern Oaxaca |- |Tepetotutla |Northern Oaxaca | rowspan="2" |II | rowspan="2" |Transitional |- |Palantla |Oaxaca, San Juan Palantla and surrounding towns |- |Valle Nacional |Northern Oaxaca, Yetla | rowspan="2" |III | rowspan="7" |Southern |- |Ozumacín |Oaxaca, San Pedro Ozumacín and surrounding towns |- |Tepinapa |Northern Oaxaca, Choapan District. Very remote area. | rowspan="3" |IV |- |Lalana |25 towns on the border between Oaxaca and Veracruz |- |Lealao |Northeastern Oaxaca, San Juan Lealao, Latani, Tres Arroyos, and La Hondura |- |Comaltepec |Northern Oaxaca, Comaltepec | rowspan="2" |V |- |Quiotepec |Oaxaca, San Juan Quiotepec and surrounding towns |}

==Phonology== 200px|right|thumb| the register-tone inventory of Usila Chinantec

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |+Proto-Chinantecan Consonants{{r|Rensch1989|p=11}} ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" | !! rowspan="2" | Labial!! rowspan="2" | Alveolar!! colspan="2" | Dorsal!! rowspan="2" | Laryngeal |- !{{small|plain}} !{{small|labial}} |- ! rowspan="2"|Obstruent ! {{small|voiceless}} | *p || *t || *k |*kʷ|| *ʔ |- ! {{small|voiced}} | *b || *z{{efn|The consonant *z is reconstructed as a voiced affricate{{r|Rensch1989|p=12}}}} || *g |*gʷ|| |- ! colspan="2" |Fricative | || *s || | || *h |- ! rowspan="3" | Continuant ! {{small|nasal}} | *m|| *n || *ŋ | || |- ! {{small|oral}} |*w |*l |*y | | |- ! {{small|rhotic}} | |*r | | | |} {{notelist}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |+ Proto-Chinantecan Nuclei{{r|Rensch1989|p=11}} |- ! rowspan=2| ! colspan="2" | Palatal ! colspan="2" | Non-Palatal |- ! <small>front</small> || <small>back</small> ! <small>front</small> || <small>back</small> |- ! close | *i | *iu | *ɨ | *u |- ! open | e | *ia | *ə | *a |}

===Phonotactics=== Syllables are typically of the shape (C)V with an optional onset, and in coda position only laryngeal elements and in some languages a nasal consonant. The only initial consonant clusters to occur consist of one of the laryngeal elements ʔ and h followed by a voiced consonant,{{r|Silverman2006}} which in some languages are analyzed as preglottalized or voiceless continuants.{{r|CastilloMartinez2012|p=57}} In some Chinantecan languages, both pre- and post-nuclear glides may combine with the nucleus to form large inventories of diphthongs and triphthongs.{{r|CastilloMartinez2012|pp=88-99}}{{r|Foris2000|pp=16-20}}

Roots are predominantly monosyllabic,{{r|Silverman2006}} as fully inflected words often are as well, although there also exist polysyllabic roots, in some cases possibly reflecting fossilized classifiers,{{r|CastilloMartinez2012|p=100-101}} and roots of up to 4 syllables are reported in Spanish borrowings.{{r|Foris2000|p=29}}

There is typically a set of nasal vowels, a binary length contrast,{{r|Silverman2006}} and in some languages a number of contrastive phonation types,{{r|CastilloMartinez2012|pp=80-84}} which in stressed syllables may potentially all co-occur and cross-classify with tone and ballisticity, generating an extremely large number of contrasting syllable nuclei for a given vowel quality.{{r|Silverman2006}}

===Stress and ballisticity=== Roots in Chinantecan languages are obligatorily stressed,{{r|Silverman2006}} and stress typically falls on the final syllable of the root.{{r|Macaulay1999|p=77}}{{r|Foris2000|p=13}} Often only stressed syllables display the full range of phonological contrasts, and in some languages there may be a tendency to disallow complex tones and codas in non-stressed syllables.{{r|Foris2000|p=14}}

Within stressed syllables, many Chinantecan languages have been analyzed as exhibiting a distinction, also observed in the distantly related Amuzgoan languages,{{r|Dobui2025}} between ballistic stress, characterized by an "initial surge and rapid decay of intensity" and shorter duration among other features, and controlled stress, which "exhibit no such initial surge of intensity, displaying a more evenly controlled decrease of intensity" and are generally longer.{{r|Silverman2006}}{{r|MerrifieldRensch1990}}{{r|Mugele1982}}{{r|Rensch1978}} There is variation in the phonetic realization of ballisticity among Chinantecan languages which are thought to exhibit the contrast, and in others, the typical phonetic correlates of ballisticity are not observed, and the distinction is instead analyzed as being purely tonal {{r|Macaulay1999|p=77}} or one of vowel length.{{r|CastellanosCruz2014|pp=137-138}}

===Tone=== All Chinantecan languages are tonal. Some, such as Usila Chinantec and Ojitlán Chinantec, have five register tones (in addition to contour tones), with the extreme tones deriving historically from ballistic syllables,{{r|EdmonsonGregerson1992}} while San Juan Quiotepec Chinantec has been analyzed as contrasting 6 level tones,{{r|CastellanosCruz2014|pp=168-185}} and 6 contour tones comprising 3 falling and 3 rising contours.{{r|CastellanosCruz2014|pp=186-188}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin:1em auto 1em auto" |+ 6 level tones of SJQ Chinantec, with tonal minimal quintuplet{{r|CastellanosCruz2014|p=168}} ! Tone ! Example ! English Gloss ! Spanish Gloss |- | 6 ˥⁺ | o⁶ | I shout | yo grito |- | 5 ˥ | o⁵ | papaya | papaya |- | 4 ˦ | o⁴ | (s/he) crosses | él cruza |- | 3 ˧ | o³ | to cross | cruzar |- | 2 ˨ | puo² | to plaster | repellar |- | 1 ˩ | o¹ | (s/he) shouted | gritó |}

==Grammar== Grammars are published for Sochiapam Chinantec,{{r|Foris2000}} and a grammar{{r|Merrifield1968}} and a dictionary of Palantla (Tlatepuzco) Chinantec.{{r|MerrifieldAnderson2007}}

===Syntax=== Chinantecan languages have VSO as their unmarked word order, with focused constituents typically being able to be fronted before the verb, and are strongly head-initial, as is the case for most Otomanguean languages.{{r|Silverman2006}} The following examples from San Juan Quiotepec Chinantec demonstrate basic word order facts:{{r|CastilloMartinez2012|p=11}}

{{flex columns |1= {{interlinear |indent=3 |glossing2=yes |glossing3=yes |top=VSO order with transitive verb: |tɘɨtsei²³ seʼ³⁴ do¹ saʼo⁴⁵³ |remember.3.IMPERF Cesar DEM mother.3SG.POSS |V S {} O |{{gloss|Cesar remembers his mother}} }} {{interlinear |indent=3 |glossing2=yes |glossing3=yes |top=VS order with intransitive verb: |gɨ¹ ngɨ²¹ seʼ³⁴ do¹ |PERF walk.3.PERF Cesar DEM |{} V S {} |{{gloss|Cesar walked}} }} |2= {{interlinear |indent=3 |glossing2=yes |glossing3=yes |top=VO order with transitive verb and subject omitted: |tɘɨtsei²³ { saʼo⁴⁵³ } |remember.3.IMPERF {mother.3SG.POSS} |V O |{{gloss|(He) remembers his mother}} }} }}

In Lealao Chinantec, however, default word order in transitive sentences with non-pronominal subjects is VOS:{{r|Rupp1989|pp=38-39}}

{{flex columns |1= {{interlinear |indent=3 |glossing2=yes |glossing3=yes |top=VOS order with non-pronominal subject: |kaᴸ-báᴴ-i hą́ːᴴ zaᴹ nïᴹ |PST-beat.TR.AN.COMPL.3-3 child.3.POSS person that |V O S {} |{{gloss|That person beat his child}} }}

|2={{interlinear |indent=3 |glossing2=yes |glossing3=yes |top=VSO order with pronominal subject: |maᴹ-kúʔᴸ-i hniáᴴ miⱽᴴ-maᴸtaʔⱽᴴ |PST-eat.TR.INAN.COMPL.1SG-1SG 1SG pineapple |V S O |{{gloss|I ate a pineapple}} }} }} Example phrase: :''ca¹-dsén¹=jni chi³ chieh³'' :‘I pulled out the hen (from the box).{{r|MerrifieldAnderson2007|p=52}}

The parts of this sentence are: ''ca¹'' a prefix which marks the past tense, ''dsén¹'' which is the verb stem meaning "to pull out an animate object", the suffix -''jni'' referring to the first person, the noun classifier ''chi³'' and the noun ''chieh³'' meaning chicken.

===Animacy=== Chinantecan languages group nouns into one of two genders based on animacy. Animals, humans, and some natural phenomena such as thunder or stars which are considered spirits in Chinantec mythology are animate, while plants and body parts are inanimate. Animacy is not overtly marked on the noun itself, but adjectives, demonstratives, quantifiers, numerals, and in some languages relativizers agree with the noun they modify in animacy.{{r|Rupp2009|p=3}}{{r|Foris2000|p=234}} In most languages, the reflex of the marker of animate gender involves a nasal element, either nasalization of the stem, or a postvocalic nasal, for which reason Rensch (1989) reconstructs *-ŋ as the proto-Chinantecan marker of animacy. In some languages, however, "the marker is primarily a high front vowel or palatal semivowel," thought to be either cognate with{{r|Palancar2014a|p=70}} or synchronically identical to a 3rd person marker descended from *-i, "but in every case there is some involvement of nasalization," and in other languages, both occur, either together or in complementary distribution.{{r|Rensch1989|p=22-23}} Furthermore, in some languages, animacy agreement with nouns may be marked by changes in tone and stress, stem apophony, and even suppletion.{{r|Palancar2014a|p=7}}

{{flex columns |1= {{interlinear |indent=3 |glossing2=yes |top=Agreement with inanimate noun: |nɨ³ mɨʔ³ tiaa³ ké⁴ ʔi³-nɨ³ |three.INAN basket(INAN) white.INAN of.INAN.1SG REL-that.INAN |{{gloss|Those three white baskets of mine}} }}

|2={{interlinear |indent=3 |glossing2=yes |top=Agreement with animate noun:{{r|Palancar2014a|p=7}} |aa³-y laa⁴ tieé⁴-y kiaá² ʔi³-nɨ³²-y |three.AN-AN mule(AN) white.AN-AN of.AN.1SG REL-that.AN-AN |{{gloss|Those three white mules of mine}} }} }}

Verbs agree with one of their core arguments in animacy as well, following an ergative pattern where intransitive verbs agree with the subject, and transitive verbs agree with the patient. Verbs thus fall into one of at least 4 transitivity-animacy classes, conventionally labelled {{Smallcaps|ii}} (Inanimate Intransitive), {{Smallcaps|ai}} (Animate Intransitive), {{Smallcaps|ti}} (Transitive Inanimate), and {{Smallcaps|ta}} (Transitive Animate), in a scheme like the one used for the Algonquian languages.{{r|Rupp1989|p=24}} The following examples from Tepetotula Chinantec demonstrate the 4 agreement patterns with the verbs ''stand'' ({{smallcaps|ii}}), ''stand'' ({{smallcaps|ai}}), ''leave'' ({{smallcaps|ti}}), ''leave'' ({{smallcaps|ta}}). Note the presence of nasalization and differing vowel quality in the animate verb stems.{{r|Westley1991|pp=23-24}}

{{flex columns |1= {{interlinear |indent=3 |glossing2=yes |top=Intransitive agreement with inanimate subject: |cíʔᴸᴹ cïᴴ-ʔnéᴸᴹ kauᴸᴹ huïᴸᴹ |stand.INAN.NTR.3 CL-house(INAN) beside trail |{{gloss|The house stands beside the trail}} }} {{interlinear |indent=3 |glossing2=yes |top=Transitive agreement with inanimate object: |kaᴹ-tíᴴ zaᴹ cïᴴʔ-néᴸᴹ kióʔᴸᴹ |PST-leave.TR.INAN.COMPL.3 3 CL-house(INAN) of.INAN.3 |{{gloss|He abandoned his house}} }}

|2= {{interlinear |indent=3 |glossing2=yes |top=Intransitive agreement with animate subject: |cę́ʔᴸᴹ zïᴹ-kuaᴴ kauᴸᴹ huïᴸᴹ |stand.AN.NTR.3 CL-horse(AN) beside trail |{{gloss|The horse stands beside the trail}} }} {{interlinear |indent=3 |glossing2=yes |top=Transitive agreement with animate object: |kaᴹ-tę́ᴹ zaᴹ ʔioᴸᴴ kią́ᴸᴹi |PST-leave.TR.AN.COMPL.3 3 woman(AN) of.AN.3 |{{gloss|He abandoned his wife}} }} }}

===Verbs=== Verbs in Chinantecan languages have the following structure: # a number of prefixes which typically co-occur in a fixed order; express categories such as tense, aspect, mood, evidentiality, movement, and posture;{{r|Foris2000|pp=157-159}} and select for only certain tense-aspect forms of the stem; # an obligatory stem, which inflects for 4 core persons ({{abbr|{{sc|1sg}}|first person, singular}}, {{abbr|{{sc|1pl}}|first person, plural}}, {{abbr|{{sc|2}}|second person}}, {{abbr|{{sc|3}}|third person}}) and a number of tense, aspect, and motion categories through a combination of tone, vowel length, ballisticity, glottal coda, and ablaut, the last of which is thought to reflect the alternation between the proto-Chinantecan palatal and non-palatal vowel series;{{r|Rensch1989|pp=21-22}} # suffixes or enclitics which mark certain grammatical persons not distinguished by tone and other internal changes in the verb stem, typically {{abbr|{{sc|2pl}}|second person, plural}}, {{abbr|{{sc|3pl}}|third person, plural}}, and clusivity distinctions in the first-person plural. In some languages, postposed free-standing pronouns are instead used.{{r|Rensch1989|pp=27-28}}

In summary, the full range of tense-aspect-mood distinctions in a language is expressed by the tense-aspect series of the stem in combination with its prefixes, and person by the person series of the stem in combination with its suffixes or free-standing pronouns.

{{interlinear |indent=3 |top=Sochiapam Chinantec verb phrase, verb stem in bold:{{r|Foris2000|p=156}} |abbreviations=MOT:motion |Ñí¹-ca³-ta³-hí¹-chí¹- '''hóh³²''' dáɨn² pih²¹ hñu³ mí²tiéi² |EVID-PAST-CONT-MOT-sustained.PROG- cry.INTR.AN.3 baby little inside shawl |'The little baby in the shawl was evidently constantly crying nonstop (while) hanging (there).'}}

While the shape of the stem used for a given combination of person and tense-aspect-mood may appear unpredictable, "starting from Merrifield (1968), the existing descriptive tradition of Chinantecan languages from the SIL suggests that the entire paradigm of a verb is retrievable from the inflectional information provided by only 12 cells," which represent the product of the 4 core persons, and 3 core tense-aspect categories, termed Progressive, Intentive, and Completive (alternatively Present, Future, and Past, respectively). The form of the stem used for categories beyond the 3 core tense-aspects is thus predictable from one of the 12 forms.{{r|Palancar2014b|p=4}}

==Whistled speech== The Chinantec people have practiced whistled speech since the pre-Columbian era. The high functional load of tone, stress, vowel length, laryngeal configuration, intonation, and rhythm in the Chinantecan languages allows speakers to convey complex messages by transposing the prosodic qualities of the spoken languages onto various whistled registers, even in the complete absence of consonants, vowels, and nasalization.{{r|Sicoli2016}} In Sochiapam Chinantec, the cross-classifying prosodic features produce 31 distinct tone-stress-glottalization patterns, for which 4 distinct styles of whistling are used:

* whistling with the tongue against the alveolar ridge for close-by communication, called {{lang|cso|siɛ²}}, (up to {{convert|10|m|abbr=on}}); * bilabial whistling for mid- to far-distance communication, called {{lang|cso|huɯ³²}}, (up to {{convert|200|m|abbr=on}}); * fingers-in-mouth whistling for far-distance communication, called {{lang|cso|huɔ²}}, (up to {{convert|1|km|abbr=on}} and sometimes more depending on terrain); * falsetto speech for mid- to far-distance communication, called {{lang|cso|hɔ́h³²}}, (up to {{convert|1|km|abbr=on}}).{{r|Foris2000|pp=30-31}}

Whistled speech is typically only used by Chinantec men, although women may also understand it.{{r|Foris2000|p=29}} Use of the whistled language is declining, as modern technology such as walkie-talkies and loudspeakers have made long-distance communication easier.{{r|Schachar2017}}

==Media== Chinantec-language programming is carried by the CDI's radio stations XEOJN, broadcasting from San Lucas Ojitlán, Oaxaca, and XEGLO, broadcasting from Guelatao de Juárez, Oaxaca. <gallery> File:Doctr crist leng chinanteca persignum.pdf|Example of Chinantec in written form from the Biblioteca Cervantina File:Doctr crist leng chinanteca (1).pdf|Example of Chinantec in written form from the Biblioteca Cervantina </gallery>

==References== <references> <ref name="INEGI2020">{{cite web | url=http://cuentame.inegi.org.mx/hipertexto/todas_lenguas.htm | title=Lenguas indígenas y hablantes de 3 años y más, 2020 | publisher=INEGI | website=Censo de Población y Vivienda 2020.}} </ref> <ref name="CastellanosCruz2014">{{cite thesis |last = Castellanos Cruz |first = Miguel |date = 2014-02-28 |title = Complejidad fonológica en el chinanteco de Quiotepec: nasalidad, fonación y tono |url = https://ciesas.repositorioinstitucional.mx/jspui/handle/1015/58 |trans-title = Phonological complexity in Quiotepec Chinantec: Nasality, phonation and tone |degree = Master |language = es }} </ref> <ref name="CastilloMartinez2012">{{cite thesis |last = Castillo Martínez |first = Rafael |date = January 2012 |title = El sistema tonal del chinanteco de San Juan Quiotepec, Oaxaca |url = https://ciesas.repositorioinstitucional.mx/jspui/handle/1015/834 |trans-title = The tonal system of the Chinantec of San Juan Quiotepec, Oaxaca |degree = Master |language = es }} </ref>

<ref name="Dobui2025">{{cite book |last=Dobui |first=Bien |date=2025 |editor1-last=Kuznetsova |editor1-first=Natalia |editor2-last=Anderson |editor2-first=Cormac |editor3-last=Easterday |editor3-first=Shelece |title=Rarities in phonetics and phonology: Structural, typological, evolutionary, and social dimensions |publisher=Language Science Press |pages=309–357 |chapter=A model of non-modal phonation: Ballisticity in Otomanguean languages |doi = 10.5281/zenodo.14712629 }} </ref> <ref name="Palancar2014a">{{cite journal |last1 = Palancar |first1 = Enrique L. |year = 2014 |title = A mixed system of agreement in the suffix classes of Lealao Chinantec |url = https://hal.science/hal-01100738 |journal = Geomorphology |publisher = Elsevier |pages = 1-37 |doi = 10.1007/s11525-014-9252-x }} </ref>

<ref name="Palancar2014b">{{cite encyclopedia | last=Palancar | first=Enrique L. | year=2014 | title=Revisiting the Complexity of the Chinantecan Verb Conjugation Classes | editor-first=Jean-Léo | editor-last=Léonard | editor-first2=Alain | editor-last2=Kihm | encyclopedia=Patterns in Mesoamerican Morphology | pages=77–102 | id=HAL 01100738 | url=https://hal.science/hal-01100738}} </ref> <ref name="Macaulay1999">{{cite journal |last1 = Macaulay |first1 = Monica |date = 1999-01-01 |title = Ojitlán Chinantec Phonology and Morphology |url = https://journals.ku.edu/kwpl/article/view/17259 |journal = Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics |volume = 24 |publisher = University of Kansas Department of Linguistics |pages = 71-84 |doi = 10.17161/KWPL.1808.360 |hdl= 1808/360 |hdl-access= free }} </ref> <ref name="Sicoli2016">{{cite journal |last1 = Sicoli |first1 = Mark A. |date = 2016-06-02 |title = Repair organization in Chinantec whistled speech |journal = Language |volume = 92 |issue = 2 |publisher = Cambridge University Press |pages = 411-432 |doi = 10.1353/lan.2016.0028 }} </ref> <ref name="Torrens2011">{{cite news | first = Claudio | last = Torrens | title = Some NY immigrants cite lack of Spanish as barrier | work = UTSanDiego.com | access-date = 2015-03-02 | date = 2011-05-28 | url = http://www.utsandiego.com/news/2011/may/28/some-ny-immigrants-cite-lack-of-spanish-as-barrier/ }} </ref> <ref name=EglandBartholomew1978>{{cite book | last1=Egland | first1=S. | last2=Bartholomew | first2=D. | year=1978 | title=La inteligibilidad inter-dialectal en Mexico: Resultados de algunos sondeos | location=Mexico, D.F. | publisher=Instituto Linguistico de Verano | url=https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/11/04/82/110482507210623574493487625846127772082/G038b_SondeosInteligibilidad.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202052048/https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/11/04/82/110482507210623574493487625846127772082/G038b_SondeosInteligibilidad.pdf | archive-date=2021-12-02}} </ref> <ref name="MerrifieldRensch1990">{{cite book | editor-last1=Merrifield | editor-first1=William | editor-last2=Rensch | editor-first2=Calvin R. | year=1990 | title=Syllables, Tone, and Verb Paradigms | series=Studies in Chinantec Languages | volume=4 Summer Institute of Linguistics and The University of Texas at Arlington. | url=https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/13/54/18/135418946756544887149911671152189434120/24341.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171212024221/https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/13/54/18/135418946756544887149911671152189434120/24341.pdf | archive-date=2017-12-12 | isbn=0-88312-105-0 | lccn=90-71408}} </ref> <ref name="Mugele1982">{{cite thesis | last=Mugele | first=R. 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Longacre | pages=555–576 | location=Dallas, TX | publisher=Summer Institute of Linguistics}} </ref> <ref name="Foris2000">{{cite book | last=Foris | first=David Paul | year=2000 | title=A grammar of Sochiapam Chinantec | series=Studies in Chinantec languages | volume=6 | location=Dallas, TX | publisher=SIL International and The University of Texas at Arlington}} </ref> <ref name="Rensch1989">{{cite book | last=Rensch | first=Calvin | year=1989 | title=An Etymologial Dictionary of the Chinantec Languages | series=Studies in Chinantec languages | volume=1 | location=Dallas, TX | publisher=SIL International and The University of Texas at Arlington}} </ref> <ref name="Rupp1989">{{cite book | last=Rupp | first=James E. | year=1989 | title=Lealao Chinantec Syntax | series=Studies in Chinantec languages | volume=2 | location=Dallas, TX | publisher=SIL International and The University of Texas at Arlington}} </ref> <ref name="Rupp2009">{{cite journal |last1 = Rupp |first1 = James E. |date = 2009 |title = Animacy in Two Chinantec Variants |url = https://mexico.sil.org/resources/archives/10699 |journal = SIL-Mexico Electronic Working Papers |volume = 7 |publisher = SIL Mexico }} </ref> <ref name="Merrifield1968">{{cite encyclopedia | last=Merrifield | first=William R. | year=1968 | title=Palantla Chinantec grammar | encyclopedia=Papeles de la Chinantla 5 | series=Serie Científica | volume=9 | location=México | publisher=Museo Nacional de Antropología}} </ref> <ref name="MerrifieldAnderson2007">{{cite book | last1=Merrifield | first1=William R. | last2=Anderson | first2=Alfred E. | year=2007 | url=https://www.sil.org/system/files/reapdata/68/87/13/68871389972094178491111684785589164634/cpa_diccionario_ed2.pdf | title=Diccionario Chinanteco de la diáspora del pueblo antiguo de San Pedro Tlatepuzco, Oaxaca | edition=2nd | series=Serie de vocabularios y diccionarios indígenas “Mariano Silva y Aceves” | volume=39 | location=Mexico DF | publisher=Summer Linguistic Institute}} </ref> <ref name="Schachar2017">{{cite web | last1=Schachar | first1=Natalie | title=The decline of Chinantec whistled speech in Mexico | url=https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2017/08/decline-chinantec-whistled-speech-mexico-170829080342078.html | publisher=Al Jazeera | access-date=15 July 2019 | date=8 September 2017}} </ref> <ref name="Westley1991">{{cite book | last=Westley | first=David O. | year=1991 | title=Tepetotutla Chinantec Syntax | series=Studies in Chinantec languages | volume=5 | location=Dallas, TX | publisher=SIL International and The University of Texas at Arlington}} </ref> </references>

==External links== {{commonscat|Chinatecan languages}} {{sister project |project=wiktionary |text=Wiktionary has a list of reconstructed forms at '''''Appendix:Proto-Chinantec reconstructions'''''}} * The Chinantec language family [http://www.sil.org/mexico/chinanteca/00i-chinanteca.htm (SIL-Mexico)] * Feist, Timothy & Enrique L. Palancar. (2015). [http://www.oto-manguean.surrey.ac.uk/Info/CPA ''Oto-Manguean Inflectional Class Database: Tlatepuzco Chinantec'']. University of Surrey. doi:10.15126/SMG.28/1.01 {{Chinantecan languages}} {{Oto-Manguean languages}} {{Languages of Mexico}}

Category:Indigenous peoples of Mexico Category:Chinantec languages