{{Short description|Aspect of organizational theory}} {{Psychology sidebar}} '''Intergroup relations''' are interactions between individuals in different social groups, and interactions taking place between the groups themselves collectively. It has long been a subject of research in social psychology, political psychology, and organizational behavior.<ref name="iess">{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Intergroup Relations|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences/applied-and-social-sciences-magazines/intergroup-relations|date=2008|language=|encyclopedia=International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences|access-date=2018-01-07}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|year=2014|encyclopedia=Wiley Encyclopedia of Management|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|doi=10.1002/9781118785317.weom110172|last1=Kramer|first1=Roderick M.|pages=1–3|last2=Schaffer|first2=Jennifer|isbn=978-1-118-78531-7|chapter=Intergroup Relations}}</ref>
In 1966, Muzafer Sherif proposed a now-widely recognized definition of intergroup relations:
{{Blockquote|Whenever individuals belonging to one group interact, collectively or individually, with another group or its members in terms of their group identification, we have an instance of intergroup behavior.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Intergroup relations|url=http://www.blackwellreference.com/public/tocnode?id=g9780631233176_chunk_g978063123536113_ss2-18|encyclopedia=The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Management|access-date=2018-01-07}}</ref>}}
Research on intergroup relations involves the study of many psychological phenomena related to intergroup processes including social identity, prejudice, group dynamics, and conformity among many others. Research in this area has been shaped by many notable figures and continues to provide empirical insights into modern social issues such as social inequality and discrimination.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book|title=Social psychology|last=M.|first=Kassin, Saul|date=2011|publisher=Cengage Wadsworth|others=Fein, Steven., Markus, Hazel Rose.|isbn=978-0-495-81240-1|edition= 8th|location=Belmont, CA|oclc=637074045}}</ref>
== History == While philosophers and thinkers have written about topics related to intergroup relations dating back to Aristotle's ''Politics,''<ref>{{Cite book|title=Aristotle's Politics: critical essays|date=2005|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|others=Kraut, Richard, 1944-, Skultety, Steven.|isbn=978-0-7425-3423-0|location=Lanham|oclc=59879503}}</ref> the psychological study of group attitudes and behavior began in the late 19th century.<ref name=":7">Allport, G. W (1985). "The historical background of social psychology". In Lindzey, G; Aronson, E. The Handbook of Social Psychology. New York: McGraw Hill.p.5</ref> One of the earliest scientific publications on group processes is ''The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind'', written in 1895 by French doctor and scientist Gustave Le Bon. Le Bon proposed that a group of individuals is different from the sum of its parts (often paraphrased as "a group is more than the sum of its parts"). This fundamental idea of crowd psychology states that when individuals form a group, this group behaves differently than each individual would normally act. Le Bon theorized that when individuals formed a group or crowd, there would emerge a new psychological construct which would be shaped by the group's "[[Racial unconscious|racial [collective] unconscious]]."<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Crowds in the 21st century: perspectives from contemporary social science|others=Drury, John., Stott, Clifford John T.|date=8 June 2015|isbn=978-1-138-92291-4|location=Abingdon, Oxfordshire|oclc=925485880}}</ref> Le Bon put forth three phenomena that explained crowd behavior: ''submergence'' (or ''anonymity''), when individuals lose their sense of self and responsibility by joining a crowd, ''contagion'', the tendency for individuals in a crowd to follow the beliefs and behaviors of the crowd, and ''suggestion'', which refers to how the beliefs and behaviors of the crowd are shaped by a shared racial unconscious.<ref name=":2" /> Subsequent generations of intergroup relations and social influence researchers built from these foundational ideas and explored them through empirical studies.<ref name=":7" />
The empirical study of intergroup relations, as well as the broader field of social psychology, grew tremendously in the years following World War II. The events of World War II, including the rise of Adolf Hitler and Fascism, the Holocaust, and the widespread use of propaganda, led many social scientists to study intergroup conflict, obedience, conformity, dehumanization, and other related phenomena.<ref name=":7" /> Social scientists were interested in understanding the behavior of the German population under Nazi rule, specifically how their attitudes were influenced by propaganda and how so many could obey orders to carry out or support the mass murder of Jews and other minority groups as part of the Holocaust.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Handbook of social psychology|date=1985|publisher=Random House|others=Lindzey, Gardner; Aronson, Elliot|isbn=978-0-394-35049-3|edition= 3rd|location=New York|oclc=11112922}}</ref> Several prominent social psychologists were directly affected by the Nazi's actions because of their Jewish faith, including Kurt Lewin, Fritz Heider, and Solomon Asch. Muzafer Sherif was briefly detained by the Turkish government in 1944 for his pro-communist and anti-fascist beliefs.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Norms, groups, conflict, and social change: rediscovering Muzafer Sherif's psychology|others=Dost-Gozkan, Ayfer., Keith, Doga Sonmez.|isbn=978-1-4128-5505-1|location=New Brunswick, New Jersey|oclc=879600152|last1 = Dost-Gozkan|first1 = Ayfer|year=2015}}</ref> These scientists would draw from these experiences and go on to make major theoretical contributions to intergroup relations research as well as the broader field of psychology.<ref name=":0" />
The cognitive revolution in psychology in the 1950s and 60s led researchers to study how cognitive biases and heuristics influence beliefs and behavior.<ref name=":7" /> The resulting focus on cognitive processes and meaning-making represented a significant shift away from the mainstream behaviorist philosophy that shaped much of psychology research in the first half of the 20th century.<ref name=":4">{{Citation|last=Thagard|first=Paul|title=Cognitive Science|date=2018|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2018/entries/cognitive-science/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition= Winter 2018|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=2018-11-25}}</ref> During and after the cognitive revolution, intergroup relations researchers began to study cognitive biases, heuristics, and stereotypes and their influences on beliefs and behavior.<ref name=":4" /> Solomon Asch's studies on conformity in the 1950s were among the first experiments to explore how a cognitive process (the need to conform to the behavior of the group) could override individual preferences to directly influence behavior.<ref name=":3" /> Leon Festinger also focused on cognitive processes in developing cognitive dissonance theory,<ref>Festinger, L. (1957) Cognitive dissonance. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.</ref> which Elliot Aronson and other researchers would later build upon to describe how individuals feel liking for a group they were initiated into but whose views they may not agree with.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Aronson|first1=Elliot|last2=Mills|first2=Judson|date=1959|title=The effect of severity of initiation on liking for a group|journal=The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology|volume=59|issue=2|pages=177–181|doi=10.1037/h0047195|issn=0096-851X|citeseerx=10.1.1.368.1481}}</ref>
The Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 60s led social scientists to study prejudice, discrimination, and collective action in the context of race in America. In 1952, the NAACP put out a call for social science research to further study these issues in light of the Brown v. Board of Education lawsuit.<ref>Kluger, R. (2011). ''Simple justice: The history of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America's struggle for equality''. Vintage. {{ISBN?}}{{page?|date=November 2023}}</ref> Gordon Allport's 1954 book ''The Nature of Prejudice'' provided the first theoretical framework for understanding and counteracting prejudice, and cemented prejudice as a central focus of social psychology.<ref name="iess" /> In his book, Allport proposed the contact hypothesis which states that interpersonal contact, under the correct conditions, can be an effective means of reducing prejudice, discrimination, and reliance on stereotypes.<ref name="iess" /><ref name=":5" /> Subsequent generations of scientists built on and applied Allport's contact hypothesis to other domains of prejudice including sexism, homophobia, and ableism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pettigrew|first1=Thomas F.|last2=Tropp|first2=Linda R.|date=2006|title=A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory.|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|language=en|volume=90|issue=5|pages=751–783|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751|pmid=16737372|s2cid=14149856 |issn=1939-1315|author-link1=Thomas F. Pettigrew (sociologist)}}</ref>
In 1967, Martin Luther King spoke at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association urging social scientists to advance causes of social justice in their research.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=King|first=Martin Luther|date=1968|title=The Role of the Behavioral Scientist in the Civil Rights Movement|journal=Journal of Social Issues|language=en|volume=24|issue=1|pages=180–186|doi=10.1111/j.1540-4560.1968.tb01465.x|pmid=5643229|s2cid=46520668 |issn=0022-4537}}</ref> In his speech, King called on scientists to study many topics related to the civil rights movement, including the barriers to upward social mobility for African Americans, political engagement and action in the African American community, and the processes of psychological and ideological change among African Americans and Whites.<ref name=":1" />
Intergroup relations research in the final decades of the 20th century refined earlier theories and applied insights from the field in real-world settings. For example, Lee Ross applied his research on correspondence biases and attributional errors in his work on the conflict resolution process in Northern Ireland during The Troubles.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ravindran | first1 = Sandeep | year = 2012 | title = Profile of Lee D. Ross | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 109 | issue = 19| pages = 7132–7133 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1205295109 | pmid = 22517739 | pmc = 3358840 | bibcode = 2012PNAS..109.7132R | doi-access = free }}</ref>
Other researchers have focused on positive elements of intergroup behavior, including helping, cooperation, and altruism between groups.<ref>Dovidio, J. F., Piliavin, J. A., Schroeder, D. A. & Penner, L. A. (2006). The social psychology of pro-social behavior. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.</ref><ref>Van Vugt, M., Snyder, M., Tyler, T. & Biel, A. (2000). Cooperation in modern society: Promoting the welfare of communities, states, and organisations p. 245. London: Routledge. {{ISBN?}} </ref> One example of this is a recent field study by Betsy Paluck and colleagues, where they used a radio drama infused with positive social norms to increase reconciliation behaviors and attitudes among an entire village in Rwanda.<ref>Paluck, E.L. & Green, D.P. (2009). Deference, dissent, and dispute resolution: A field experiment on a mass media intervention in Rwanda. ''American Political Science Review,'' 103(4'')'', 622–644''.''</ref>
Researchers have also applied intergroup theories to workplace settings; one such example is Richard Hackman's work on creating and managing groups or teams in the workplace. Hackman proposed that teams and work groups are successful when specific conditions are met. Specifically, when members of the team and their clients are satisfied, team members are able to grow professionally, and team members find their work meaningful.<ref name=":12">J. Richard Hackman (2002). ''Leading Teams: Setting the Stage for Great Performances''. Harvard Business Press.{{iSBN?}}{{page?|date=November 2023}}</ref>
The advancement of technology has also shaped the study of intergroup relations, first with the adoption of computer software and later with the utilization of neuro-imaging techniques such as fMRI.<ref name=":0" /> One example of psychologists leveraging new technology to advance intergroup relations research is the implicit-association test (IAT), developed by Anthony Greenwald and colleagues in 1998 as a means to measure the strength of implicit (automatic) association of between different mental representations of objects.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Greenwald|first1=Anthony G.|last2=McGhee|first2=Debbie E.|last3=Schwartz|first3=Jordan L. K.|date=1998|title=Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test.|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=74|issue=6|pages=1464–1480|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464|issn=1939-1315|citeseerx=10.1.1.489.4611|pmid=9654756|s2cid=7840819 }}</ref> The IAT is commonly used to measure the strength of implicit bias for a variety of constructs including gender-workplace stereotypes and stereotypes about race.<ref>"Web of Science Journal Citation Reports". Web of Science. 2018. Retrieved November 25, 2018.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nosek|first1=Brian A.|last2=Banaji|first2=Mahzarin R.|date=2005|title=The Go/No-Go Association Task|journal=Social Cognition|volume=19|issue=6|pages=625–666|doi=10.1521/soco.19.6.625.20886|issn=0278-016X|url=http://psyarxiv.com/4ed36/}}</ref>
== Foundational theories == Theories about intergroup relations provide insight into how prejudice and conflict arise and how they can be reduced. The Social Identity Theory and Contact Theory are the basic theories to support this concept. According to the Social Identity Theory, an individual would define themselves by their social group partially. To enhance their status, they would have a higher probability of exhibiting in-group favouritism and discrimination against out-groups, which harms the harmony of the intergroup.<ref>{{Cite web |title=An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict |url=https://library.alnap.org/help-library/an-integrative-theory-of-intergroup-conflict |access-date=2024-12-15 |website=library.alnap.org |date=January 1979 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Rupert |date=2000 |title=Social identity theory: past achievements, current problems and future challenges |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/1099-0992(200011/12)30:6%3C745::AID-EJSP24%3E3.0.CO;2-O |journal=European Journal of Social Psychology |language=en |volume=30 |issue=6 |pages=745–778 |doi=10.1002/1099-0992(200011/12)30:6<745::AID-EJSP24>3.0.CO;2-O |issn=1099-0992}}</ref> However, when an identity shared beyond a single group is possible, this can reduce intergroup bias and even enhance cooperation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gaertner |first1=Samuel L. |last2=Dovidio |first2=John F. |last3=Rust |first3=Mary C. |last4=Nier |first4=Jason A. |last5=Banker |first5=Brenda S. |last6=Ward |first6=Christine M. |last7=Mottola |first7=Gary R. |last8=Houlette |first8=Missy |date=1999 |title=Reducing intergroup bias: Elements of intergroup cooperation. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.76.3.388 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |language=en |volume=76 |issue=3 |pages=388–402 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.76.3.388 |pmid=10101876 |issn=1939-1315|url-access=subscription }}</ref> There might be defensive behaviours, as this theory highlights the role of subgroup identity threats, which supports greater harmony when these threats have been addressed.
=== Contact hypothesis === {{Main|Contact hypothesis}}Gordon Allport developed this hypothesis, which states that contact with members of another social group in the appropriate circumstances can lead to a reduction of prejudice between majority and minority group members.<ref name=":5" /> There are three psychological processes underlying the contact hypothesis: learning about the outgroup through direct contact, fear and anxiety reduction when interacting with the outgroup, and increased ability to perspective take and empathize with the outgroup which results in reduced negative evaluation.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Stephan | first1 = W. G. | last2 = Stephan | first2 = C. W. | year = 1985 | title = Intergroup anxiety | journal = Journal of Social Issues | volume = 41 | issue = 3| pages = 157–175 | doi = 10.1111/j.1540-4560.1985.tb01134.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Stephan | first1 = W. G. | last2 = Finlay | first2 = K. | year = 1999 | title = The role of empathy in improving intergroup relations | journal = Journal of Social Issues | volume = 55 | issue = 4| pages = 729–743 | doi = 10.1111/0022-4537.00144 }}</ref> These processes take place optimally when four conditions are met. Groups must:
# Have relatively equal status # Have shared goals # Be able to cooperate with each other # Recognize an authority or law that supports interactions between the two groups.<ref name=":5" />
Some researchers have critiqued the contact hypothesis, specifically its generalizability and the fact that intergroup contact can result in an increase rather than decrease in prejudice.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Dixon | first1 = John | last2 = Durrheim | first2 = Kevin | last3 = Tredoux | first3 = Colin | year = 2005 | title = Beyond the optimal contact strategy: A reality check for the contact hypothesis | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 60 | issue = 7| pages = 697–711 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066x.60.7.697 | pmid = 16221003 | bibcode = 2005AmPsy..60..697D }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Barlow | first1 = F. K. | last2 = Paolini | first2 = S. | last3 = Pedersen | first3 = A. | last4 = Hornsey | first4 = M. J. | last5 = Radke | first5 = H. R. M. | last6 = Harwood | first6 = J. | last7 = Rubin | first7 = M. | last8 = Sibley | first8 = C. G. | year = 2012 | title = The contact caveat: Negative contact predicts increased prejudice more than positive contact predicts reduced prejudice | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 38 | issue = 12| pages = 1629–1643 | doi = 10.1177/0146167212457953 | pmid = 22941796 | s2cid = 24346499 | hdl = 1959.13/941028 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>
The Contact Hypothesis mentions an approach to reduce prejudice and improve relationships in specific conditions is to have meaningful interactions between individuals from different intergroups. The conditions would be having an equal status among different groups and having cooperative goals, which requires the collaboration of the group.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dixon |first1=John |last2=Durrheim |first2=Kevin |last3=Tredoux |first3=Colin |date=October 2005 |title=Beyond the optimal contact strategy: a reality check for the contact hypothesis |journal=The American Psychologist |volume=60 |issue=7 |pages=697–711 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.60.7.697 |issn=0003-066X |pmid=16221003 |bibcode=2005AmPsy..60..697D }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gaertner |first1=Samuel L. |last2=Dovidio |first2=John F. |last3=Anastasio |first3=Phyllis A. |last4=Bachman |first4=Betty A. |last5=Rust |first5=Mary C. |date=1993-01-01 |title=The Common Ingroup Identity Model: Recategorization and the Reduction of Intergroup Bias |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14792779343000004 |journal=European Review of Social Psychology |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.1080/14792779343000004 |issn=1046-3283|url-access=subscription }}</ref> These conditions would be effective in diminishing prejudice. Also, having positive contact with institutional support and opportunities for personal interactions to challenge stereotypes would be a special condition for aiming the target. Based on this hypothesis, it reduces intergroup anxiety, increases empathy, and strengthens interpersonal connections. Moreover, the interactions would challenge stereotypes and promote mutual understanding, reducing intergroup tensions, which is essential for fostering intergroup harmony.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Paolini |first1=Stefania |last2=Harwood |first2=Jake |last3=Rubin |first3=Mark |date=2010-12-01 |title=Negative Intergroup Contact Makes Group Memberships Salient: Explaining Why Intergroup Conflict Endures |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0146167210388667 |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin |language=en |volume=36 |issue=12 |pages=1723–1738 |doi=10.1177/0146167210388667 |pmid=21051766 |hdl=1959.13/929005 |issn=0146-1672|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pettigrew |first1=Thomas F. |last2=Tropp |first2=Linda R. |date=2006 |title=A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |language=en |volume=90 |issue=5 |pages=751–783 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751 |pmid=16737372 |issn=1939-1315|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
=== Realistic conflict theory === {{Main|Realistic conflict theory}}Realistic Conflict Theory (RCT), also known as Realistic Group Conflict Theory (RGCT), is a model of intergroup conflict that describes how conflict and prejudice between groups stems from conflicting goals and competition for limited resources.<ref>Jackson, Jay W (1993). "Realistic Group Conflict Theory: A Review and Evaluation of the Theoretical and Empirical Literature". Psychological Record. 43 (3): 395–415.</ref> Groups may compete for concrete resources such as money and land or abstract resources such as political power and social status which leads to hostility-perpetuating zero-sum beliefs.<ref>Baumeister, R.F. & Vohs, K.D. (2007). "Realistic Group Conflict Theory". Encyclopedia of Social Psychology. 2: 725–726.</ref> The RCT was originally proposed by Donald T. Campbell and was later elaborated on in classic experiments by Muzafer Sherif and Carolyn Wood Sherif.<ref>Campbell, D.T. (1965). Ethnocentric and Other Altruistic Motives. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. pp. 283–311.</ref><ref name="Sherif, M. 1961 pp. 155">Sherif, M.; Harvey, O.J.; White, B.J.; Hood, W. & Sherif, C.W. (1961). Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation: The Robbers Cave Experiment. Norman, OK: The University Book Exchange. pp. 155–184.</ref> The Sherifs' Robbers Cave experiment provided evidence for the RCT by arbitrarily assigning boys at a summer camp with similar backgrounds to different groups. The boys in these groups then competed with each other and elicited hostile outgroup beliefs until a superordinate, cooperative goal was imposed that required the groups to work together resulted in decreased feelings of hostility.<ref name="Sherif, M. 1961 pp. 155"/> Sherif maintained that group behavior cannot result from an analysis of individual behavior and that intergroup conflict, particularly those driven by the competition for scarce resources, creates ethnocentrism.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of group processes & intergroup relations|date=2010|publisher=SAGE Publications|others=Levine, John M., Hogg, Michael A., 1954|isbn=978-1-4522-6150-8|location=New Delhi.|oclc=762247542}}</ref>
The Robbers Cave Experiment was conducted in 1954 and was designed to test theories of intergroup conflict. The experiment was designed so that there were two groups of campers, the Eagles and the Rattlers. As the independent variable, experimenters devoided the campers of certain rewards and resources. It was found that when there is a limited amount of resources, there will inevitably be conflict between the groups to fight for those resources. Each group in this experiment also did not see the other group as more or even equally favorable as their own. In the end, this competition eventually led to violence and was broken up only through working together (contact theory). This showed that even if you begin unaffiliated with a group, as soon as you find a group that you associate yourself with (become part of in-group), you will take on the qualities and characteristics of the individuals in that group; whatever that group norm is, you inherent as your own.
Source: University of Oklahoma. Institute of Group Relations, and Muzafer Sherif. ''Intergroup conflict and cooperation: The Robbers Cave experiment''. Vol. 10. Norman, OK: University Book Exchange, 1961.
=== Social identity approach === {{Main|Social identity approach|Self-categorization theory|Social identity theory}}In the 1970s and 80s, Henri Tajfel and John Turner proposed two connected theories of social identity, self-categorization theory and social identity theory, that together form a method for understanding the psychological processes underlying how individuals make sense of their identities and group membership.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Rediscovering social identity: key readings|date=2010|publisher=Psychology Press|others=Postmes, T. (Tom), Branscombe, Nyla R.|isbn=978-1-84169-491-7|location=New York, NY|oclc=457164088}}</ref>
Self-categorization theory explains the contexts in which an individual perceives a collection of people as a group and the psychological processes that result from an individual perceiving people in terms of a group.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Stereotyping and social reality|last=J.|first=Oakes, Penelope|date=1994|publisher=Blackwell|others=Haslam, S. Alexander., Turner, John C., 1947-|isbn=978-0-631-18871-1|location=Oxford, UK|oclc=28221607}}</ref>
Social identity theory describes how individual identity is shaped by membership in a social group.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Social psychology of intergroup relations|date=1979|publisher=Brooks/Cole Pub. Co|others=Austin, William G., Worchel, Stephen.|isbn=978-0-8185-0278-1|location=Monterey, Calif.|oclc=4194174}}</ref> It also predicts differences in intergroup behavior based on perceived status differences between social groups, the legitimacy and stability of those perceived status differences, and ability to move between social groups.<ref>Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). "An integrative theory of intergroup conflict". In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel. ''The social psychology of intergroup relations''. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole. pp. 33–47.</ref><ref>Turner, J. C. (1999). Ellemers, N.; Spears, R.; Doosje, B., eds. "Some current issues in research on social identity and self-categorization theories". ''Social identity''. Oxford: Blackwell: 6–34.</ref>
The social identity approach has had a wide-ranging impact on social psychology, influencing theory on topics such as social influence,<ref name=":10">Turner, J. C. (1991). Social influence. Milton Keynes: Open University Press.</ref> self-stereotyping,<ref>McGarty, C. (1999). Categorization in social psychology. Sage Publications: London, Thousand Oaks, New Delhi.</ref> and personality.<ref>Turner, J. C.; Onorato, R. S. (1998). Tyler, T. R.; Kramer, R. M.; John, O. P., eds. "Social identity, personality, and the self-concept: A self-categorization perspective". The Psychology of the Social Self: 11–46.</ref>
==Harmony== '''Intergroup harmony''' refers to having a positive and harmonious relationship within the group. The characteristic of this concept is that the members within the same group respect each other, and prejudice and conflict are reduced.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Banker |first1=Brenda S. |last2=Gaertner |first2=Samuel L. |date=September 1998 |title=Achieving stepfamily harmony: An intergroup-relations approach. |url=https://doi.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0893-3200.12.3.310 |journal=Journal of Family Psychology |language=en |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=310–325 |doi=10.1037/0893-3200.12.3.310 |issn=1939-1293|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The main component of this concept would be the members within the same group having equal status and cooperation among the group. This is essential for cultivating intergroup harmony because cooperation and equal status create a condition to reduce bias and enhance mutual understanding within the group.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hornsey |first1=Matthew J. |last2=Hogg |first2=Michael A. |date=2000-05-01 |title=Assimilation and Diversity: An Integrative Model of Subgroup Relations |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0402_03 |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Review |language=en |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=143–156 |doi=10.1207/S15327957PSPR0402_03 |issn=1088-8683|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=White |first1=Fiona A. |last2=Abu-Rayya |first2=Hisham M. |date=2012-05-01 |title=A dual identity-electronic contact (DIEC) experiment promoting short- and long-term intergroup harmony |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022103112000108 |journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=597–608 |doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2012.01.007 |issn=0022-1031|url-access=subscription }}</ref> There are several approaches to foster harmony among the group. One of the methods is keeping positive intergroup contact, which helps reduce stereotypes and prejudices. Also, using dual-identity frameworks and electronic contact would be effective in improving relationships and alleviating intergroup anxiety. However, there is a possibility that intergroup harmony brings negative impacts to the group. Harmony may sustain inequalities if there are power imbalances that have not yet been addressed and the intervention did not consider social, political, and cultural contexts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Guimond |first1=Serge |last2=de la Sablonnière |first2=Roxane |last3=Nugier |first3=Armelle |date=2014-01-01 |title=Living in a multicultural world: Intergroup ideologies and the societal context of intergroup relations |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10463283.2014.957578 |journal=European Review of Social Psychology |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=142–188 |doi=10.1080/10463283.2014.957578 |issn=1046-3283|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Saguy |first=Tamar |date=2018-03-01 |title=Downside of Intergroup Harmony? When Reconciliation Might Backfire and What to Do |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2372732217747085 |journal=Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=75–81 |doi=10.1177/2372732217747085 |issn=2372-7322|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This concept is provided by the Social Identity Theory and Contact Theory and is the theoretical basis for understanding and improving intergroup relations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hornsey |first1=Matthew J. |last2=Hogg |first2=Michael A. |date=May 2000 |title=Assimilation and Diversity: An Integrative Model of Subgroup Relations |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0402_03 |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Review |language=en |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=143–156 |doi=10.1207/S15327957PSPR0402_03 |issn=1088-8683|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
'''Intergroup harmony''' is also a branch of social psychology which is often studied within the framework of Social Identity Theory<ref name=":0b">Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). "An integrative theory of intergroup conflict." In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), ''The social psychology of intergroup relations'' (pp. 33-47). Monterey, CA: Brooks-Cole.</ref> It is important for many reasons including reduced prejudice,<ref name=":1a">Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. ''Reading/Addison-Wesley''.</ref> increased psychological well-being,<ref name=":2a">Stephan, W. G., & Stephan, C. W. (2013). An integrated threat theory of prejudice. In ''Reducing prejudice and discrimination,'' 23-45. Psychology Press.</ref> increased economic status,<ref name=":3a">Putnam, R.D. (2007), ''E Pluribus Unum'': Diversity and Community in the Twenty-first Century The 2006 Johan Skytte Prize Lecture. Scandinavian Political Studies, 30: 137-174. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9477.2007.00176.x</nowiki></ref> and increased identity security for members of both groups.<ref name=":0b" /> Two main theories have been put forward for the achievement of intergroup harmony. The contact hypothesis suggests that increased contact leads to higher levels of harmony, and the presence of subordinate goals can help groups in conflict to overcome their differences. Intergroup harmony can be applied in many real world applications including in education, the workplace and family dynamics; however there have also been criticisms for this theory, as not all situations of intergroup harmony will lead to a positive outcome.
=== Background === This concept is based on the experiments done by Muzafer Sherif and Henri Tajfel respectively. The experiment done by Muzafer Sherif is the Robbers Cave Experiment. He demonstrated competition for resources and shared goals could shape the forming of group conflict and cooperation. He also suggested that intergroup hostility can be mitigated by introducing superordinate goals to promote cooperation.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-27 |title=Robbers Cave Experiment {{!}} Realistic Conflict Theory |url=https://www.simplypsychology.org/robbers-cave.html |access-date=2024-12-15 |language=en-US}}</ref> Henri Tajfel did another experiment in the "minimal group paradigm" experiments. This experiment shows that when there is no competition, intergroup bias arises by separating the members into different categories.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sherif |first=Muzafer |date=1958 |title=Superordinate Goals in the Reduction of Intergroup Conflict |journal=American Journal of Sociology |volume=63 |issue=4 |pages=349–356 |doi=10.1086/222258 |jstor=2774135 |issn=0002-9602}}</ref> Also, according to the Intergroup Threat Theory (2015), attitudes and behaviours towards outgroups would be influenced by the realistic or symbolic threats perceived.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rios |first1=Kimberly |last2=Sosa |first2=Nicholas |last3=Osborn |first3=Hannah |date=January 2018 |title=An experimental approach to Intergroup Threat Theory: Manipulations, moderators, and consequences of realistic vs. symbolic threat |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10463283.2018.1537049 |journal=European Review of Social Psychology |language=en |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=212–255 |doi=10.1080/10463283.2018.1537049 |issn=1046-3283|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Moreover, Vescio et al. (2004) suggested and verified the Crossed-Categorization Hypothesis. In this hypothesis, a conclusion is that intergroup bias would be reduced by weakening category distinctions when any categories overlap.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Vescio |first1=Theresa K |last2=Judd |first2=Charles M |last3=Kwan |first3=Virginia S. Y |date=2004-07-01 |title=The crossed-categorization hypothesis: Evidence of reductions in the strength of categorization, but not intergroup bias |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002210310300163X |journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=478–496 |doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2003.09.005 |issn=0022-1031|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This hypothesis provides thoughts on cultivating intergroup harmony, although there would still be bias because of the existence of in-group favouritism or prejudice.
There are multiple experts who contribute to this theory. Muzafer Sherif is one of the professionals who is famous for foundational experiments on conflict and cooperation in groups. The Robbers Cave Experiment is one of his well-known experiments that contributes to the concepts of intergroup harmony. Henri Tajfel is another expert. He is the developer of the Social Identity Theory, and he also suggested the minimal group paradigm" experiments. These two theories are essential for the study of intergroup harmony.
=== Definition and importance === Intergroup harmony can be defined as the state of peaceful coexistence between the members of different societal, cultural, political, ethnic or identity groups, where there is an understanding from both groups to achieve common, shared goals, and a reduction in feelings of prejudice, discrimination or stereotyping.<ref name=":1a" /><ref name=":4a">Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2006). A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. ''Journal of personality and social psychology'', ''90''(5), 751.</ref><ref name=":5a">Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup contact theory. ''Annual review of psychology'', ''49''(1), 65-85.</ref> On the intergroup relations continuum (IRC), harmony falls on the extreme, with conflict as the other extreme, and is viewed as the goal for group situations, due to the minimal prejudice that occurs,<ref name=":6a">Sugden, J. (2017). ''Sport and integration: An exploration of group identity and intergroup relations in Fiji'' (Doctoral dissertation, University of Technology Sydney (Australia)).</ref> and is therefore essential for enhancing and enriching collaboration in diverse societies and its importance has led to many decades of research about the most effective way to reach the optimum level of intergroup harmony.
Intergroup harmony varies cross-culturally.<ref name=":7a">Karremans, J. C., Regalia, C., Paleari, F. G., Fincham, F. D., Cui, M., Takada, N., Ohbuchi, K.-I., Terzino, K., Cross, S. E., & Uskul, A. K. (2011). Maintaining Harmony Across the Globe: The Cross-Cultural Association Between Closeness and Interpersonal Forgiveness. ''Social Psychological and Personality Science'', ''2''(5), 443-451. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550610396957</nowiki></ref> There are currently two well-recognised cultures in the world: collectivist and individualistic. To measure the cross-cultural differences between intergroup harmony, one study measured the levels of interpersonal forgiveness of a person depending on how close they feel to the offender.<ref name=":7a" /> It was found that in both cultures there is a positive association between closeness to offender and forgiveness; however, in collectivist cultures, this association was weaker, due to the social norms of collectivist cultures in maintaining a level of intergroup harmony in the community, which could not be maintained by the offender.<ref>Markus, H. R. (1991). Cultural variation in the self-concept. ''The Self: Interdisplinary approaches/Springer''.</ref> This demonstrates the differences in cultures, where intergroup harmony is more highly emphasised in collectivist cultures.
The main, and arguably, most important reason for promoting, achieving and maintaining intergroup harmony is the reduction of prejudice and discrimination between groups of people. Lower levels of stereotyping and biases lead to lower levels of violence and tension between groups, creating a peaceful coexistence.<ref name=":1a" /><ref name=":4a" /> Another reason for the importance of intergroup harmony is the increase in psychological well-being for members of all groups.<ref name=":2a" /> When group members experience negative interactions with other groups, this can lead to enhanced feelings of anxiety, stress, worry or even fear, therefore reaching a state of harmony will decrease these negative emotions, leading to higher levels of wellbeing.<ref name=":2a" /> This can also lead to higher levels of economic success in certain communities, where as intergroup harmony has increased, the need to spend money on legal disputes or civil unrest is decreased, meaning the money can be used in other domains, to improve the economy or create more opportunity for the members of the community.<ref name=":3a" /> It leads to higher levels of identity security, as people feel a sense of belonging to a wider group, therefore they can maintain their own unique identity, without the worry of being marginalised or isolated within their own group.<ref name=":0b" />
=== Influences on society === Intergroup harmony brings positive and negative influences. The first positive influence would be reducing prejudice and stereotypes. Various studies illustrate that prejudice declines when attitudes toward out-groups in a harmonious intergroup relationship are improved, even if the members are being threatened or discriminated against. There is a meta-analysis display of the positive impact of reducing prejudice and having intergroup contact.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Van Assche |first1=Jasper |last2=Swart |first2=Hermann |last3=Schmid |first3=Katharina |last4=Dhont |first4=Kristof |last5=Al Ramiah |first5=Ananthi |last6=Christ |first6=Oliver |last7=Kauff |first7=Mathias |last8=Rothmann |first8=Sebastiaan |last9=Savelkoul |first9=Michael |last10=Tausch |first10=Nicole |last11=Wölfer |first11=Ralf |last12=Zahreddine |first12=Sarah |last13=Saleem |first13=Muniba |last14=Hewstone |first14=Miles |date=September 2023 |title=Intergroup contact is reliably associated with reduced prejudice, even in the face of group threat and discrimination |journal=The American Psychologist |volume=78 |issue=6 |pages=761–774 |doi=10.1037/amp0001144 |issn=1935-990X |pmid=36892922|hdl=10023/27484 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Reducing anxiety about interacting with members from the out-group, and having empathy and perspective-taking are the mechanisms for having this benefit. At the community level, positive intergroup interactions are common, and this would make it simpler to influence social norms and reduce stereotypes even if there is not existing any direct contact between individuals, especially in this diverse society.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Christ |first1=Oliver |last2=Schmid |first2=Katharina |last3=Lolliot |first3=Simon |last4=Swart |first4=Hermann |last5=Stolle |first5=Dietlind |last6=Tausch |first6=Nicole |last7=Al Ramiah |first7=Ananthi |last8=Wagner |first8=Ulrich |last9=Vertovec |first9=Steven |last10=Hewstone |first10=Miles |date=2014-03-18 |title=Contextual effect of positive intergroup contact on outgroup prejudice |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=111 |issue=11 |pages=3996–4000 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1320901111 |doi-access=free |pmc=3964129 |pmid=24591627|bibcode=2014PNAS..111.3996C }}</ref>
Moreover, other positive impacts would be having benefits on the economic and educational levels. For the benefits in the economic category, having intergroup harmony would enhance the productivity of the team. Having intergroup harmony reduces challenges and conflict within the group and has a more equal distribution of resources. This allows the members of the team to focus more on their work rather than being concerned about striving for more resources. This also allows the members of the organisation to see greater networking, effort, and task coordination, which significantly enhances the productivity of the economy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Aaldering |first1=Hillie |last2=Böhm |first2=Robert |date=2020-01-01 |title=Parochial Versus Universal Cooperation: Introducing a Novel Economic Game of Within- and Between-Group Interaction |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1948550619841627 |journal=Social Psychological and Personality Science |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=36–45 |doi=10.1177/1948550619841627 |issn=1948-5506}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=David |first1=Gwendolyn Kim |last2=Wilson |first2=Robbie Stuart |date=2015-08-27 |editor-last=Sánchez |editor-first=Angel |title=Cooperation Improves Success during Intergroup Competition: An Analysis Using Data from Professional Soccer Tournaments |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=10 |issue=8 |article-number=e0136503 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0136503 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4552163 |pmid=26313929 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1036503D }}</ref> And for the benefits in the educational category, this allows students to have better preparation for the globalised world. An inclusive environment reduces bias, and discrimination would be created by the academic environment. This enhanced the collaborations between students, which fostered the atmosphere within the school more harmonious. This would also be an improvement in academic outcomes and the development of cross-cultural competencies allows the student to be more competitive in the global environment.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hughes |first1=Joanne |last2=Loader |first2=Rebecca |date=2015 |title='Plugging the gap': shared education and the promotion of community relations through schools in Northern Ireland |url=https://bera-journals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/berj.3206 |journal=British Educational Research Journal |language=en |volume=41 |issue=6 |pages=1142–1155 |doi=10.1002/berj.3206 |issn=1469-3518|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Turner |first1=Rhiannon N. |last2=Cameron |first2=Lindsey |date=2016 |title=Confidence in Contact: A New Perspective on Promoting Cross-Group Friendship Among Children and Adolescents |url=https://spssi.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/sipr.12023 |journal=Social Issues and Policy Review |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=212–246 |doi=10.1111/sipr.12023 |issn=1751-2409|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In conclusion, enhanced economic productivity and better educational outcomes would be seen in societies with higher intergroup harmony as discrimination decreases and more cooperation exists.
=== Empirical evidence === There are several pieces of evidence showing the existence of intergroup harmony. One of the examples would be happening in South Africa. In South Africa, after the apartheid era from 1948 to 1994, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission promoted restorative justice and racial understanding to address apartheid-era abuses. The commission focuses on truth-telling and amnesty, supporting social integration and democratic transition.<ref>{{Cite journal |author1-link=James L. Gibson |last=Gibson |first=James L. |date=2004 |title=Does Truth Lead to Reconciliation? Testing the Causal Assumptions of the South African Truth and Reconciliation Process |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.0092-5853.2004.00065.x |journal=American Journal of Political Science |language=en |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=201–217 |doi=10.1111/j.0092-5853.2004.00065.x |issn=1540-5907|url-access=subscription }}</ref> However, critics argue that these policies do not fully address the needs of victims or systemic inequalities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stanley |first=Elizabeth |date=2001 |title=Evaluating the Truth and Reconciliation Commission |journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=525–546 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X01003706 |jstor=3557322 |issn=0022-278X}}</ref>
Another example would be the Good Friday Agreement in Northern Ireland. In 1998, the Good Friday Agreement was signed, and this agreement emphasised power-sharing and cross-community initiatives. This allows the citizens in Northern Ireland to have a similar status to fulfil the requirement of not having extreme differences in status. This has reduced violence and encouraged collaboration between Catholics and Protestants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hayes |first1=Bernadette C. |last2=McAllister |first2=Ian |date=2001-12-01 |title=Sowing Dragon's Teeth: Public Support for Political Violence and Paramilitarism in Northern Ireland |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1111/1467-9248.00346 |journal=Political Studies |language=en |volume=49 |issue=5 |pages=901–922 |doi=10.1111/1467-9248.00346 |issn=0032-3217|url-access=subscription }}</ref> However, continued segregation in education and neighbourhoods is still a challenge that harms intergroup harmony.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gardner |first=John |date=2016-05-03 |title=Education in Northern Ireland since the Good Friday Agreement: Kabuki theatre meets ''danse macabre'' |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03054985.2016.1184869 |journal=Oxford Review of Education |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=346–361 |doi=10.1080/03054985.2016.1184869 |hdl=1893/23154 |issn=0305-4985|hdl-access=free |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
Moreover, in Rwanda, after the 1994 genocide, Gacaca courts were utilised for community-based justice. The courts are used for fostering accountability and reconciliation.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Thomson |first=Susan |date=2014-05-01 |title=Rwanda's National Unity and Reconciliation Program |url=https://www.e-ir.info/2014/05/01/rwandas-national-unity-and-reconciliation-program/ |access-date=2024-12-15 |website=E-International Relations |language=en-US}}</ref> Intergroup harmony has also been cultivated through education reforms that integrate peacebuilding and conflict resolution into school curricula.
Toronto and New York are the cities that have intergroup harmony. There are inclusive policies and cultural festivals to celebrate the diversity of the city, fostering intergroup dialogue and reducing prejudice.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kymlicka |first=Will |date=2010 |title=The rise and fall of multiculturalism? New debates on inclusion and accommodation in diverse societies |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1468-2451.2010.01750.x |journal=International Social Science Journal |language=en |volume=61 |issue=199 |pages=97–112 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2451.2010.01750.x |issn=1468-2451|url-access=subscription }}</ref> However, economic inequality and disparities in access to affordable housing are still the challenges hindering comprehensive social integration.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Borooah |first1=Vani K. |last2=Knox |first2=Colin |date=2015-01-01 |title=Segregation, inequality, and educational performance in Northern Ireland: Problems and solutions |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0738059314000947 |journal=International Journal of Educational Development |volume=40 |pages=196–206 |doi=10.1016/j.ijedudev.2014.09.002 |issn=0738-0593|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
=== Debates about intergroup harmony === There are numerous debates towards intergroup harmony. Sustaining inequality is one of the negative arguments about intergroup harmony. Historical narratives would affect the legitimacy of social inequalities. As historical narratives can be changed, there might be an agreement within the harmonious intergroup that ignores historical contexts or changes the historical narratives. This might transfer the problem of intergroup conflict to interpersonal relations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wagner |first=Wolfgang |title=The politics of moving beyond prejudice: A comment on Dixon, Levine, Reicher and Durrheim |url=https://www.academia.edu/1552509 |date=January 2012 |journal=LSE Research Online |publisher=London School of Economics}}</ref> Also if the intergroup threat perceptions forcing group-based inequality are seen as legal and acceptable, this would maintain and persist social inequalities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Morrison |first1=Kimberly Rios |last2=Fast |first2=Nathanael J. |last3=Ybarra |first3=Oscar |date=2009-01-01 |title=Group status, perceptions of threat, and support for social inequality |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S002210310800173X |journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology |volume=45 |issue=1 |pages=204–210 |doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2008.09.004 |issn=0022-1031|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
However, the problem of inequality can be improved by having positive intergroup contact. Positive intergroup contact significantly enhances collective action among advantaged group members.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Meleady |first1=Rose |last2=Vermue |first2=Marieke |date=May 2019 |title=The effect of intergroup contact on solidarity-based collective action is mediated by reductions in SDO |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jasp.12586 |journal=Journal of Applied Social Psychology |language=en |volume=49 |issue=5 |pages=307–318 |doi=10.1111/jasp.12586 |issn=0021-9029|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This can reduce social dominance orientation and improve the inequality problem by taking further actions. The advantaged group members would have a higher probability to engage in collective action supporting disadvantaged groups when the advantaged group members engage in discussions about power imbalances during intergroup contact.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tropp |first1=Linda R. |last2=Uluğ |first2=Özden Melis |last3=Uysal |first3=Mete Sefa |date=January 2021 |title=How intergroup contact and communication about group differences predict collective action intentions among advantaged groups |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0147176720302005 |journal=International Journal of Intercultural Relations |language=en |volume=80 |pages=7–16 |doi=10.1016/j.ijintrel.2020.10.012|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This will also be improved when the advantaged group helps the disadvantaged groups to maintain an equal status within the intergroup.
Another negative argument would be reduced collective action motivation. Some arguments state that the motivation of marginalised groups for collective action would reduced when promoting intergroup harmony through common identity frameworks. When disadvantaged group members are encouraged to adopt a shared identity with advantaged groups, they may experience reduced group-based anger and perceive inequalities as less severe, decreasing their willingness to push for social change.<ref name=":0a">{{Cite journal |last1=Ufkes |first1=Elze G. |last2=Calcagno |first2=Justine |last3=Glasford |first3=Demis E. |last4=Dovidio |first4=John F. |date=2016-03-01 |title=Understanding how common ingroup identity undermines collective action among disadvantaged-group members |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022103115300184 |journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology |volume=63 |pages=26–35 |doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2015.11.006 |issn=0022-1031|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Another argument would be promoting intergroup harmony would distract the members from social change goals. The goals of the advantaged groups and the disadvantaged groups might be different. They might change their goals because of intergroup harmony forcing them not to oppose the ideas.<ref name=":0a" />
However, the problem of collective action motivation can be improved by having a dual identity framework that enhances action. While common ingroup identity alone may reduce collective action, adopting a dual identity framework—where individuals maintain both their unique group identity and a shared overarching identity—can boost collective action. This approach allows disadvantaged groups to recognize their distinct struggles while fostering positive intergroup relations, enhancing motivation for social change.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Glasford |first1=Demis E. |last2=Dovidio |first2=John F. |date=2011-09-01 |title=E pluribus unum: Dual identity and minority group members' motivation to engage in contact, as well as social change |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022103111000862 |journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology |volume=47 |issue=5 |pages=1021–1024 |doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2011.03.021 |issn=0022-1031|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
=== Achieving intergroup harmony === Intergroup harmony is important to obtain in any situation where members of diverse groups are present. The ways in which to maximally achieve harmony have been debated; however three main theories have emerged: the contact hypothesis,<ref name=":1a" /> the presence of subordinate goals,<ref name=":8a">Sherif, M., Harvey, O. J., White, B. J., Hood, W. R., & Sherif, C. W. (1961). ''Intergroup Conflict and Cooperation: The Robbers Cave Experiment.'' Norman, OK: University Book Exchange</ref> and more recently the use of music and sports to promote harmony.<ref name=":9a">Harwood, J. (2017). Music and intergroup relations: Exacerbating conflict and building harmony through music. Review of Communication Research, 5, 1-34. doi:10.12840/issn.2255- 4165.2017.05.01.012</ref><ref name=":6" />
==== The contact hypothesis ==== thumb|Social psychologist Gordon Allport, who first proposed the Contact Hypothesis for intergroup harmony The Contact Hypothesis is a theory of social psychology associated with intergroup conflict and harmony, first proposed by Allport in his book, The Nature of Prejudice,<ref name=":1a" /> which suggests that intergroup harmony can be achieved through structured, meaningful contact between groups. Nineteenth century social psychology was dominated by the view that intergroup contact did not achieve harmony, but instead led to conflict between groups; however, following the end of the Second World War, views began to turn optimistic. Psychologists started to circulate views that intergroup experiences led to a mutual understanding and harmony.<ref name=":10a">Williams Jr, R. M. (1947). The reduction of intergroup tensions: A survey of research on problems of ethnic, racial, and religious group relations. ''Social Science Research Council Bulletin''.</ref><ref>Lett, H. A. (1945). Techniques for achieving interracial cooperation. ''Proceedings of the Institute on Race Relations and Community Organization''.</ref>
Allport's theory itself drew on previous research about desegregation in the workplace and housing options for black people in the USA.<ref name=":10a" /> He came to the conclusion that the way to maximally reduce prejudice and achieve a state of intergroup harmony was to increase intergroup contact when four factors were present:
# Equal status between groups # Common goals # Intergroup cooperation # The support of higher authority
When all four of these conditions were met, intergroup harmony was achieved. However, he warned that without these conditions, the same contact can lead to increased prejudice, and it is important to account for inconsistencies.<ref name=":1a" /> In 1998, Pettigrew set out a fifth condition that must be met in order for intergroup contact to have a significant effect: friendship potential.<ref name=":5a" /> It states that the interaction must provide the opportunity for group members to become friendly with one another and this will lead to the highest levels of intergroup harmony.
==== Subordinate goals ==== Another way to achieve intergroup harmony, which was also proposed in the 1950s, was through subordinate (shared) goals between outgroups. This idea was introduced by Muzafer Sherif, during his 'Robber's Cave' experiment'.<ref name=":8a" /> 22 boys, aged 11, were sent to a summer camp in Oklahoma and separated into 2 groups, each with their own stereotypes and shared group culture. It was hypothesized that the hostile attitudes that developed between the groups could be overcome when the need to cooperate in order to achieve subordinate goals was present. Situations were created throughout the summer camp where the two groups had to come together to reach a shared goal, for example pooling money to rent a movie, and it was found that the win-win situations for both groups had the positive effect of reducing the prejudice and discrimination the groups felt towards each other, and increasing harmony in the camp.<ref name=":8a" />
==== Music and sport ==== In the past, music has been a means of appearing threatening or inciting hatred within ingroups; however, it can also be an effective way of promoting intergroup harmony in many different cultures. Lyrics can be a way of publishing and explicitly projecting messages of encouragement, tolerance and harmony, through engaging, enjoyable means that many different people will listen to.<ref name=":9a" /> Music can be seen as an emotive, effective communication method used across much of the intergroup landscape. thumb|236x236px|Team sports, such as cricket, have been proposed as a way of promoting intergroup harmony through a shared goal Sports can provide an opportunity for groups to meet with the distraction from their own social categorisations, and a subordinate goal to play or perform in a sport.<ref name=":6a" /> It can allow those from closed identity groups to highlight their existing commonalities with other groups, leading to a higher level of intergroup harmony, as they feel a closer sense of belonging to the wider identity group, once their commonalities have been emphasised.<ref name=":6a" /> However, much of the research done on sporting as a way of promoting intergroup harmony has been rather anecdotal, and further, empirical evidence is needed to strongly support this theory.<ref name=":6a" />
=== Applications === Exposure to intergroup harmony in education leads to higher levels of intergroup harmony as the students leave schools, and enter the world. One way in which intergroup conflict is found to manifest itself in schools is through the form of racism. Interventions in primary schools, such as the Building Harmony intervention, have provided evidence for the effectiveness of increasing intergroup harmony by reducing racism in younger children, and although evidence was tenuous in the first study, further studies have provided strong evidence for the measure as a way of reducing racism in schools, therefore leading to higher levels of intergroup harmony.<ref>Grigg, K., & Manderson, L. (2014). Building harmony: reducing and measuring racism in Australian schools. ''Australian Commun Psychol'', ''26''(2), 68-89.</ref>
A second way intergroup harmony can be applied to the real world is in the workplace, where intergroup harmony creates motivated employers, who do efficient, high quality work. In workplaces all over the world, intergenerational conflict can cause ineffective work, due to the ageism faced by both older and younger co-workers. To stop these issues, it is important to create a harmonious working environment.<ref name=":11a">Drury, L., & Fasbender, U. (2024). Fostering intergenerational harmony: Can good quality contact between older and younger employees reduce workplace conflict?. ''Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology'', ''97''(4), 1789-1812.</ref> Recently, it was found that when intergroup harmony was achieved via a higher level of quality contact time between the two age groups in the office, task and relationship conflict was highly decreased, leading to more efficient and happier colleagues, which in turn leads to the production of higher quality work.<ref name=":11a" /> Intergroup harmony is also important in the workplace for diversity, as marginalised outgroups can work together with other groups to reduce negative stereotypes in a controlled environment.<ref name=":14a">Di Bernardo, G. A., Vezzali, L., Birtel, M. D., Stathi, S., Ferrari, B., Giovannini, D., & Pettigrew, T. F. (2022). The role of optimal conditions and intergroup contact in promoting positive intergroup relations in and out of the workplace: A study with ethnic majority and minority workers. ''Group Processes & Intergroup Relations'', ''25''(6), 1516-1533. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/13684302211010929</nowiki></ref> This even has wider connotations in the world of social change, as intergroup harmony can foster social change in many other aspects of life.<ref name=":14a" />
Intergroup harmony can also be important in the blending of stepfamilies to create a safe, loving environment where children can grow up. As stepfamilies have often been described as the 'less cohesive and more stressful' family type,<ref>Anderson, J. Z., & White, G. D. (1986). An empirical investigation of interaction and relationship patterns in functional and dysfunctional nuclear families and stepfamilies. ''Family Process'', ''25''(3), 407-422.</ref> increasing intergroup harmony can increase the cohesion of these families. When the whole family is viewed as one group, children have reported feeling an elevated sense of harmony in the family, leading to higher levels of psychological well-being and greater positive contact from all members.<ref>Banker, B. S., & Gaertner, S. L. (1998). Achieving stepfamily harmony: An intergroup-relations approach. ''Journal of Family Psychology'', ''12''(3), 310.</ref>
=== Criticism === Intergroup harmony has many implications in the real world, and often involves cooperative, positive interactions; however, when power dynamics are not considered, these encounters can fall through. When power dynamics are ignored, the lower status group seeks to reach a more equal state, whereas the higher status group attempts to maintain the current equality level. This leads to differing views about the current state of equality and can cause negative attitudes towards the groups, as they are no longer attempting to reach a shared goal, but instead attempting to reach different goals, which benefit their ingroup more than the outgroup.<ref>Saguy, T. (2018). Downside of Intergroup Harmony? When Reconciliation Might Backfire and What to Do. ''Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences'', ''5''(1), 75-81. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/2372732217747085</nowiki></ref> This can lead to conflict, even when the initial aim was to reach a harmonious state.
Furthering from causing conflict due to power inequalities, intergroup harmony can also lead people to have false expectations about equality.<ref name=":12a">Saguy, T., Tausch, N., Dovidio, J. F., & Pratto, F. (2009). The Irony of Harmony: Intergroup Contact Can Produce False Expectations for Equality. ''Psychological Science'', ''20''(1), 114-121. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02261.x</nowiki></ref> When contact between two groups was commonality based, outgroup members expected more fairness from ingroup members, as tested by an experiment, when students were separated into two lab groups, and the ingroup were assigned to divide credits to the outgroup members.<ref name=":12a" /> Before the assignment of credits, members of both groups met and discussed common features. This led to the belief from outgroup members that they would be given a higher number of credits than they were actually given. The intergroup harmony they felt from interacting with the outgroup led them to form false expectations about the equality between the two groups, which can create conflict in the future.<ref name=":12a" />
In addition, intergroup harmony does not work for every situation. Interactions that promote harmony can lead to the suppression of differences within groups, causing further negative attitudes towards the other group, and contact with the sole desire of coexistence will not actually improve relations between groups.<ref name=":13a">Maoz, I. (2011). Does contact work in protracted asymmetrical conflict? Appraising 20 years of reconciliation-aimed encounters between Israeli Jews and Palestinians. ''Journal of Peace Research'', ''48''(1), 115-125. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343310389506</nowiki></ref> In 2011, Maoz provided evidence for this theory using the attempts for coexistence between Israeli Jews and Palestinians.<ref name=":13a" /> Although there is much research on the promotion of intergroup harmony in general, little is said about promoting harmony in groups who are facing protracted asymmetrical disputes, and attempts to promote intergroup harmony can also lead to further problems between these groups, as contact can cause distress and lead to further negative attitudes about the other group.<ref name=":13a" />
== Current directions == Early research on intergroup relations focused on understanding the processes behind group interactions and dynamics, constructing theories to explain these processes and related psychological phenomena. Presently, intergroup relations is characterized by researchers applying and refining these theories in the context of modern social issues such as addressing social inequality and reducing discrimination based on gender identity, sexual orientation, race/ethnicity, and religion.<ref name=":0" />
=== Prejudice reduction === Theories from intergroup relations research have informed many approaches to prejudice reduction. Researchers have focused on developing theoretical frameworks for understanding how to effectively reduce intergroup conflict and prejudice.<ref name="Dovidio">{{cite web|url=https://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/54590_dovido,_chapter_1.pdf|title=Prejudice, Stereotyping and Discrimination: Theoretical and Empirical Overview|last1=Dovidio|first1=John F.|last2=Hewstone|first2=Miles|last3=Glick|first3=Peter|last4=Esses|first4=Victoria M.|access-date=24 December 2018}}</ref> For example, a recent intervention developed by Patricia Devine and colleagues focuses on training individuals to overcome cognitive biases and reduce implicit bias. The intervention resulted in reduced implicit bias up to two months after the intervention was administered.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Devine|first1=Patricia G.|last2=Forscher|first2=Patrick S.|last3=Austin|first3=Anthony J.|last4=Cox|first4=William T.L.|date=2012|title=Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention|journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology|volume=48|issue=6|pages=1267–1278|doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2012.06.003|issn=0022-1031|pmc=3603687|pmid=23524616}}</ref> Other prejudice reduction research has investigated intergroup interaction techniques including cooperative learning (such as Elliot Aronson's "Jigsaw Classroom")<ref>Aronson, E., Blaney, N., Stephan, C., Sikes, J., & Snapp, M. (1978). The jigsaw classroom. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.</ref> and making group identity less salient or a superordinate identity more salient<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ensari | first1 = N. | last2 = Miller | first2 = N. | year = 2001 | title = Decategorization and the reduction of bias in the crossed categorization paradigm | journal = European Journal of Social Psychology | volume = 31 | issue = 2| pages = 193–216 | doi = 10.1002/ejsp.42 }}</ref><ref>Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (2000). Reducing intergroup bias: The common ingroup identity model. Psychology Press.</ref> in addition to individual techniques such as encouraging perspective-taking with a member of a stigmatized group and building empathy with stigmatized groups.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Galinsky | first1 = A. D. | last2 = Moskowitz | first2 = G. B. | year = 2000 | title = Perspective-taking: decreasing stereotype expression, stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 78 | issue = 4| pages = 708–724 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.78.4.708 | pmid = 10794375 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Esses | first1 = V. M. | last2 = Dovidio | first2 = J. F. | year = 2002 | title = The role of emotions in determining willingness to engage in intergroup contact | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 28 | issue = 9| pages = 1202–1214 | doi = 10.1177/01461672022812006 | s2cid = 144136602 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Cynthia S. |last2=Kenneth |first2=Tai |last3=Ku |first3=Gillian |last4=Galinsky |first4=Adam D. |date=2014-01-22 |title=Perspective-Taking Increases Willingness to Engage in Intergroup Contact |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |article-number=e85681 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0085681 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=3899073 |pmid=24465648 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...985681W |doi-access=free }}</ref> Another technique that has been studied to reduce prejudice through intergroup relations included sparking interest in another person's culture that was different than their own.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brannon |first1=Tiffany N. |last2=Walton |first2=Gregory M. |date=October 2013 |title=Enacting Cultural Interests: How Intergroup Contact Reduces Prejudice by Sparking Interest in an Out-Group's Culture |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0956797613481607 |journal=Psychological Science |language=en |volume=24 |issue=10 |pages=1947–1957 |doi=10.1177/0956797613481607 |pmid=23925308 |s2cid=206586768 |issn=0956-7976|url-access=subscription }}</ref> A meta-analysis of 515 studies found that there seemed to be a connection between intergroup contact and lower levels of intergroup prejudice.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pettigrew |first1=Thomas F. |last2=Tropp |first2=Linda R. |date=2006 |title=A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory. |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=90 |issue=5 |pages=751–783 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.751 |pmid=16737372 |s2cid=14149856 |issn=1939-1315}}</ref>
Meta-analyses of implicit bias reduction studies have shown that many produce limited effects that do not persist outside of a laboratory setting.<ref>Forscher, P. S., Lai, C., Axt, J., Ebersole, C. R., Herman, M., Devine, P. G., & Nosek, B. A. (2016). A meta-analysis of change in implicit bias.</ref> Some researchers have called for more field research and studies that employ longitudinal designs to test the external validity and durability of existing prejudice reduction techniques, especially workplace diversity programs that may not be informed by empirical research.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last1=Paluck|first1=Elizabeth Levy|last2=Green|first2=Donald P.|date=2009|title=Prejudice Reduction: What Works? A Review and Assessment of Research and Practice|journal=Annual Review of Psychology|language=en|volume=60|issue=1|pages=339–367|doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163607|pmid=18851685|s2cid=385274 |issn=0066-4308}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Paluck | first1 = E. L. | year = 2006 | title = Diversity training and intergroup contact: A call to action research | journal = Journal of Social Issues | volume = 62 | issue = 3| pages = 577–595 | doi = 10.1111/j.1540-4560.2006.00474.x }}</ref> There was also a study conducted on how pluralistic ignorance can affect intergroup contact. Their research showed evidence that both in-groups and out-groups can overestimate the other group's lack of interest in intergroup contact.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shelton |first1=J. Nicole |last2=Richeson |first2=Jennifer A. |date=2005 |title=Intergroup Contact and Pluralistic Ignorance. |url=http://doi.apa.org/getdoi.cfm?doi=10.1037/0022-3514.88.1.91 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |language=en |volume=88 |issue=1 |pages=91–107 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.88.1.91 |pmid=15631577 |issn=1939-1315|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
=== Addressing social inequalities === Social scientists have examined phenomena related to social inequality such as poverty, disenfranchisement, and discrimination since the early days of social psychology.<ref name=":7" /> However, researchers have only recently begun developing theories on the psychological consequences and impacts of social inequality.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kraus | first1 = M. W. | last2 = Stephens | first2 = N. M. | year = 2012 | title = A Road Map for an Emerging Psychology of Social Class | journal = Social and Personality Psychology Compass | volume = 6 | issue = 9| pages = 642��656 | doi = 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2012.00453.x }}</ref> Current research on social inequality has explored the psychological effects of racially disparate policing practices on minorities,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Voigt | first1 = R. | last2 = Camp | first2 = N. P. | last3 = Prabhakaran | first3 = V. | last4 = Hamilton | first4 = W. L. | last5 = Hetey | first5 = R. C. | last6 = Griffiths | first6 = C. M. | last7 = Eberhardt | first7 = J. L. | year = 2017 | title = Language from police body camera footage shows racial disparities in officer respect | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume = 114 | issue = 25| pages = 6521–6526 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1702413114 | pmid = 28584085 | pmc = 5488942 | bibcode = 2017PNAS..114.6521V | doi-access = free }}</ref> whites' tendency to underestimate the pain of blacks due to false beliefs in biological differences,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Hoffman | first1 = K. M. | last2 = Trawalter | first2 = S. | last3 = Axt | first3 = J. R. | last4 = Oliver | first4 = M. N. | year = 2016 | title = Racial bias in pain assessment and treatment recommendations, and false beliefs about biological differences between blacks and whites | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume = 113 | issue = 16| pages = 4296–4301 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1516047113 | pmid = 27044069 | pmc = 4843483 | bibcode = 2016PNAS..113.4296H | doi-access = free }}</ref> how increasing belonging among students from stigmatized backgrounds can boost their GPAs and retention rates,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Walton | first1 = G. M. | last2 = Cohen | first2 = G. L. | year = 2011 | title = A brief social-belonging intervention improves academic and health outcomes of minority students | journal = Science | volume = 331 | issue = 6023| pages = 1447–1451 | doi = 10.1126/science.1198364 | pmid = 21415354 | bibcode = 2011Sci...331.1447W | s2cid = 206530202 }}</ref> and how social class influences prosocial behavior.<ref>{{Cite journal|author-link=Paul Piff|last1=Piff|first1=Paul K.|last2=Kraus|first2=Michael W.|last3=Côté|first3=Stéphane|last4=Cheng|first4=Bonnie Hayden|last5=Keltner|first5=Dacher|date=2010|title=Having less, giving more: The influence of social class on prosocial behavior.|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|language=en|volume=99|issue=5|pages=771–784|doi=10.1037/a0020092|pmid=20649364|bibcode=2010JPSP...99..771P |issn=1939-1315}}</ref>
A majority of research on social inequality has principally focused on single categories such as race and gender. Increasingly, more researchers are exploring the effects of how the intersection of identities affect individual and group psychological processes.<ref>Moore‐Berg, S. L., & Karpinski, A. (2018). An intersectional approach to understanding how race and social class affect intergroup processes. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', e12426.</ref> For example, Judith Harackiewicz and her colleagues examined race and social class as related constructs in a utility-value intervention designed to close the racial achievement gap of underrepresented minority students in introductory STEM college courses.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Harackiewicz | first1 = J. M. | last2 = Canning | first2 = E. A. | last3 = Tibbetts | first3 = Y. | last4 = Priniski | first4 = S. J. | last5 = Hyde | first5 = J. S. | year = 2016 | title = Closing achievement gaps with a utility-value intervention: Disentangling race and social class | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 111 | issue = 5| pages = 745–765 | doi = 10.1037/pspp0000075 | pmid = 26524001 | pmc = 4853302 | doi-access = free }}</ref>
'''Other areas of current intergroup relations research include:'''
* Understanding white backlash to racial diversity<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Knowles | first1 = E. D. | last2 = Lowery | first2 = B. S. | last3 = Chow | first3 = R. M. | last4 = Unzueta | first4 = M. M. | year = 2014 | title = Deny, distance, or dismantle? How white Americans manage a privileged identity | journal = Perspectives on Psychological Science | volume = 9 | issue = 6| pages = 594–609 | doi = 10.1177/1745691614554658 | pmid = 26186110 | s2cid = 206778265 }}</ref><ref>Willer, R., Feinberg, M., & Wetts, R. (2016). Threats to racial status promote Tea Party support among White Americans.</ref><ref name=":13" /> * * Effectively managing teams and group identities in the workplace<ref name=":12" /><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Chrobot-Mason | first1 = D. | last2 = Thomas | first2 = K. M. | year = 2002 | title = Minority employees in majority organizations: The intersection of individual and organizational racial identity in the workplace | journal = Human Resource Development Review | volume = 1 | issue = 3| pages = 323–344 | doi = 10.1177/1534484302013004 | s2cid = 145297692 }}</ref> * Understanding the psychological processes behind political and ideological polarization<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Jost | first1 = J. T. | last2 = Nosek | first2 = B. A. | last3 = Gosling | first3 = S. D. | year = 2008 | title = Ideology: Its resurgence in social, personality, and political psychology | journal = Perspectives on Psychological Science | volume = 3 | issue = 2| pages = 126–136 | doi = 10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00070.x | pmid = 26158879 | s2cid = 15877726 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Van Boven | first1 = L. | last2 = Judd | first2 = C. M. | last3 = Sherman | first3 = D. K. | year = 2012 | title = Political polarization projection: Social projection of partisan attitude extremity and attitudinal processes | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 103 | issue = 1| pages = 84–100 | doi = 10.1037/a0028145 | pmid = 22545744 }}</ref> * Further studying cross-cultural communication<ref>Ting-Toomey, S., & Chung, L. C. (2005). ''Understanding intercultural communication''. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Riemer | first1 = H. | last2 = Shavitt | first2 = S. | last3 = Koo | first3 = M. | last4 = Markus | first4 = H. R. | year = 2014 | title = Preferences don't have to be personal: Expanding attitude theorizing with a cross-cultural perspective | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 121 | issue = 4| pages = 619–648 | doi = 10.1037/a0037666 | pmid = 25347311 | s2cid = 12623753 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kim |first=Junhyoung |date=January 2012 |title=Exploring the Experience of Intergroup Contact and the Value of Recreation Activities in Facilitating Positive Intergroup Interactions of Immigrants |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01490400.2012.633856 |journal=Leisure Sciences |language=en |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=72–87 |doi=10.1080/01490400.2012.633856 |s2cid=144004384 |issn=0149-0400|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Laar |first1=Colette Van |last2=Levin |first2=Shana |last3=Sinclair |first3=Stacey |last4=Sidanius |first4=Jim |date=2005-07-01 |title=The effect of university roommate contact on ethnic attitudes and behavior |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022103104001039 |journal=Journal of Experimental Social Psychology |language=en |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=329–345 |doi=10.1016/j.jesp.2004.08.002 |issn=0022-1031|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
== Notable figures (1900–1979) == === Kurt Lewin === {{Main|Kurt Lewin}}Kurt Lewin is considered to be one of the founding fathers of social psychology and made major contributions to psychological research. Lewin founded the Research Center for Group Dynamics at MIT in 1945:
"Lewin was interested in the scientific study of the processes that influence individuals in group situations, and the center initially focused on group productivity; communication; social perception; intergroup relations; group membership; leadership and improving the functioning of groups."<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rcgd.isr.umich.edu/|title=Research Center for Group Dynamics|website=www.rcgd.isr.umich.edu|language=en|access-date=2018-11-24}}</ref>
Lewin coined the term group dynamics to describe how individuals and groups behave differently depending on their environmental context.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Group dynamics|author-link1=Donelson R. Forsyth|last=Forsyth|first=Donelson R.|publisher=Wadsworth Cengage Learning|year=2014|isbn=978-1-133-95653-2|edition= 6th|location=Belmont, CA|oclc=842246442}}</ref> In terms of intergroup relations, he applied his formula of ''B'' = ''ƒ''(''P'', ''E'') - behavior is a function of the person and their environment - to group behavior. The theory behind this formula, which emphasizes that context shapes behavior in conjunction with an individual's motivations and beliefs, is a cornerstone of social psychological research.<ref name=":6" /> Lewin conducted numerous studies that pioneered the field of organizational psychology, including the Harwood Research studies which showed that group decision-making, leadership training, and self-management techniques could improve employee productivity.<ref>van Elteren, V. (1993). "From Emancipating To Domesticating the Workers: Lewinian social psychology and the study of the work process till 1947". In Stam, H.J.; Mos, L.P.; Thorngate, W.; et al. Recent Trends in Theoretical Psychology. Springer-Verlag. pp. 341–351.</ref>
=== Gordon Allport === {{Main|Gordon Allport}}
The American social psychologist Gordon Allport is considered to be one of the pioneers of the psychological study of intergroup relations. Especially influential is Allport's 1954 book ''The Nature of Prejudice'', which proposed the contact hypothesis and has provided a foundation for research on prejudice and discrimination since the mid-1950s.<ref name=":5">Allport, G. W. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Katz | first1 = Irwin | year = 1991 | title = "Gordon Allport's "The Nature of Prejudice | journal = Political Psychology | volume = 12 | issue = 1| pages = 125–157 | doi = 10.2307/3791349 | jstor = 3791349 }}</ref> Allport's contributions to the field are still being elaborated upon by psychologists, with one example being the common ingroup identity model developed by John Dovidio and Samuel Gaertner in the 1990s.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Gaertner | first1 = S. L. | last2 = Dovidio | first2 = J. F. | last3 = Anastasio | first3 = P. A. | last4 = Bachman | first4 = B. A. | last5 = Rust | first5 = M. C. | year = 1993 | title = The Common Ingroup Identity Model: Recategorization and the reduction of intergroup Bias | journal = European Review of Social Psychology | volume = 4 | pages = 1–26 | doi = 10.1080/14792779343000004 }}</ref> In honor of Allport's contributions to psychology, the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues named their annual intergroup relations prize after him.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.spssi.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=page.viewpage&pageid=715|title=SPSSI {{!}} Allport Award|website=www.spssi.org|access-date=2018-12-09}}</ref>
Beyond his theoretical contributions to the field, Allport mentored many students who would go on to make important contributions of their own to intergroup relations research. These students include Anthony Greenwald, Stanley Milgram, and Thomas Pettigrew.{{citation needed|date=February 2019}}
=== Muzafer Sherif and Carolyn Wood Sherif === {{Main|Muzafer Sherif|Carolyn Sherif}}Muzafer Sherif and Carolyn Wood Sherif performed multiple notable experiments on the subject in the mid-20th century including the Robbers Cave experiments; these experiments formed the basis for realistic conflict theory.<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://sk.sagepub.com/reference/processes/n232.xml|title=Sherif, Muzafer (19061988)|last=Vaughan|first=Graham M.|date=2010|publisher=SAGE Publications, Inc.|pages=754–756|doi=10.4135/9781412972017 |isbn=978-1-4129-4208-9 |access-date=2018-01-07}}</ref> These studies have had a lasting impact on the field, providing a theoretical explanation for the origin of intergroup prejudice while also exploring techniques to reduce negative attitudes between groups.<ref>Jackson, Jay W (1993). "Realistic group conflict theory: A review and evaluation of the theoretical and empirical literature". Psychological Record. 43 (3): 395–415.</ref> The Sherifs proposed that group behavior cannot result from an analysis of individual behavior and that intergroup conflict, particularly those driven by the competition for scarce resources, creates ethnocentrism.<ref>Levine, John; Hogg, Michael (2010). ''Encyclopedia of Group Processes and Intergroup Relations''. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. p. 755. {{ISBN|9781412942089}}</ref> Muzafer Sherif's research on the psychology of group conflict was informed by his experiences observing and studying discrimination and social pressures in the United States and in Turkey.<ref>Granberg, D., & Sarup, G. (Eds.). (2012). ''Social Judgment and Intergroup Relations: Essays in Honor of Muzafer Sherif''. Springer Science & Business Media.</ref>
Carolyn Wood Sherif, along with Muzafer Sherif and Carl Hovland, developed social judgment theory, a model for self-persuasion that explains how individuals perceive and evaluate new ideas by comparing them with current attitudes.<ref>Hovland, Carl I.; Sherif, Muzafer (1980). Social judgment: Assimilation and contrast effects in communication and attitude change. Westport: Greenwood. {{ISBN|0313224382}}.</ref> The theory sought to outline how individuals make sense of persuasive messages and how this can in turn influence individual and group beliefs.<ref>Daniel O'Keefe. "Social Judgement Theory". Persuasion: Theory and Research. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016.</ref>
=== Solomon Asch === {{Main|Solomon Asch}}
Solomon Asch's work on conformity in the 1950s also helped shape the study of intergroup relations by exploring how the social pressures of group membership influence individuals to adhere their behavior, attitudes, and beliefs to group norms.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Asch|first=Solomon E.|date=1955|title=Opinions and Social Pressure|journal=Scientific American|volume=193|issue=5|pages=31–35|doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1155-31|issn=0036-8733|bibcode=1955SciAm.193e..31A|s2cid=4172915 }}</ref><ref name=":0" /> The results of these studies showed that individuals could yield to group pressure,<ref>Asch, S.E. (1951). Effects of group pressure on the modification and distortion of judgments. In H. Guetzkow (Ed.), Groups, leadership and men(pp. 177–190). Pittsburgh, PA:Carnegie Press.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Asch | first1 = S.E. | year = 1955 | title = Opinions and social pressure | journal = Scientific American | volume = 193 | issue = 5| pages = 31–35 | doi = 10.1038/scientificamerican1155-31 | bibcode = 1955SciAm.193e..31A | s2cid = 4172915 }}</ref> with subsequent studies investigating the conditions under which individuals are more or less likely to conform to the behavior of the group.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Asch | first1 = S.E. | year = 1956 | title = Studies of independence and conformity. A minority of one against a unanimous majority | journal = Psychological Monographs | volume = 70 | issue = 9| pages = 1–70 | doi = 10.1037/h0093718 | s2cid = 144985742 }}</ref> Asch's research, along with Stanley Milgram's shock experiments, shed light on the psychological processes underlying obedience, conformity, and authority.<ref name=":0" />
=== Henri Tajfel and John Turner === {{Main|Henri Tajfel|John Turner (psychologist)}}
British psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner developed social identity theory and later self-categorization theory, pioneering the social identity approach in psychology in the 1970s and 80s. Tajfel and Turner were among the first psychologists to study the importance of social group membership and explore how the salience of an individual's group membership determined behavior and beliefs in the group context.<ref name=":10" /> Tajfel invented the minimal groups paradigm, an experimental method of arbitrarily assigning to individuals to groups (e.g., by flipping a coin) which showed that even when individuals were divided into arbitrary, meaningless groups, they tended to show favoritism for their own group.<ref>Tajfel, H. (1970). Experiments in Intergroup Discrimination.</ref>
== Notable figures (1980–present) ==
=== Lee Ross === {{Main|Lee Ross}}Lee Ross has conducted research on several psychological phenomena closely related to intergroup relations including the fundamental attribution error, belief perseverance, and most recently naive realism - the idea that individuals believe they see the world objectively and that those who disagree with them must be irrational or biased.<ref>Ross, L., & Ward, A. (1996). Naive realism in everyday life: Implications for social conflict and misunderstanding. In T. Brown, E. S. Reed & E. Turiel (Eds.), ''Values and Knowledge'' (pp. 103–135). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.</ref> In 1984, Ross co-founded the Stanford Center on International Conflict and Negotiation (SCICN), an interdisciplinary research center focused on applying findings from psychology, law, and sociology to help resolve international socio-political conflicts.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last=Ravindran|first=Sandeep|date=2012-05-08|title=Profile of Lee D. Ross|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=109|issue=19|pages=7132–7133|doi=10.1073/pnas.1205295109|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3358840|pmid=22517739|bibcode=2012PNAS..109.7132R |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ross and his colleagues at [https://law.stanford.edu/stanford-center-on-international-conflict-and-negotiation-scicn/ SCICN] studied many of these concepts as they apply to conflict resolution and worked on negotiation and resolution efforts in Northern Ireland during The Troubles and in the middle east in the wake of the Gulf War.<ref name=":02" />
=== Susan Fiske === {{Main|Susan Fiske}}Susan Fiske, along with her colleagues Amy Cuddy, Peter Glick, and Jun Xu, developed the stereotype content model which states that stereotypes and intergroup impressions are formed along two dimensions: warmth and competence.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Fiske|first1=Susan T.|last2=Cuddy|first2=Amy J. C.|last3=Glick|first3=Peter|last4=Xu|first4=Jun|date=2002|title=A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition.|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|language=en|volume=82|issue=6|pages=878–902|doi=10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878|pmid=12051578|bibcode=2002JPSP...82..878F |issn=1939-1315|citeseerx=10.1.1.320.4001|s2cid=17057403 }}</ref> The stereotype content model builds from evolutionary psychology theory, stating that individuals tend to first assess whether people are a threat (warmth) and then assess how people will act based on the initial assessment (competence). It follows that social groups that compete for real or perceived resources such as money or political power are considered low on warmth while social groups that are high-status (e.g. in terms of finance or education) are rated high on competence.<ref name=":6" /> Fiske also co-developed the widely used Ambivalent Sexism Inventory, a measure of hostile sexism and benevolent sexism.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232548173|title=The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating Hostile and Benevolent Sexism|last=Glick|first=Peter|date=1996|website=Research Gate|access-date=2018-12-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Glick | first1 = Peter | last2 = Fiske | first2 = Susan T | year = 1996 | title = The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 70 | issue = 3| pages = 491–512 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.491 | bibcode = 1996JPSP...70..491G }}</ref>
=== Claude Steele === {{Main|Claude Steele}}Claude Steele and his colleagues Steve Spencer and Joshua Aronson are known for studying stereotype threat - the situational pressure one feels when they are at risk of confirming a negative stereotype about their group.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Stereotype threat: theory, process, and application|date=2012|publisher=Oxford University Press|others=Inzlicht, Michael, Schmader, Toni|isbn=978-0-19-973244-9|location=New York, N.Y.|oclc=701493682}}</ref> Three factors underlie the mechanism of stereotype threat: stress arousal, performance monitoring, and cognitive efforts to reduce negative thoughts and feelings.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Schmader | first1 = Toni | last2 = Johns | first2 = Michael | last3 = Forbes | first3 = Chad | year = 2008 | title = An integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on performance | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 115 | issue = 2| pages = 336–356 | doi = 10.1037/0033-295X.115.2.336 | pmid = 18426293 | pmc = 2570773 }}</ref> There is evidence that stereotype threat plays a role in lower academic and professional performance among individuals in negatively stereotyped groups,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Steele | first1 = Claude M | year = 1997 | title = A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 52 | issue = 6| pages = 613–629 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.52.6.613 | pmid = 9174398 | bibcode = 1997AmPsy..52..613S | s2cid = 19952 }}</ref><ref>Steele, Claude M; Spencer, Steven J.; Aronson, Joshua, "Contending with group image: the psychology of stereotype and social identity threat", in Zanna, Mark P., Advances in experimental social psychology, volume 34, Amsterdam: Academic Press, pp. 379–440, {{ISBN|9780120152346}}.</ref> although other studies have called this into question.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Sackett | first1 = Paul R. | last2 = Hardison | first2 = Chaitra M. | last3 = Cullen | first3 = Michael J. | year = 2004 | title = On the Value of Correcting Mischaracterizations of Stereotype Threat Research | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 59 | issue = 1| pages = 48–49 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.59.1.48 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Stoet | first1 = G. | last2 = Geary | first2 = D. C. | year = 2012 | title = Can stereotype threat explain the gender gap in mathematics performance and achievement? | journal = Review of General Psychology | volume = 16 | pages = 93–102 | doi = 10.1037/a0026617 | s2cid = 145724069 }}</ref> Steele and his collaborators have studied several forms of interventions to mitigate stereotype threat, including self-affirmation methods and providing psychologically "wise" critical feedback.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cohen | first1 = G. L. | last2 = Aronson | first2 = J. | last3 = Steele | first3 = C. M. | year = 2000 | title = When beliefs yield to evidence: Reducing biased evaluation by affirming the self | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 26 | issue = 9| pages = 1151–1164 | doi = 10.1177/01461672002611011 | s2cid = 144741153 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Cohen | first1 = G. L. | last2 = Steele | first2 = C. M. | last3 = Ross | first3 = L. D. | year = 1999 | title = The mentor's dilemma: Providing critical feedback across the racial divide | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 25 | issue = 10| pages = 1302–1318 | doi = 10.1177/0146167299258011 | s2cid = 6904138 }}</ref>
=== Anthony Greenwald === {{Main|Anthony Greenwald}}Anthony Greenwald and colleagues Debbie McGhee and Jordan Schwartz designed the implicit-association test or IAT. The IAT is used to test the strength of an individual's implicit (automatic) associations between mental representations and is commonly used in intergroup research to test implicit bias. Recently, the validity of the IAT as a measure of implicit bias has been called into question.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Azar | first1 = B | year = 2008 | title = IAT: Fad or fabulous? | journal = Monitor on Psychology | volume = 39 | page = 44 }}</ref> Greenwald, who was a student of Gordon Allport, has also investigated in-group favoritism as it relates to discrimination<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Greenwald | first1 = A. G. | last2 = Pettigrew | first2 = T. F. | year = 2014 | title = With malice toward none and charity for some: Ingroup favoritism enables discrimination | journal = American Psychologist | volume = 69 | issue = 7| pages = 669–684 | doi = 10.1037/a0036056 | pmid = 24661244| s2cid = 16144783 | url = http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/14x6w6t4 |author-link2=Thomas F. Pettigrew (sociologist) }}</ref> and implicit social bias across a variety of topics including effects on medical school admissions and stereotype formation among young children.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://faculty.washington.edu/agg/bytopic.htm|title=Dr. Anthony Greenwald/Publications By Topic|website=faculty.washington.edu|access-date=2018-12-05}}</ref>
=== Jim Sidanius === {{Main|Jim Sidanius}}Jim Sidanius and Felicia Pratto developed social dominance theory, which states that most social groups are organized into hierarchies within developed societies.<ref name=":8">Sidanius, Jim; Pratto, Felicia (1999). Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Hierarchy and Oppression. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-62290-5}}.</ref> According to the theory, these hierarchies are based on ''age'', with older individuals having more power, ''sex'', with men having more power than women, and ''arbitrary-set'' hierarchies which are culturally defined and can include race/ethnicity, religion, and nationality.<ref name=":8" /> The theory also predicts patterns of group conflict based on a high-power hegemonic groups discriminating and oppressing low-power groups, with one mechanism of oppression involving myths that legitimize the hegemonic group's status.<ref name=":9">Pratto, Felicia; Sidanius, James; Stallworth, Lisa; Malle, Bertram (1994). "Social Dominance Orientation: A Personality Variable Predicting Social and Political Attitudes" (PDF). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. American Psychological Association Inc. 67 (4): 741–763. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.741. Retrieved 2018-12-3.</ref> Sidanius developed the social dominance orientation scale to measure the desire for one's in-group to dominate and be superior to out-groups.<ref name=":9" />
=== Jennifer Richeson === {{Main|Jennifer Richeson}}Jennifer Richeson studies racial identity, social inequality, and interracial relations with a focus on understanding the psychological processes behind reactions to diversity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://spcl.yale.edu/research|title=Research {{!}} Social Perception & Communication Lab|website=spcl.yale.edu|access-date=2018-12-05}}</ref> Richeson's research has examined whites' and minorities' reactions to the likely future "majority-minority" demographic in the United States, specifically how whites feel threatened to this increase in diversity and how this threat influences political attitudes and perceptions of immigrants.<ref name=":13">{{cite journal | last1 = Craig | first1 = M. A. | last2 = Rucker | first2 = J. M. | last3 = Richeson | first3 = J. A. | year = 2018 | title = Racial and Political Dynamics of an Approaching "Majority-Minority" United States | journal = The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science | volume = 677 | issue = 1| pages = 204–214 | doi = 10.1177/0002716218766269 | s2cid = 149457470 }}</ref> In work focusing on social inequality, Richeson and her colleagues Michael Kraus and Julian Rucker found that Americans incorrectly estimate the extent to which economic equality has been achieved with both whites and blacks with high and low incomes overestimating race-based economic equality.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Kraus | first1 = M. W. | last2 = Rucker | first2 = J. M. | last3 = Richeson | first3 = J. A. | year = 2017 | title = Americans misperceive racial economic equality | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume = 114 | issue = 39| pages = 10324–10331 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1707719114 | pmid = 28923915 | pmc = 5625917 | bibcode = 2017PNAS..11410324K | doi-access = free }}</ref>
In 2006, Richeson was awarded a MacArthur Foundation Fellowship for using mixed methods, including fMRI, to show that interracial contact reduces performance on inhibitory tasks because individuals engage in self-control behaviors to handle fears of appearing prejudiced (whites) or fears of being a target of prejudice (blacks).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.macfound.org/fellows/786/|title=Jennifer Richeson - MacArthur Foundation|website=www.macfound.org|access-date=2018-12-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Richeson | first1 = J. A. | last2 = Shelton | first2 = J. N. | year = 2003 | title = When prejudice does not pay: Effects of interracial contact on executive function | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 14 | issue = 3| pages = 287–290 | doi = 10.1111/1467-9280.03437 | pmid = 12741756 | s2cid = 2005116 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Richeson | first1 = J. A. | last2 = Trawalter | first2 = S. | last3 = Shelton | first3 = J. N. | year = 2005 | title = African Americans' implicit racial attitudes and the depletion of executive function after interracial interactions | journal = Social Cognition | volume = 23 | issue = 4| pages = 336–352 | doi = 10.1521/soco.2005.23.4.336 }}</ref>
=== Jennifer Eberhardt === {{Main|Jennifer Eberhardt}}Jennifer Eberhardt conducts research that investigates the psychological associations between race/ethnicity and crime. She has shown that police officers tend to identify black faces as criminals more often than white faces,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Eberhardt | first1 = J. L. | last2 = Goff | first2 = P. A. | last3 = Purdie | first3 = V. J. | last4 = Davies | first4 = P. G. | year = 2004 | title = Seeing Black: Race, crime, and visual processing | journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology | volume = 87 | issue = 6| pages = 876–893 | doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.87.6.876 | pmid = 15598112 | s2cid = 6322610 }}</ref> that criminal defendants with more stereotypically black features were more likely to receive harsher sentences including the death penalty,<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Eberhardt | first1 = J. L. | last2 = Davies | first2 = P. G. | last3 = Purdie-Vaughns | first3 = V. J. | last4 = Johnson | first4 = S. L. | year = 2006 | title = Looking deathworthy: Perceived stereotypicality of Black defendants predicts capital-sentencing outcomes | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 17 | issue = 5| pages = 383–386 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01716.x | pmid = 16683924 | s2cid = 15737940 }}</ref> and that when people think of black juvenile offenders they tend to perceive all juvenile offenders as more adult, resulting in higher levels of punishment.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Rattan | first1 = A. | last2 = Levine | first2 = C. S. | last3 = Dweck | first3 = C. S. | last4 = Eberhardt | first4 = J. L. | year = 2012 | title = Race and the fragility of the legal distinction between juveniles and adults | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 7 | issue = 5| article-number = e36680 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0036680 | pmid = 22649496 | pmc = 3359323 | bibcode = 2012PLoSO...736680R | doi-access = free }}</ref>
Eberhardt received a MacArthur Foundation Fellowship in 2014 for her research on the effects of racial bias and their societal consequences.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.macfound.org/fellows/913/|title=Jennifer L. Eberhardt - MacArthur Foundation|website=www.macfound.org|language=en|access-date=2018-11-24}}</ref> She is a co-founder of Social Psychological Answers to Real-world Questions (SPARQ), a translational research organization that applies psychological findings to address social issues.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sparq.stanford.edu/|title=SPARQ {{!}} Social Psychological Answers to Real-world Questions|website=sparq.stanford.edu|language=en|access-date=2018-11-24}}</ref>
== Academic journals == {{Columns-list|colwidth=26em| *Group Processes & Intergroup Relations *Journal of Personality and Social Psychology *Journal of Experimental Social Psychology *Personality and Social Psychology Review *Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin *Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice *European Journal of Social Psychology *British Journal of Social Psychology }}
== See also == *Group conflict *In-group and out-group *Intergroup bias *Intergroup dialogue *Social identity theory *Social norms *Social projection *Psychology of social class
== References == {{Reflist}}
== External links == * [http://www.rcgd.isr.umich.edu/ Research Center for Group Dynamics (RCGD) at the University of Michigan] (formerly at MIT) * [https://law.stanford.edu/stanford-center-on-international-conflict-and-negotiation-scicn/ Stanford Center on International Conflict and Negotiation (SCICN)] * [https://sparq.stanford.edu/ Social Psychological Answers to Real-World Questions (SPARQ)] * [https://www.spssi.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=page.viewpage&pageid=715 The Gordon Allport Intergroup Relations Prize – The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues]
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Category:Organizational theory Category:Psychological concepts