{{Short description|Vehicle propelled fully or mostly by electricity}} {{About|all types of electric vehicles|electric automobiles|Electric car|other uses of the term "EV"|EV (disambiguation){{!}}EV}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2025}} {{multiple image | image_width = 270px | perrow = 2 | image1 = Polestar 2 charging at Tesla Supercharger.jpg | image2 = Solar Impulse SI2 pilote Bertrand Piccard Payerne November 2014 (slightly cropped).jpg | image3 = HSC China Zorrilla at Incat June 2025 2.jpg | image4 = N700-2000 series X50 Shin-Shimonoseki 20140901.jpg | image5 = BYD Elbuss.jpg | image6 = Geero 2 Touring Classic Cream plus 2021.jpg | image7 = Tesla Semi 6 (cropped).jpg | image8 = LD 250408 23 4 S Front (cropped).jpg | footer = Electric vehicles around the world ''(left to right, from top)'': * Electric car: a Polestar 2 charging from a Tesla Supercharger. * Electric aircraft: the Solar Impulse 2, which circumnavigated the globe * Electric boat, the ''China Zorrilla'', the largest battery electric vehicle ever built. * Electric high speed train: N700 Series Shinkansen of JR Central on the San'yo Shinkansen, Japan * Battery electric bus: a BYD bus in Landskrona, Sweden * E-bike, a Geero: with the removable battery integrated into the down tube. * Electric truck: Class 8, a Tesla Semi in Rocklin,{{Nbsp}}California * Electric cart: an Italcar Attiva C2S.4 }}
An '''electric vehicle''' ('''EV''') is a vehicle propelled mostly by electric power.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 October 2018 |title=Glossary — Global Warming of 1.5 ºC |url=https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/chapter/glossary/ |website=IPCC |publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=2024-09-04}}</ref> EVs encompass road (cars, buses, trucks and personal transporters), rail (trains, trams and monorails), boats and submersibles, aircraft (fixed-wing and multirotors) and spacecraft.
EVs originated in the late 19th century. Electricity was among the preferred methods for powering early motor vehicles because it was quieter, provided comfort, and ease of operation. However, its limited range hindered mass adoption throughout the 20th century. Internal combustion engines were the dominant propulsion mechanisms for cars and trucks for about 100 years, although electricity-powered locomotion became commonplace in other vehicle types, such as overhead line-powered mass transit vehicles, as well as special purpose vehicles such as mobility scooters.
Since the late 20th century, technological advances in lithium batteries—which offer superior energy density and current output versus lead-acid batteries—has revived public interest as zero-emission vehicle options. Manufacturers mostly switched to hybrids that use internal combustion engines like conventional vehicles, but add electric motors as a supplement, powered by electricity produced internally by motor-generators and recovered from regenerative braking. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, which can be recharged from an electric grid and use electric motors as the primary propulsion rather than as a supplement to combustion engines, did not see any mass production until the late 2000s, and battery electric cars did not become practical options for the consumer market until the 2010s. Although spacecraft have been propelled by electricity since the 1960s, non-rocket spacelaunch from Earth remains science fiction. {{Sustainable transport sidebar}} Technological progresses in electric vehicle batteries, electric traction motors and automotive electronics (particularly electronic control units) has made electric cars more feasible and, in some cases, more cost-efficient than conventional ICE vehicles during the 21st century, with market penetration in some countries like China reaching nearly half of all new vehicles sold.<ref>{{cite web|date=2025-10-14|last=Randall|first=Chris|title=1.6 million NEVs: China records unprecedented electric car sales in September|url=https://www.electrive.com/2025/10/14/1-6-million-nevs-china-records-unprecedented-electric-car-sales-in-september/|publisher=Electrive|access-date=2025-11-12}}</ref> As a means of reducing tailpipe emissions of greenhouse gases and other air pollutants, and to reduce the dependency on fossil fuels, government incentives are also available in many areas to promote the adoption of electric vehicles.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Scott |first=D'Errah |date=2025-07-15 |title=Why India's e-truck incentive scheme can be a gamechanger for the economy and the environment |url=https://theicct.org/why-indias-e-truck-incentive-scheme-can-be-a-gamechanger-for-the-economy-and-the-environment-jul25/ |access-date=2026-03-17 |website=International Council on Clean Transportation |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Slanger |first=Dan |date=2025-09-15 |title=Airports and the Advancement of Net-Zero Aviation Innovation |url=https://rmi.org/airports-and-the-advancement-of-net-zero-aviation-innovation/ |access-date=2026-03-17 |website=RMI |language=en-US}}</ref> {{As of|2026}}, the electric vehicle industry in China produces more than the rest of the world combined.
== History == {{Main|History of the electric vehicle}}
=== Experimentation === [[File:EV1A014_(1)_cropped.jpg|thumb|General Motors EV1 electric car (1996–1998), a subject of the film ''Who Killed the Electric Car?'']]
In January 1990 General Motors President introduced its EV concept two-seater, the "Impact", at the Los Angeles Auto Show. That September, the California Air Resources Board mandated major-automaker sales of EVs, in phases starting in 1998. From 1996 to 1998 GM produced 1117 EV1s, 800 of which were made available through three-year leases.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Driving the Future|last=Quiroga|first=Tony|publisher=Hachette Filipacchi Media U.S., Inc.|date=August 2009|page=52}}</ref>
Chrysler, Ford, GM, Honda, and Toyota also produced limited numbers of EVs for California drivers during this period. In 2003, upon the expiration of GM's EV1 leases, GM discontinued them. The discontinuation has variously been attributed to: the auto industry's successful federal court challenge to California's zero-emissions vehicle mandate, a federal regulation requiring GM to produce and maintain spare parts for the few thousand EV1s and the success of the oil and auto industries' media campaign to reduce public acceptance of EVs.
A movie made on the subject in 2005–2006 was titled ''Who Killed the Electric Car?'' and released theatrically by Sony Pictures Classics in 2006. The film explores the roles of automobile manufacturers, oil industry, the U.S. government, batteries, hydrogen vehicles, and the general public, and each of their roles in limiting the deployment and adoption of this technology.
Ford released a number of their Ford Ecostar delivery vans into the market. Honda, Nissan and Toyota also repossessed and crushed most of their EVs, which, like the GM EV1s, had been available only by closed-end lease. After public protests, Toyota sold 200 of its RAV4 EVs; they later sold at over their original forty-thousand-dollar price. Later, BMW of Canada sold off a number of Mini EVs when their Canadian testing ended.
The production of the Citroën Berlingo Electrique stopped in September 2005. Zenn started production in 2006 but ended by 2009.<ref>{{cite news |last=Freeman |first=Sunny |date=9 December 2009 |title=The end of Zenn |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/globe-drive/culture/technology/the-end-of-zenn/article4295000/ |work=The Globe and Mail |location=Toronto |access-date=25 May 2022}}</ref>
=== Reintroduction === {{multiple image | total_width = 450 | image1 = 2020+ Electric vehicle stock - International Energy Agency.svg | caption1 = The global stock of both plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) has grown steadily since the 2010s.<ref name=IEA_GlobalEVoutlook_2023>{{cite web |title=Global EV Outlook 2023 / Trends in electric light-duty vehicles |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023/trends-in-electric-light-duty-vehicles |publisher=International Energy Agency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230512122042/https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023/trends-in-electric-light-duty-vehicles |archive-date=12 May 2023 |date=April 2023 |url-status=live }}</ref> | image2 = Ev sales 2012 2024 stacked.png | caption2 = Sales of passenger electric vehicles (EVs) worldwide since 2012<ref name="IEA2012–24">{{cite web|title=Electric car sales, 2012 – 2024|url=https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/charts/electric-car-sales-2012-2024|website=IEA Data and Statistics|publisher=International Energy Agency|access-date=27 May 2025}}</ref> }}
During the late 20th and early 21st century, the environmental impact of the petroleum-based transportation infrastructure, along with the fear of peak oil, led to renewed interest in electric transportation infrastructure.<ref name="Eberle Von Helmolt20102">{{cite journal |last1=Eberle |first1=Dr Ulrich |last2=von Helmolt |first2=Dr Rittmar |title=Sustainable transportation based on electric vehicle concepts: a brief overview |journal=Energy & Environmental Science |date=2010 |volume=3 |issue=6 |page=689 |doi=10.1039/c001674h |bibcode=2010EnEnS...3..689E }}</ref> By the 21st century an energy transition to electrify as many things as possible, not just vehicles, rather than burning stuff became to be seen as very important for human health and the environment.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why electrification is so important to the energy transition |url=https://www.weforum.org/stories/2025/01/why-electrification-important-energy-transition/ |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20260308205038/https://www.weforum.org/stories/2025/01/why-electrification-important-energy-transition/ |archive-date=2026-03-08 |access-date=2026-03-19 |website=World Economic Forum |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pennington |first=Audrey F. |last2=Cornwell |first2=Cheryl R. |last3=Sircar |first3=Kanta Devi |last4=Mirabelli |first4=Maria C. |date=2024-06-15 |title=Electric vehicles and health: A scoping review |journal=Environmental Research |volume=251 |issue=Pt 2 |article-number=118697 |doi=10.1016/j.envres.2024.118697 |issn=1096-0953 |pmc=11273362 |pmid=38499224}}</ref> EVs differ from fossil fuel-powered vehicles in that the electricity they consume can be generated from a wide range of sources, including fossil fuels, nuclear power, and renewables such as solar power and wind power, or any combination of those. Recent advancements in battery technology and charging infrastructure have addressed many of the earlier barriers to EV adoption, making electric vehicles a more viable option for a wider range of consumers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balcioglu |first1=Yavuz Selim |last2=Sezen |first2=Bülent |last3=İşler |first3=Ali Ulvi |title=Evolving preferences in sustainable transportation: a comparative analysis of consumer segments for electric vehicles across Europe |journal=Social Responsibility Journal |date=2 September 2024 |volume=20 |issue=9 |pages=1664–1696 |doi=10.1108/SRJ-12-2023-0713 }}</ref>
The carbon footprint and other emissions of electric vehicles vary depending on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation.<ref name="NotterKouravelou20152">{{Cite journal|last1=Notter|first1=Dominic A.|last2=Kouravelou|first2=Katerina|last3=Karachalios|first3=Theodoros|last4=Daletou|first4=Maria K.|last5=Haberland|first5=Nara Tudela|title=Life cycle assessment of PEM FC applications: electric mobility and μ-CHP|journal=Energy Environ. Sci.|volume=8|issue=7|pages=1969–1985|issn=1754-5692|doi=10.1039/C5EE01082A|date=3 July 2015|bibcode=2015EnEnS...8.1969N }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Notter|first1=Dominic A.|last2=Gauch|first2=Marcel|last3=Widmer|first3=Rolf|last4=Wäger|first4=Patrick|last5=Stamp|first5=Anna|last6=Zah|first6=Rainer|last7=Althaus|first7=Hans-Jörg|date=1 September 2010|title=Contribution of Li-Ion Batteries to the Environmental Impact of Electric Vehicles|journal=Environmental Science & Technology|volume=44|issue=17|pages=6550–6556|doi=10.1021/es903729a|pmid=20695466|issn=0013-936X|bibcode=2010EnST...44.6550N|url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/2725414}}</ref> The electricity may be stored in the vehicle using a battery, flywheel, or supercapacitors. Vehicles using internal combustion engines usually only derive their energy from a single or a few sources, usually non-renewable fossil fuels. A key advantage of electric vehicles is regenerative braking, which recovers kinetic energy, typically lost during friction braking as heat, as electricity restored to the on-board battery. Although over 20% of new cars sold in 2024 were electric only 2% of trucks were.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-14 |title=Global EV Outlook 2025 – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2025 |access-date=2026-03-17 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref> China is the world's leading EV producer, accounting for more than 70% of global production and 67% of global sales of electric vehicles in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trends in the electric car industry |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2025/trends-in-the-electric-car-industry-3 |access-date=2025-12-25 |website=International Energy Agency |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Trends in electric car markets |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2025/trends-in-electric-car-markets-2 |access-date=2025-12-25 |website=International Energy Agency |language=en-GB}}</ref>
== Electricity sources == {{multiple image | direction = vertical | align = right | image1 = 2402 'County of Hampshire' at Wool.JPG | image2 = SwissMGB.jpg | image3 = MZKT open day 2019 p06.jpg | caption1 = A passenger train, taking power through a third rail with return through the traction rails | caption2 = An electric locomotive at Brig, Switzerland | caption3 = The MAZ-7907 uses an on-board generator to power in-wheel electric motors. }}
{{electric vehicle}}
EVs are much more efficient than internal combustion engines and have few direct emissions. At the same time, they do rely on electrical energy that is generally provided by a combination of non-fossil fuel plants and fossil fuel plants.
There are many ways to generate electricity, of varying costs, efficiency and ecological desirability. EVs can be made less polluting overall by modifying the source of electricity. In some areas, individuals can ask utilities to provide their electricity from renewable energy. Therefore, it gives the greatest degree of energy resilience.<ref>{{cite web |title=Our Electric Future – The American, A Magazine of Ideas |url=http://www.american.com/archive/2008/july-august-magazine-contents/our-electric-future |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140825064622/http://www.american.com/archive/2008/july-august-magazine-contents/our-electric-future/ |archive-date=2014-08-25 |access-date=26 December 2010 |publisher=American.com}}</ref>
=== Connection to generator plants === * Direct connection to electric grids as is common among electric trains, trams, trolleybuses, and trolleytrucks (see also: overhead lines, third rail and conduit current collection) * Online electric vehicle collects power from electric power strips buried under the road surface through electromagnetic induction
=== Onboard generators and hybrid EVs === {{See also|Diesel–electric transmission|Petrol–electric transmission|Hybrid vehicle}}
* Generated on-board using a diesel engine: diesel–electric locomotive and diesel–electric multiple unit (DEMU) * Generated on-board using a fuel cell: fuel cell vehicle * Generated on-board using nuclear power: nuclear submarines and aircraft carriers * Renewable sources such as solar power: solar vehicle
It is also possible to have hybrid EVs that derive electricity from multiple sources, such as:
* On-board rechargeable electricity storage system (RESS) and a direct continuous connection to land-based generation plants for purposes of on-highway recharging with unrestricted highway range<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/apr/12/worlds-first-electrified-road-for-charging-vehicles-opens-in-sweden|title=World's first electrified road for charging vehicles opens in Sweden|agency=Guardian|date=12 April 2018|access-date=1 September 2019|archive-date=1 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901021713/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/apr/12/worlds-first-electrified-road-for-charging-vehicles-opens-in-sweden|url-status=live}}</ref> * On-board rechargeable electricity storage system and a fueled propulsion power source (internal combustion engine): plug-in hybrid
For especially large EVs, such as submarines, the chemical energy of the diesel–electric can be replaced by a nuclear reactor. The nuclear reactor usually provides heat, which drives a steam turbine, which drives a generator, which is then fed to the propulsion. ''See Nuclear marine propulsion.''
A few experimental vehicles, such as some cars and a handful of aircraft use solar panels for electricity.
=== Onboard storage === These systems are powered from an external generator plant (nearly always when stationary), and then disconnected before motion occurs, and the electricity is stored in the vehicle until needed.
* Full Electric Vehicles (FEV).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richardson|first=D.B.|title=Electric vehicles and the electric grid: A review of modeling approaches, Impacts, and renewable energy integration|journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews|volume=19|pages=247–254|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2012.11.042|date=March 2013|bibcode=2013RSERv..19..247R }}</ref> Power storage methods include: ** Chemical energy stored on the vehicle in on-board batteries: Battery electric vehicle (BEV) typically with a lithium-ion battery ** Kinetic energy storage: flywheels ** Static energy stored on the vehicle in on-board electric double-layer capacitors
Batteries, electric double-layer capacitors and flywheel energy storage are forms of rechargeable on-board electricity storage systems. By avoiding an intermediate mechanical step, the energy conversion efficiency can be improved compared to hybrids by avoiding unnecessary energy conversions. Furthermore, electro-chemical batteries conversions are reversible, allowing electrical energy to be stored in chemical form.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Chaofeng |last2=Neale |first2=Zachary G. |last3=Cao |first3=Guozhong |title=Understanding electrochemical potentials of cathode materials in rechargeable batteries |journal=Materials Today |date=1 March 2016 |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=109–123 |doi=10.1016/j.mattod.2015.10.009 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
== Components == The type of battery, the type of traction motor and the motor controller design vary according to the size, power and proposed application, which can be as small as a motorized shopping cart or wheelchair, through pedelecs, electric motorcycles and scooters, neighborhood electric vehicles, industrial fork-lift trucks and including many hybrid vehicles.
=== Battery === {{Main|Electric vehicle battery}}
[[File:Nissan_Leaf_battery_pack_DC_03_2011_1629.jpg|thumb|A lithium-ion battery pack of the 2011 Nissan Leaf]]
An electric-vehicle battery (EVB) in addition to the traction battery specialty systems used for industrial (or recreational) vehicles, are batteries used to power the propulsion system of a battery electric vehicle (BEVs). These batteries are usually a secondary (rechargeable) battery, and are typically lithium-ion batteries.
Traction batteries, specifically designed with a high ampere-hour capacity, are used in forklifts, electric golf carts, riding floor scrubbers, electric motorcycles, electric cars, trucks, vans, and other electric vehicles.<ref name="Seitz19942">{{cite journal |last1=Seitz |first1=C.W. |date=May 1994 |title=Industrial battery technologies and markets |journal=IEEE Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=10–15 |doi=10.1109/62.282509 |issn=0885-8985 |pmid= |bibcode=1994IAESM...9e..10S }}</ref><ref name="Tofield19852">{{cite book |last1=Tofield |first1=Bruce C. |title=Solid State Batteries |date=1985 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-94-010-8786-5 |page=424 |chapter=Future Prospects for All-Solid-State Batteries |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-5167-9_29 |access-date=3 September 2022 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-009-5167-9_29}}</ref>
Most battery-electric vehicles also include a separate low-voltage auxiliary battery, commonly a 12-volt system, which powers accessories and control electronics. This auxiliary battery is typically recharged from the high-voltage traction battery through a DC/DC converter.<ref>{{cite web |title=How Do All-Electric Cars Work? |url=https://afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/how-do-all-electric-cars-work |website=Alternative Fuels Data Center |publisher=U.S. Department of Energy |access-date=17 April 2026}}</ref>
Failures in the auxiliary-battery charging system can immobilize a vehicle even when the traction battery remains charged. In 2024, Hyundai and Kia recalls cited failures of the Integrated Charging Control Unit (ICCU) that could stop charging the 12-volt battery and lead to a loss of drive power.<ref>{{cite web |title=Part 573 Safety Recall Report 24V-868 |url=https://static.nhtsa.gov/odi/rcl/2024/RCLRPT-24V868-6505.PDF |website=National Highway Traffic Safety Administration |access-date=17 April 2026}}</ref>
==== Lithium-ion battery ==== thumb|Battery prices fell, given economies of scale and new cell chemistries improving energy density.<ref name="BloombergNEF_202207212">{{cite web |title=Race to Net Zero: The Pressures of the Battery Boom in Five Charts |url=https://about.bnef.com/blog/race-to-net-zero-the-pressures-of-the-battery-boom-in-five-charts/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907222616/https://about.bnef.com/blog/race-to-net-zero-the-pressures-of-the-battery-boom-in-five-charts/ |archive-date=7 September 2023 |date=21 July 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> However, general inflationary pressures, and rising costs of raw materials and components, inhibited price declines in the early 2020s.<ref name="BloombergNEF_202207212" />
Since their first commercial release in 1991, lithium-ion batteries have become an important technology for achieving low-carbon transportation systems. Most electric vehicles use lithium-ion batteries (Li-Ions or LIBs). Lithium-ion batteries have a higher energy density, longer life span, and higher power density than most other practical batteries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Armand |first1=Michel |last2=Axmann |first2=Peter |last3=Bresser |first3=Dominic |last4=Copley |first4=Mark |last5=Edström |first5=Kristina |last6=Ekberg |first6=Christian |last7=Guyomard |first7=Dominique |last8=Lestriez |first8=Bernard |last9=Novák |first9=Petr |last10=Petranikova |first10=Martina |last11=Porcher |first11=Willy |last12=Trabesinger |first12=Sigita |last13=Wohlfahrt-Mehrens |first13=Margret |last14=Zhang |first14=Heng |date=2020-12-15 |title=Lithium-ion batteries – Current state of the art and anticipated developments |journal=Journal of Power Sources |volume=479 |article-number=228708 |doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2020.228708 |bibcode=2020JPS...47928708A }}</ref> Complicating factors include safety, durability, thermal breakdown, environmental impact, and cost. Li-ion batteries should be used within safe temperature and voltage ranges to operate safely and efficiently.<ref name="LuHan20132">{{Cite journal | issn = 0378-7753 | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.10.060 | title = A review on the key issues for lithium-ion battery management in electric vehicles| journal = Journal of Power Sources| volume = 226| pages = 272–288 | year = 2013 | last1 = Lu | first1 = L. | last2 = Han | first2 = X. | last3 = Li | first3 = J. | last4 = Hua | first4 = J. | last5 = Ouyang | first5 = M. | bibcode = 2013JPS...226..272L}}</ref>
Increasing the battery's lifespan decreases effective costs and environmental impact. One technique is to operate a subset of the battery cells at a time and switching these subsets.<ref name="AdanyAurbach20132">{{cite journal|last=Adany|first=Ron|title=Switching algorithms for extending battery life in Electric Vehicles |issn = 0378-7753 | doi = 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.12.075 | volume = 231 | journal = Journal of Power Sources | pages=50–59 | date=June 2013}}</ref>
In the past, nickel–metal hydride batteries were used in some electric cars, such as those made by General Motors.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Mok|first1=Brian|title=Types of Batteries Used for Electric Vehicles|url=http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2016/ph240/mok2/|website=large.stanford.edu|access-date=30 November 2017|archive-date=19 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171219170848/http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2016/ph240/mok2/|url-status=live}}</ref> These battery types are considered outdated due to their tendencies to self-discharge in the heat.<ref>{{cite web|title=Alternative Fuels Data Center: Batteries for Hybrid and Plug-In Electric Vehicles|url=https://www.afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/electric_batteries.html|website=afdc.energy.gov|publisher=AFDC|access-date=30 November 2017|archive-date=1 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201033936/https://www.afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/electric_batteries.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Furthermore, a patent for this type of battery was held by Chevron, which created a problem for their widespread development.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chevron and EVs – GM, Chevron and CARB killed the sole NiMH EV once, will do so again|url=http://www.ev1.org/chevron.htm|website=ev1.org|access-date=30 November 2017|archive-date=22 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122194807/http://www.ev1.org/chevron.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> These factors, coupled with their high cost, has led to lithium-ion batteries leading as the predominant battery for EVs.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Aditya|first1=Jayam|last2=Ferdowsi|first2=Mehdi|title=Comparison of NiMH and Li-Ion Batteries in Automotive Applications|url=https://scholarsmine.mst.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1667&context=ele_comeng_facwork|publisher=Power Electronics and Motor Drives Laboratory|access-date=30 November 2017|archive-date=1 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201034302/https://scholarsmine.mst.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1667&context=ele_comeng_facwork|url-status=live}}</ref>
The prices of lithium-ion batteries have declined dramatically over the past decade, contributing to a reduction in price for electric vehicles, but an increase in the price of critical minerals such as lithium from 2021 to the end of 2022 has put pressure on historical battery price decreases.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global EV Outlook 2023 – Data product |url=https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-product/global-ev-outlook-2023 |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Bloomberg's Latest Forecast Predicts Rapidly Falling Battery Prices|url=https://insideevs.com/bloomberg-predicts-rapidly-falling-battery-prices/|date=21 June 2018|access-date=4 January 2019|archive-date=8 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108135610/https://insideevs.com/bloomberg-predicts-rapidly-falling-battery-prices/|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Electric motor === [[File:Iveco_Stralis_AD_190_E-truck._Lidl._Spielvogel.jpg|thumb|Electric truck e-Force One]] {{Main|Electric vehicle motors|Traction motor}}
The power of a vehicle's electric motor, as in other machines, is measured in kilowatts (kW). Electric motors can deliver their maximum torque over a wide RPM range. This means that the performance of a vehicle with a 100 kW electric motor exceeds that of a vehicle with a 100 kW internal combustion engine, which can only deliver its maximum torque within a limited range of engine speed.
Efficiency of charging varies considerably depending on the type of charger,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Voelcker|first=John|date=2021-04-10|title=EVs Explained: Charging Losses|url=https://www.caranddriver.com/features/a36062942/evs-explained-charging-losses/|access-date=2021-07-27|website=Car and Driver|language=en-US|archive-date=27 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210727173913/https://www.caranddriver.com/features/a36062942/evs-explained-charging-losses/|url-status=live}}</ref> and energy is lost during the process of converting the electrical energy to mechanical energy.
Usually, direct current (DC) electricity is fed into a DC/AC inverter where it is converted to alternating current (AC) electricity and this AC electricity is connected to a 3-phase AC motor.
For electric trains, forklift trucks, and some electric cars, DC motors are often used. In some cases, universal motors are used, and then AC or DC may be employed. In recent production vehicles, various motor types have been implemented; for instance, induction motors within Tesla vehicles and permanent magnet machines in the Nissan Leaf and Chevrolet Bolt.<ref name="WidmerMartin20152">{{Cite journal|title = Electric vehicle traction motors without rare earth magnets|last = Widmar|first = Martin|year = 2015 | journal = Sustainable Materials and Technologies |issn=2214-9937 |doi= 10.1016/j.susmat.2015.02.001 |volume=3|pages=7–13|doi-access = free| bibcode=2015SusMT...3....7W }}</ref>
=== Energy and motors === [[File:Electric_powertrain.jpg|thumb|An electric powertrain used by Power Vehicle Innovation for trucks or buses<ref>{{cite web |title=Electric Driveline Technology – PVI, leader de la traction électrique pour véhicules industriels |url=http://www.pvi.fr/chaines-de-traction-electriques,019.html?lang=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325035014/http://www.pvi.fr/chaines-de-traction-electriques,019.html?lang=en |archive-date=25 March 2012 |access-date=30 March 2012 |publisher=Pvi.fr}}</ref>]] {{Multiple image | direction = vertical | width = 240 | header = Tesla Model S drive motor | image1 = Tesla Motors Model S base.JPG | caption1 = Mounted on chassis | image2 = Tesla Model S motor cutout.jpg | caption2 = Cutaway view }}
Electric motors are mechanically very simple and often achieve 90% energy conversion efficiency<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 November 2025 |title=Project better place |url=https://www.earpieceonline.co.uk/blog/post/project-better-place |website=www.earpieceonline.co.uk}}</ref> over the full range of speeds and power output and can be precisely controlled.
Motion is provided by a rotary electric motor. However, it is possible to "unroll" the motor to drive directly against a special matched track. These linear motors are used in maglev trains which float above the rails supported by magnetic levitation. This allows for almost no rolling resistance of the vehicle and no mechanical wear and tear of the train or track. In addition to the high-performance control systems needed, switching and curving of the tracks becomes difficult with linear motors, which to date has restricted their operations to high-speed point to point services.
Electric traction allows the use of regenerative braking, in which the motors are used as brakes and become generators that transform the motion of, usually, a train into electrical power that is then fed back into the lines. This system is particularly advantageous in mountainous operations, as descending vehicles can produce a large portion of the power required for those ascending, and in start-and-stop city use. This regenerative system is only viable if the system is large enough to use the power generated by descending vehicles.
They can be finely controlled and provide high torque from stationary-to-moving, unlike internal combustion engines, and do not need multiple gears to match power curves. This removes the need for gearboxes and torque converters.
EVs provide quiet and smooth operation and consequently have less noise and vibration than internal combustion engines.<ref name="ec.europa.eu2">{{cite web |title=Transport: Electric vehicles |url=http://ec.europa.eu/transport/urban/vehicles/road/electric_en.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319033116/http://ec.europa.eu/transport/urban/vehicles/road/electric_en.htm |archive-date=19 March 2011 |access-date=19 September 2009 |publisher=European Commission}}</ref> While this is a desirable attribute, it has also evoked concern that the absence of the usual sounds of an approaching vehicle poses a danger to blind, elderly and very young pedestrians. To mitigate this situation, many countries mandate warning sounds when EVs are moving slowly, up to a speed when normal motion and rotation (road, suspension, electric motor, etc.) noises become audible.<ref>{{cite news |date=18 September 2009 |title=Nissan Adds 'Beautiful' Noise to Make Silent Electric Cars Safe |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601109&sid=aIqaK2fByA.8 |access-date=12 February 2010 |publisher=Bloomberg L.P.}}</ref>
Electric motors do not require oxygen, unlike internal combustion engines; this is useful for submarines and for space rovers.
== Types == [[File:Squad_Solar_Car_(Fully_Charged_2022).jpg|thumb|Neighborhood Electric Vehicle, Squad Solar NEV, with solar panel roof]]
It is generally possible to equip any kind of vehicle with an electric power-train.
=== Ground vehicles === ==== Pure-electric vehicles ==== {{See also|Electric car|Battery electric vehicle}}
A pure-electric vehicle or all-electric vehicle is powered exclusively through electric motors. The electricity may come from a battery (battery electric vehicle), solar panel (solar vehicle) or fuel cell (fuel cell vehicle).
==== Hybrids ==== {{Excerpt|Hybrid electric vehicle|paragraph=1,2|files=no}}
There are different ways that a hybrid electric vehicle can combine the power from an electric motor and the internal combustion engine. The most common type is a '''parallel hybrid''' that connects the engine and the electric motor to the wheels through mechanical coupling. In this scenario, the electric motor and the engine can drive the wheels directly. '''Series hybrids''' only use the electric motor to drive the wheels and can often be referred to as extended-range electric vehicles (EREVs) or range-extended electric vehicles (REEVs). There are also '''series–parallel hybrids''' where the vehicle can be powered by the engine working alone, the electric motor on its own, or by both working together; this is designed so that the engine can run at its optimum range as often as possible.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.power-sonic.com/blog/types-of-electric-vehicles/|title=Electric Vehicles Types – A Complete Guide to Types of EV – EVESCO|date=18 March 2022|website=Power Sonic |last1=Spendiff-Smith |first1=Matthew }}</ref>
==== Plug-ins ==== {{Main|Plug-in electric vehicle}}
{{See also|Plug-in hybrid|Electric car}}
A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any motor vehicle that can be recharged from any external source of electricity, such as wall sockets, and the electricity stored in the Rechargeable battery packs drives or contributes to drive the wheels. PEV is a subcategory of electric vehicles that includes battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles, (PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles.<ref name="PEVs2">{{cite book|title=Plug-In Electric Vehicles: What Role for Washington?|editor=David B. Sandalow|year=2009|publisher=The Brookings Institution|isbn=978-0-8157-0305-1|edition=1st.|url=http://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx|pages=2–5|access-date=7 July 2013|archive-date=28 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328104012/https://www.brookings.edu/press/Books/2009/pluginelectricvehicles.aspx/|url-status=live}} ''See definition on pp. 2.''</ref><ref name="CSE2">{{cite web|url=http://energycenter.org/index.php/technical-assistance/transportation/electric-vehicles|title=Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs)|publisher=Center for Sustainable Energy, California|access-date=31 March 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620210051/http://energycenter.org/index.php/technical-assistance/transportation/electric-vehicles|archive-date=20 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.duke-energy.com/plugin/pev-faqs.asp|title=PEV Frequently Asked Questions|publisher=Duke Energy|access-date=24 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327101552/http://www.duke-energy.com/plugin/pev-faqs.asp|archive-date=27 March 2012}}</ref>
==== Range-extended ==== {{See also|Range extender}}
A range-extended electric vehicle (REEV) is a vehicle powered by an electric motor and a plug-in battery. An auxiliary combustion engine is used only to supplement battery charging and not as the primary source of power.<ref>{{cite web|title=Electric road vehicles in the European Union|url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2019/637895/EPRS_BRI(2019)637895_EN.pdf|access-date=24 October 2020|website=europa.eu|archive-date=14 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200214170441/https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2019/637895/EPRS_BRI(2019)637895_EN.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
==== On- and off-road ==== On-road electric vehicles include electric cars, electric trolleybuses, electric buses, battery electric buses, electric trucks, electric bicycles, electric motorcycles and scooters, personal transporters, neighborhood electric vehicles, golf carts, milk floats, and forklifts. Off-road vehicles include electrified all-terrain vehicles and electric tractors.
==== Trucks ==== [[File:E-Truck_Renault_Midlum_Electric.jpg|alt=|thumb|Electric Renault Midlum used by Nestlé in 2015]]
An '''electric truck''' is a battery electric vehicle (BEV) designed to transport cargo, carry specialized payloads, or perform other utilitarian work.
Electric trucks have serviced niche applications like milk floats, pushback tugs and forklifts for over a hundred years, typically using lead–acid batteries, but the rapid development of lighter and more energy-dense battery chemistries in the twenty-first century has broadened the range of applicability of electric propulsion to trucks in many more roles.
Electric trucks reduce noise and pollution, relative to internal-combustion trucks. Due to the high efficiency and low component-counts of electric power trains, no fuel burning while idle, and silent and efficient acceleration, the costs of owning and operating electric trucks are dramatically lower than their predecessors.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Calculating the total cost of ownership for electric trucks |url=https://www.transportdive.com/news/electric-truck-total-cost-ownership-tco/585690/ |access-date=2021-02-27 |website=Transport Dive |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=11 January 2021 |title=Electric trucking offers fleets ergonomic efficiency potential {{!}} Automotive World |url=https://www.automotiveworld.com/articles/regulatory-push-and-societal-pressure-will-nurture-electric-truck-market/ |access-date=2021-02-27 |website=www.automotiveworld.com}}</ref>
Long-distance freight has been the trucking segment least amenable to electrification, since the increased weight of batteries, relative to fuel, detracts from payload capacity, and the alternative, more frequent recharging, detracts from delivery time. By contrast, short-haul urban delivery has been electrified rapidly, since the clean and quiet nature of electric trucks fit well with urban planning and municipal regulation, and the capacities of reasonably sized batteries are well-suited to daily stop-and-go traffic within a metropolitan area.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Domonoske |first1=Camila |date=2021-03-17 |title=From Amazon To FedEx, The Delivery Truck Is Going Electric |url=https://www.npr.org/2021/03/17/976152350/from-amazon-to-fedex-the-delivery-truck-is-going-electric |access-date=13 June 2021 |quote=All major delivery companies are starting to replace their gas-powered fleets with electric or low-emission vehicles, a switch that companies say will boost their bottom lines, while also fighting climate change and urban pollution. UPS has placed an order for 10,000 electric delivery vehicles. Amazon is buying 100,000 from the start-up Rivian. DHL says zero-emission vehicles make up a fifth of its fleet, with more to come. And FedEx just pledged to replace 100% of its pickup and delivery fleet with battery-powered vehicles. |agency=National Public Radio}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Joselow |first1=Maxine |date=2020-01-11 |title=Delivery Vehicles Increasingly Choke Cities with Pollution |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/delivery-vehicles-increasingly-choke-cities-with-pollution/ |access-date=13 June 2021 |publisher=Scientific American |quote=Electric vehicles, delivery drones and rules on when delivery trucks can operate are some solutions proposed in a new report. The report provides 24 recommendations for policymakers and the private sector, including mandating that delivery vehicles are electric. The report notes that if policymakers care about sustainability, they may want to impose aggressive new electric vehicle regulations.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Gies |first1=Erica |date=2017-12-18 |title=Electric Trucks Begin Reporting for Duty, Quietly and Without All the Fumes |url=https://insideclimatenews.org/news/18122017/electric-truck-urban-package-delivery-ups-tesla-semi-daimler-byd-china-battery/ |access-date=13 June 2021 |publisher=Inside Climate News |quote=Replacing fleets of medium- and heavy-duty trucks can help cut greenhouse gas emissions and make cities quieter and cleaner. Because trucks need so much hauling power, they have eluded electrification until recently; a battery that could pull significant weight would itself be too hefty and too expensive. But now, improvements in battery technology are paying off, bringing down both size and cost. The number of hybrid-electric and electric trucks is set to grow almost 25 percent annually, from 1 percent of the market in 2017 to 7 percent in 2027, a jump from about 40,000 electric trucks worldwide this year to 371,000.}}</ref>
==== Railborne ==== {{Main|Railway electrification system}}
[[File:2001-03-31.H-TW2000-Vahrenwalder-Platz.jpg|left|thumb|A tram (or streetcar) in Hanover drawing current from a single overhead wire through a pantograph]]
The fixed nature of a rail line makes it relatively easy to power EVs through permanent overhead lines or electrified third rails, eliminating the need for heavy onboard batteries. Electric locomotives, electric multiple units, electric trams (also called streetcars or trolleys), electric light rail systems, and electric rapid transit are all in common use today, especially in Europe and Asia.
Since electric trains do not need to carry a heavy internal combustion engine or large batteries, they can have very good power-to-weight ratios. This allows high speed trains such as France's double-deck TGVs to operate at speeds of 320 km/h (200 mph) or higher, and electric locomotives to have a much higher power output than diesel locomotives. In addition, they have higher short-term surge power for fast acceleration, and using regenerative brakes can put braking power back into the electrical grid rather than wasting it.
Maglev trains are also nearly always EVs.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://namti.org/?page_id=9 |work=North American Maglev Transport Institute |title=-Maglev Technology Explained |date=1 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727110924/http://namti.org/?page_id=9 |archive-date=27 July 2011 }}</ref>
There are also battery electric passenger trains operating on non-electrified rail lines.
===== Hydrogen trains ===== Particularly in Europe, fuel-cell electric trains are gaining in popularity to replace diesel–electric locomotive units. In Germany, several Länder have ordered Alstom Coradia iLINT trainsets, in service since 2018,<ref name="France-Presse2">{{Cite news |date=17 September 2018 |title=Germany launches world's first hydrogen-powered train |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/sep/17/germany-launches-worlds-first-hydrogen-powered-train |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917170608/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/sep/17/germany-launches-worlds-first-hydrogen-powered-train |archive-date=17 September 2018 |access-date=29 November 2018 |newspaper=The Guardian |agency=Agence France-Presse}}</ref> with France also planning to order trainsets.<ref>{{Cite news |title=L'Occitanie, première région à commander des trains à hydrogène à Alstom |url=https://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/occitanie/occitanie-premiere-region-commander-trains-hydrogene-alstom-1583327.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181129125502/https://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/occitanie/occitanie-premiere-region-commander-trains-hydrogene-alstom-1583327.html |archive-date=29 November 2018 |access-date=29 November 2018 |work=France 3 Occitanie |language=fr}}</ref> The United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Denmark, Norway, Italy, Canada<ref name="France-Presse2" /> and Mexico<ref>{{Cite news |title=La constructora Alstom quiere ir por el 'tramo ecológico' del Tren Maya |url=http://www.elfinanciero.com.mx/empresas/la-constructora-alstom-quiere-ir-por-el-tramo-ecologico-del-tren-maya |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181129013328/http://www.elfinanciero.com.mx/empresas/la-constructora-alstom-quiere-ir-por-el-tramo-ecologico-del-tren-maya |archive-date=29 November 2018 |access-date=29 November 2018 |work=El Financiero |language=es}}</ref> are equally interested. In France, the SNCF plans to replace all its remaining diesel-electric trains with hydrogen trains by 2035.<ref>{{Cite news |title=SNCF: Pépy envisage la fin des trains diesel et l'arrivée de l'hydrogène en 2035 |trans-title=SNCF: Pépy plans the end of diesel trains and the arrival of hydrogen in 2035 |url=https://www.latribune.fr/entreprises-finance/industrie/sncf-pepy-envisage-la-fin-des-trains-diesel-et-l-arrive-de-l-hydrogene-en-2035-797750.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181129225137/https://www.latribune.fr/entreprises-finance/industrie/sncf-pepy-envisage-la-fin-des-trains-diesel-et-l-arrive-de-l-hydrogene-en-2035-797750.html |archive-date=29 November 2018 |access-date=29 November 2018 |work=La Tribune |language=fr-FR}}</ref> In the United Kingdom, Alstom announced in 2018 their plan to retrofit British Rail Class 321 trainsets with fuel cells.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Gerrard |first=Bradley |date=2018-05-14 |title=French train giant Alstom set to make UK's first hydrogen fleet at British site |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2018/05/14/french-train-giant-alstom-set-make-uks-first-hydrogen-fleet/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181129184047/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2018/05/14/french-train-giant-alstom-set-make-uks-first-hydrogen-fleet/ |archive-date=29 November 2018 |access-date=2025-07-30 |work=The Telegraph |language=en-GB |issn=0307-1235}}</ref>
=== Watercraft === {{See also|Submarine#Propulsion|Ship#Propulsion systems|electric boat}} [[File:Oceanvolt_sd8.6_electric_saildrive_motor.jpg|thumb|Oceanvolt SD8.6 electric saildrive motor]]
Electric boats were popular around the turn of the 20th century. Interest in quiet and potentially renewable marine transportation has steadily increased since the late 20th century, as solar cells have given motorboats the infinite range of sailboats. Electric motors can and have also been used in sailboats instead of traditional diesel engines.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oceanvolt.com/|title=Oceanvolt – Complete Electric Motor Systems|work=Oceanvolt|access-date=30 November 2012|archive-date=24 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121224075726/http://www.oceanvolt.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> Electric ferries operate routinely.<ref>Stensvold, Tore. "[http://www.tu.no/industri/2015/08/14/siemens-lonnsomt-a-bytte-ut-70-prosent-av-fergene-med-batteri--eller-hybridferger Lønnsomt å bytte ut 70 prosent av fergene med batteri- eller hybridferger] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105150735/http://www.tu.no/industri/2015/08/14/siemens-lonnsomt-a-bytte-ut-70-prosent-av-fergene-med-batteri--eller-hybridferger |date=5 January 2016 }}" ''Teknisk Ukeblad'', 14. August 2015.</ref> Submarines use batteries (charged by diesel or gasoline engines at the surface), nuclear power, fuel cells<ref>{{cite news|work=Defense Industry Daily|title=S-80: A Sub, for Spain, to Sail Out on the Main|date=15 December 2008|url=http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/s80-a-sub-for-spain-to-sail-out-on-the-main-02517/|access-date=17 December 2009|archive-date=24 February 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100224231309/http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/s80-a-sub-for-spain-to-sail-out-on-the-main-02517/|url-status=live}}</ref> or Stirling engines to run electric motor-driven propellers. Fully electric tugboats are being used in Auckland, New Zealand (June 2022),<ref>{{Cite magazine |date=2022-11-10 |title=Ports of Auckland Sparky: The 200 Best Inventions of 2022 |url=https://time.com/collection/best-inventions-2022/6227293/ports-of-auckland-sparky/ |access-date=2024-03-26 |magazine=Time |language=en}}</ref> Vancouver, British Columbia (October 2023),<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mandra |first=Jasmina Ovcina |date=2023-10-27 |title=Electrifying Debut: HaiSea Wamis completes its 1st tanker escort with full electric power |url=https://www.offshore-energy.biz/electrifying-debut-haisea-wamis-completes-1st-tanker-escort-with-full-electric-power/ |access-date=2024-03-26 |website=Offshore Energy |language=en-US}}</ref> and San Diego, California.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-11 |title=The little (electric) engine that could: The Port of San Diego unveils the nation's first all-electric tug boat |url=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/business/story/2024-03-11/the-nations-first-all-electric-tug-boat-arrives-at-the-port-of-san-diego |access-date=2024-03-26 |website=San Diego Union-Tribune |language=en-US}}</ref>
=== Aircraft === [[File:Mars_helicopter_on_sol_46.png|thumb|Mars helicopter ''Ingenuity'']] {{Main|Electric aircraft}}
Since the beginnings of aviation, electric power for aircraft has received a great deal of experimentation. Currently, flying electric aircraft include piloted and unpiloted aerial vehicles.
=== Spacecraft === {{Main|Electrically powered spacecraft propulsion}}
Electric power has a long history of use in spacecraft.<ref name="Ion 19642">{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/history/ds1.html|title=Contributions to Deep Space 1|date=14 April 2015|access-date=4 August 2016|archive-date=10 December 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041210153451/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/history/ds1.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Cybulski2">{{cite web|first1=Ronald J.|last1=Cybulski|first2=Daniel M.|last2=Shellhammer|first3=Robert R.|last3=Lovell|first4=Edward J.|last4=Domino|first5=Joseph T.|last5=Kotnik|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19650009681/downloads/19650009681.pdf|title=Results from SERT I Ion Rocket Flight Test|id=NASA-TN-D-2718|publisher=NASA|date=1965|access-date=12 November 2020|archive-date=12 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112201249/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19650009681/downloads/19650009681.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The power sources used for spacecraft are batteries, solar panels and nuclear power. Current methods of propelling a spacecraft with electricity include the arcjet rocket, the electrostatic ion thruster, the Hall-effect thruster, and Field Emission Electric Propulsion.
==== Rovers ==== {{Main|Rover (space exploration)}}
Electric vehicles are the only option for rovers as there is simply no oxygen gas to drive combustion engines in outer space and Exoplanetary atmospheres. Crewed and uncrewed electric vehicles have been used to explore the Moon and other planets in the Solar System. On the last three missions of the Apollo program in 1971 and 1972, astronauts drove silver-oxide battery-powered Lunar Roving Vehicles distances up to {{convert|35.7|km|mi|sp=us}} on the lunar surface.<ref>Lyons, Pete; "10 Best Ahead-of-Their-Time Machines", ''Car and Driver'', Jan. 1988, p.78</ref> Solar-powered, remotely controlled uncrewed rovers have also explored the Moon and Mars.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mars.nasa.gov/mer/technology/bb_power.html|title=Technologies of Broad Benefit: Power|access-date=6 September 2018|archive-date=18 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118021407/http://mars.nasa.gov/mer/technology/bb_power.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/multimedia/lroimages/lroc-20100318.html|title=Soviet Union Lunar Rovers|access-date=6 September 2018|archive-date=2 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181102212854/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/LRO/multimedia/lroimages/lroc-20100318.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
== Charging/fueling == === Stations === {{Excerpt|Charging station}}
=== Battery swapping === Instead of recharging EVs from electric sockets, batteries could be mechanically replaced at special stations in a few minutes (battery swapping).
Batteries with greater energy density such as metal–air fuel cells cannot always be recharged in a purely electric way, so some form of mechanical recharge may be used instead. A zinc–air battery, technically a fuel cell, is difficult to recharge electrically so may be "refueled" by periodically replacing the anode or electrolyte instead.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dobley |first1=Arthur |editor1-last=Suib |editor1-first=Steven |title=New and Future Developments in Catalysis: Batteries, Hydrogen Storage and Fuel Cells |date=2013 |publisher=Elsevier |page=13 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wibl94fdtEC |access-date=29 October 2022 |chapter=1: Catalytic Batteries|isbn=978-0-444-53881-9 }}</ref>
=== Bidirectional charging === General Motors (GM) is adding a capability called V2H, or bidirectional charging, to allow its new electric vehicles to send power from their batteries to the owner's home. GM will start with 2024 models, including the Silverado and Blazer EVs, and promises to continue the feature through to model year 2026. This could be helpful to the owner during unexpected power grid outages because an electric vehicle is a giant battery on wheels.<ref name="bidirectional2">[https://arstechnica.com/cars/2023/08/general-motors-will-add-bidirectional-charging-to-its-ultium-based-evs/ General Motors will add bidirectional charging to its Ultium-based EVs] by Jonathan M. Gitlin, on Ars Technica, 8/8/2023.</ref>
== Considerations == === Environmental impact === {{Sustainable energy}} {{See also| Health and environmental effects of battery electric cars|Environmental impacts of lithium-ion batteries|Environmental impact of the petroleum industry}} [[File:Battery-cost-learning-curve.png|thumb|Learning curve of lithium-ion batteries: the price of batteries declined by 97% in three decades.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ziegler |first1=Micah S. |last2=Trancik |first2=Jessika E. |date=2021 |title=Re-examining rates of lithium-ion battery technology improvement and cost decline |journal=Energy & Environmental Science |language=en |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=1635–1651 |doi=10.1039/D0EE02681F |doi-access=free |arxiv=2007.13920 |bibcode=2021EnEnS..14.1635Z }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The price of batteries has declined by 97% in the last three decades |url=https://ourworldindata.org/battery-price-decline |access-date=2022-04-26 |website=Our World in Data|date=4 June 2021 |last1=Ritchie |first1=Hannah }}</ref>]]
EVs release no tailpipe air pollutants, and reduce respiratory illnesses such as asthma.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Garcia |first1=Erika |last2=Johnston |first2=Jill |last3=McConnell |first3=Rob |last4=Palinkas |first4=Lawrence |last5=Eckel |first5=Sandrah P. |title=California's early transition to electric vehicles: Observed health and air quality co-benefits |journal=Science of the Total Environment |date=April 2023 |volume=867 |article-number=161761 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161761 |pmid=36739036 |bibcode=2023ScTEn.86761761G |doi-access=free |pmc=10465173 }}</ref> By reducing types of air pollution, such as nitrogen dioxide, EVs could also prevent hundreds of thousands of early deaths every year,<ref>{{Cite web |year=2022 |title=Zeroing in on Healthy Air |url=https://www.lung.org/getmedia/13248145-06f0-4e35-b79b-6dfacfd29a71/zeroing-in-on-healthy-air-report-2022 |website=American Lung Association}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Xiong |first1=Ying |last2=Partha |first2=Debatosh |last3=Prime |first3=Noah |last4=Smith |first4=Steven J |last5=Mariscal |first5=Noribeth |last6=Salah |first6=Halima |last7=Huang |first7=Yaoxian |date=2022-10-01 |title=Long-term trends of impacts of global gasoline and diesel emissions on ambient PM 2.5 and O 3 pollution and the related health burden for 2000–2015 |journal=Environmental Research Letters |volume=17 |issue=10 |page=104042 |bibcode=2022ERL....17j4042X |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/ac9422 |doi-access=free}}</ref> especially from trucks and traffic in cities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carey |first=John |date=2023-01-17 |title=The other benefit of electric vehicles |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=120 |issue=3 |bibcode=2023PNAS..12020923C |doi=10.1073/pnas.2220923120 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=9934249 |pmid=36630449 |doi-access=free |article-number=e2220923120}}</ref> Additionally, EVs have significantly less noise pollution in urban areas, improving the quality of life overall.
The carbon emissions from producing and operating an EV are, in the majority of cases less, than those of producing and operating a conventional vehicle.<ref>{{Cite web|title=A global comparison of the life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of combustion engine and electric passenger cars {{!}} International Council on Clean Transportation|url=https://theicct.org/publications/global-LCA-passenger-cars-jul2021|access-date=2021-07-29|website=theicct.org|archive-date=9 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211109182656/https://theicct.org/publications/global-LCA-passenger-cars-jul2021|url-status=live}}</ref> When pursuing a cost-responsive electric charging strategy (instead of an emission-responsive charging strategy), considerably higher emissions might arise as embedded carbon emissions from electricity are dynamic.<ref>{{citation |author=Elliot Romano |author2=Binod Koirala |author3=Martin Rüdisüli |author4=Sven Eggimann |date=2025 |doi=10.1021/acs.est.4c13270 | periodical=Environmental Science & Technology|title=Emission-Responsive Charging of Electric Cars and Carsharing to Improve the Security of Electricity Supply for Switzerland |volume=59 |issue=29 |pages=15057–15069 |pmid=40671645 |bibcode=2025EnST...5915057R |pmc=12312090 }}</ref> EVs in urban areas almost always pollute less than internal combustion vehicles.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-11-01|title=Assessing the health impacts of electric vehicles through air pollution in the United States|journal=Environment International|language=en|volume=144|article-number=106015|doi=10.1016/j.envint.2020.106015|issn=0160-4120|last1=Choma|first1=Ernani F.|last2=Evans|first2=John S.|last3=Hammitt|first3=James K.|last4=Gómez-Ibáñez|first4=José A.|last5=Spengler|first5=John D.|pmid=32858467|doi-access=free|bibcode=2020EnInt.14406015C }}</ref>
However, EVs are charged with electricity that may be generated by means that have health and environmental impacts.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Michalek |last2=Chester |last3=Jaramillo |last4=Samaras |last5=Shiau |last6=Lave |date=2011 |title=Valuation of plug-in vehicle life cycle air emissions and oil displacement benefits |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=108 |issue=40 |pages=16554–16558 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10816554M |doi=10.1073/pnas.1104473108 |pmc=3189019 |pmid=21949359 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tessum |last2=Hill |last3=Marshall |date=2014 |title=Life cycle air quality impacts of conventional and alternative light-duty transportation in the United States |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=111 |issue=52 |pages=18490–18495 |bibcode=2014PNAS..11118490T |doi=10.1073/pnas.1406853111 |pmc=4284558 |pmid=25512510 |doi-access=free}}</ref> This is particularly relevant in places that rely on coal-powered electricity grids.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Alternative Fuels Data Center: Electric Vehicle Benefits and Considerations |url=https://afdc.energy.gov/fuels/electricity-benefits |access-date=2025-02-27 |website=afdc.energy.gov |language=en}}</ref> It also have negative environmental impacts due to the manufacturing and recycling of batteries. The full environmental impact of electric vehicles includes the life cycle impacts of carbon and sulfur emissions, as well as toxic metals entering the environment.<ref name="Alanazi 60162">{{Cite journal |last=Alanazi |first=Fayez |date=January 2023 |title=Electric Vehicles: Benefits, Challenges, and Potential Solutions for Widespread Adaptation |journal=Applied Sciences |language=en |volume=13 |issue=10 |page=6016 |doi=10.3390/app13106016 |doi-access=free |issn=2076-3417}}</ref>
Despite that, ICE vehicles use far more raw materials over their lifetime than EVs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Electric Cars Need Way Less Raw Materials Than ICE Vehicles |url=https://insideevs.com/news/491330/electric-cars-less-raw-materials-ice-vehicles/ |access-date=2021-07-28 |website=InsideEVs |language=en |archive-date=28 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728152022/https://insideevs.com/news/491330/electric-cars-less-raw-materials-ice-vehicles/ |url-status=live}}</ref> One source estimates that over a fifth of the lithium and about 65% of the cobalt needed for electric cars will be from recycled sources by 2035.<ref name="transportenvironment202103012">[https://www.transportenvironment.org/discover/electric-car-batteries-need-far-less-raw-materials-fossil-fuel-cars-study/ "Electric car batteries need far less raw materials than fossil-fuel cars – study] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211102051847/https://www.transportenvironment.org/discover/electric-car-batteries-need-far-less-raw-materials-fossil-fuel-cars-study/|date=2 November 2021}}". ''transportenvironment.org''. Retrieved 1 November 2021.</ref> On the other hand, when counting the large quantities of fossil fuel non-electric cars consume over their lifetime, electric cars can be considered to dramatically reduce raw-material needs.<ref name="transportenvironment202103012" />
One limitation of the environmental potential of EVs is that simply switching the existing privately owned car fleet from ICEs to EVs will not free up road space for active travel or public transport.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gössling |first=Stefan |date=2020-07-03 |title=Why cities need to take road space from cars – and how this could be done |journal=Journal of Urban Design |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=443–448 |doi=10.1080/13574809.2020.1727318 |issn=1357-4809 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Electric micromobility vehicles, such as e-bikes, may contribute to the decarbonisation of transport systems, especially outside of urban areas which are already well-served by public transport.<ref>{{Cite web |date=18 May 2020 |title=e-bike carbon savings – how much and where? – CREDS |url=https://www.creds.ac.uk/publications/e-bike-carbon-savings-how-much-and-where/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413161629/https://www.creds.ac.uk/publications/e-bike-carbon-savings-how-much-and-where/ |archive-date=13 April 2021 |access-date=2021-04-13 |language=en-GB}}</ref>
==== Mining, extraction and production ==== Information regarding the sustainability of the production process of batteries has become a politically charged topic.<ref name="AgusdinataLiuEakinRomero20182">{{Cite journal |last1=Agusdinata |first1=Datu Buyung |last2=Liu |first2=Wenjuan |last3=Eakin |first3=Hallie |last4=Romero |first4=Hugo |date=2018-11-27 |title=Socio-environmental impacts of lithium mineral extraction: towards a research agenda |journal=Environmental Research Letters |volume=13 |issue=12 |page=123001 |bibcode=2018ERL....13l3001B |doi=10.1088/1748-9326/aae9b1 |issn=1748-9326 |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{Obsolete source|reason=surely there is a lot of research by now?|date=April 2023}} Business processes of raw material extraction in practice raise issues of transparency and accountability of the management of extractive resources. In the complex supply chain of lithium technology, there are diverse stakeholders representing corporate interests, public interest groups and political elites that are concerned with outcomes from the technology production and use. One possibility to achieve balanced extractive processes would be the establishment of commonly agreed-upon standards on the governance of technology worldwide.<ref name="AgusdinataLiuEakinRomero20182" />
The compliance of these standards can be assessed by the Assessment of Sustainability in Supply Chains Frameworks (ASSC). Hereby, the qualitative assessment consists of examining governance and social and environmental commitment. Indicators for the quantitative assessment are management systems and standards, compliance and social and environmental indicators.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schöggl |first1=Josef-Peter |last2=Fritz |first2=Morgane M.C. |last3=Baumgartner |first3=Rupert J. |date=September 2016 |title=Toward supply chain-wide sustainability assessment: a conceptual framework and an aggregation method to assess supply chain performance |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=131 |pages=822–835 |bibcode=2016JCPro.131..822S |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.04.035 |issn=0959-6526}}</ref>
The initial phase of electric vehicle production incurs an environmental cost, often referred to as a "carbon debt", primarily driven by the energy-intensive manufacturing of high-voltage batteries and the extraction of critical raw materials.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-11-17 |title=Would More Electric Vehicles Be Good for the Environment? |url=https://cei.org/studies/would-more-electric-vehicles-be-good-for-the-environment/ |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=Competitive Enterprise Institute |language=en-us}}</ref> Rare-earth metals (neodymium, dysprosium) and other mined metals (copper, nickel, iron) are used by EV motors, while lithium, cobalt, manganese are used by the batteries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Månberger |first1=André |last2=Stenqvist |first2=Björn |date=August 2018 |title=Global metal flows in the renewable energy transition: Exploring the effects of substitutes, technological mix and development |journal=Energy Policy |volume=119 |pages=226–241 |bibcode=2018EnPol.119..226M |doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.056 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-05-24 |title=Move to net zero 'inevitably means more mining' |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-57234610 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604073918/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-57234610 |archive-date=4 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-04 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> In 2023 the US State Department said that the supply of lithium would need to increase 42-fold by 2050 globally to support a transition to clean energy.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Ewing |first1=Jack |last2=Krauss |first2=Clifford |date=2023-03-20 |title=Falling Lithium Prices Are Making Electric Cars More Affordable |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/20/business/lithium-prices-falling-electric-vehicles.html |access-date=2023-04-12 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Most of the lithium-ion battery production occurs in China, where the bulk of energy used is supplied by coal-burning power plants.
The extraction and processing of these metals contributes to habitat destruction and environmental degradation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How Sustainable Are Typical Electric Vehicle Batteries? |url=https://today.ucsd.edu/story/how-sustainable-are-typical-electric-vehicle-batteries |access-date=2025-02-27 |website=today.ucsd.edu |language=en}}</ref> For instance, the process of mining minerals such as lithium and cobalt, essential components of current battery chemistries, carries significant localized environmental hazards. Lithium mining, frequently conducted using water-intensive brine extraction, contributes to global carbon emissions, estimated at over 1.3 million tonnes of carbon annually, with every tonne of mined lithium equating to 15 tonnes of {{CO2}} released into the atmosphere.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kelly |first1=Jarod C. |last2=Wang |first2=Michael |last3=Dai |first3=Qiang |last4=Winjobi |first4=Olumide |date=2021-11-01 |title=Energy, greenhouse gas, and water life cycle analysis of lithium carbonate and lithium hydroxide monohydrate from brine and ore resources and their use in lithium ion battery cathodes and lithium ion batteries |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |volume=174 |article-number=105762 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105762 |bibcode=2021RCR...17405762K |osti=1868964 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=How much CO2 is emitted by manufacturing batteries? {{!}} MIT Department of Mechanical Engineering |url=https://meche.mit.edu/news-media/how-much-co2-emitted-manufacturing-batteries |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=meche.mit.edu}}</ref> In regions rich in cobalt, such as the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), environmental costs are substantial, including deforestation, habitat destruction and water pollution.<ref>{{cite news |date=1 February 2023 |title=How 'modern-day slavery' in the Congo powers the rechargeable battery economy |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2023/02/01/1152893248/red-cobalt-congo-drc-mining-siddharth-kara |work=NPR}}</ref> Scientists have noted high radioactivity levels in some mining regions, and industrial processes, including the pulverization of rock, release dust that causes respiratory health issues for nearby populations.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Zainab |date=2024-03-27 |title=New report exposes the environmental and human costs of DRC's cobalt boom |url=https://raid-uk.org/report-environmental-pollution-human-costs-drc-cobalt-demand-industrial-mines-green-energy-evs-2024/ |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=RAID |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-20 |title=Can the Democratic Republic of the Congo's mineral resources provide a pathway to peace? |url=https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/can-democratic-republic-congos-mineral-resources-provide-pathway-peace |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=www.unep.org |language=en}}</ref> Open-pit nickel mining has led to environmental degradation and pollution in developing countries such as the Philippines and Indonesia.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rick |first1=Mills |date=4 March 2024 |title=Indonesia and China killed the nickel market |url=https://www.mining.com/web/indonesia-and-china-killed-the-nickel-market/ |work=MINING.COM}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=14 March 2024 |title=Land grabs and vanishing forests: Are 'clean' electric vehicles to blame? |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/3/14/land-grabs-and-cleared-forests-why-electric-vehicles-are-getting-a-bad-rep |work=Al Jazeera}}</ref> In 2024, nickel mining and processing was one of the main causes of deforestation in Indonesia.<ref>{{cite news |date=15 July 2024 |title=Indonesia's massive metals build-out is felling the forest for batteries |url=https://apnews.com/article/indonesia-nickel-deforestation-rainforest-mining-tesla-ev-184550cddf1df6aad8e883862ab366df |work=AP News}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=16 July 2024 |title=EU faces green dilemma in Indonesian nickel |url=https://www.dw.com/en/eu-faces-green-dilemma-in-sourcing-nickel-from-indonesia/a-69681557 |work=Deutsche Welle}}</ref>
[[File:Geographical_distribution_of_the_global_battery_supply_chain.png|thumb|Geographical distribution of the global battery supply chain<ref>{{cite web |date=2024 |title=Batteries and secure energy transitions |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/batteries-and-secure-energy-transitions |publisher=IEA |location=Paris}}</ref>{{rp|58}}]]
In 2022, the International Energy Agency released a report that claims the manufacturing of an EV emitted on average about 50% more {{CO2}} than an equivalent internal combustion engine vehicle, but this difference is more than offset by the much higher emissions from the oil used in driving an internal combustion engine Vehicle over its lifetime compared to those from generating the electricity used for driving the EV.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 January 2023 |title=Energy Technology Perspectives 2023 – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/energy-technology-perspectives-2023 |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref>
In 2023, Greenpeace issued a video criticizing the view that EVs are "silver bullet for climate", arguing that the construction phase has a high environmental impact. For example, the rise in SUV sales by Hyundai almost eliminate the climate benefits of passing to EV in this company, because even electric SUVs have a high carbon footprint as they consume much raw materials and energy during construction. Greenpeace proposes a mobility as a service concept instead, based on biking, public transport and ride sharing.<ref>{{cite web |date=18 October 2023 |title=Myths Shattered: The Truth About Electric Cars in Today's Auto Industry |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=twV5pSjUK88 |access-date=21 November 2023 |website=Greenpeace international}}</ref>
==== Life-cycle assessment ==== Despite the initial manufacturing footprint, a life-cycle assessment (LCA) approach consistently confirms that electric vehicles yield superior overall lifetime greenhouse gas (GHG) performance compared to equivalent ICE vehicles.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Buberger |first1=Johannes |last2=Kersten |first2=Anton |last3=Kuder |first3=Manuel |last4=Eckerle |first4=Richard |last5=Weyh |first5=Thomas |last6=Thiringer |first6=Torbjörn |date=2022-05-01 |title=Total CO2-equivalent life-cycle emissions from commercially available passenger cars |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |language=en |volume=159 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2022.112158 |doi-access=free |article-number=112158}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=EV Life Cycle Assessment Calculator – Data Tools |url=https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/ev-life-cycle-assessment-calculator |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Koroma |first1=Michael Samsu |last2=Costa |first2=Daniele |last3=Philippot |first3=Maeva |last4=Cardellini |first4=Giuseppe |last5=Hosen |first5=Md Sazzad |last6=Coosemans |first6=Thierry |last7=Messagie |first7=Maarten |date=2022-07-01 |title=Life cycle assessment of battery electric vehicles: Implications of future electricity mix and different battery end-of-life management |journal=Science of the Total Environment |language=en |volume=831 |article-number=154859 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.154859 |pmc=9171403 |pmid=35358517 |bibcode=2022ScTEn.83154859K }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A global comparison of the life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of combustion engine and electric passenger cars |url=https://theicct.org/publication/a-global-comparison-of-the-life-cycle-greenhouse-gas-emissions-of-combustion-engine-and-electric-passenger-cars/ |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=International Council on Clean Transportation |language=en-US}}</ref> The extent of the environmental benefit is intrinsically linked to the carbon intensity of the electricity grid used to power the vehicle. In regions like China, battery electric vehicles currently achieve approximately 40% lower emissions compared to ICE vehicles over their full lifespan. However, in countries with high-intensity grids, such as India, the immediate advantage is more modest, resulting in only about 20% lower emissions (saving less than 10 tonnes of {{CO2}} equivalent). This context is temporary, as significant efforts are underway globally to decarbonize electricity generation; for instance, the emissions intensity of India's grid is projected to fall by 60% by 2035, rapidly increasing the environmental benefit of electrification.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-05 |title=New IEA online tool compares lifecycle emissions from traditional and electric cars – News |url=https://www.iea.org/news/new-iea-online-tool-compares-lifecycle-emissions-from-traditional-and-electric-cars |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Outlook for emissions reductions – Global EV Outlook 2024 – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2024/outlook-for-emissions-reductions |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref>
An alternative method of sourcing essential battery materials being deliberated by the International Seabed Authority is deep sea mining, however carmakers are not using this as of 2023.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Halper |first=Evan |date=5 April 2023 |title=Unleash the deep-sea robots? A quandary as EV makers hunt for metals. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2023/04/05/deep-sea-mining-electric-vehicles/ |access-date=2023-04-09 |newspaper=Washington Post |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> Regulatory mechanisms, such as the EU Battery Regulation (Regulation (EU) 2023/1542) were introduced to reduce the environmental impact.<ref>{{Cite web |title=EU Battery Regulation: Key Rules for Manufacturers & Recyclers |url=https://go.ipoint-systems.com/blog/eu-battery-regulation |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=go.ipoint-systems.com |language=en}}</ref> It covers the entire battery life cycle, from design and production, "battery passports", to use and end-of-life management. There are also national policies like those in France, which cap subsidies based on vehicle production carbon intensity.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-10-08 |title=France's eco-bonus shows how we can promote cleaner made-in-Europe EVs |url=https://www.transportenvironment.org/articles/frances-eco-bonus-shows-how-we-can-promote-cleaner-made-in-europe-evs |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=T&E |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-28 |title=BriefCASE: Climate politics – France's carbon footprint incentive stirs debate on global EV supply chains |url=https://www.spglobal.com/mobility/en/research-analysis/briefcase-climate-politics-frances-carbon-footprint-incentive.html |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=S&P Global Mobility}}</ref>
=== Energy efficiency === EV 'tank-to-wheels' efficiency is about a factor of three higher than internal combustion engine vehicles.<ref name="ec.europa.eu2" /> Energy is not consumed while the vehicle is stationary, unlike internal combustion engines which consume fuel while idling. In 2022, EVs enabled a net reduction of about 80 Mt of GHG emissions, on a well-to-wheels basis, and the net GHG benefit of EVs will increase over time as the electricity sector is decarbonised.<ref name="global-ev-outlook-20232">{{Cite web |date=26 April 2023 |title=Global EV Outlook 2023 – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023 |access-date=2023-07-05 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref>
Well-to-wheel efficiency of an EV has less to do with the vehicle itself and more to do with the method of electricity production. A particular EV would instantly become twice as efficient if electricity production were switched from fossil fuels to renewable energy, such as wind power, tidal power, solar power, and nuclear power. Thus, when "well-to-wheels" is cited, the discussion is no longer about the vehicle, but rather about the entire energy supply infrastructure{{snd}}in the case of fossil fuels this should also include energy spent on exploration, mining, refining, and distribution.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/electric-emissions|title=Emissions from Electric Vehicles|website=U.S. Department of Energy|access-date= 8 May 2025}}</ref>
The lifecycle analysis of EVs shows that even when powered by the most carbon-intensive electricity in Europe, they emit less greenhouse gases than a conventional diesel vehicle.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/2017_10_EV_LCA_briefing_final.pdf|title=Electric vehicle life cycle analysis and raw material availability|last=Lepetit|first=Yoann|date=October 2017|website=Transport & Environment|access-date=22 February 2018|archive-date=23 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223050745/https://www.transportenvironment.org/sites/te/files/publications/2017_10_EV_LCA_briefing_final.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Range === {{Main|All-electric range|range anxiety}}
Electric vehicles may have shorter range compared to vehicles with internal combustion engines,<ref>{{Cite web|date=17 August 2015|title=Explaining Electric & Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles {{!}} US EPA|url=https://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/electric-plug-hybrid-electric-vehicles|url-status=live|access-date=8 June 2018|website=US EPA|archive-date=12 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141131/https://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/explaining-electric-plug-hybrid-electric-vehicles}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://arstechnica.com/cars/2017/09/the-average-price-of-electric-cars-rose-in-2016-but-its-not-a-backwards-trend/|title=Electric vehicle price is rising, but cost-per-mile is falling|work=Ars Technica|access-date=8 June 2018|archive-date=4 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180604230257/https://arstechnica.com/cars/2017/09/the-average-price-of-electric-cars-rose-in-2016-but-its-not-a-backwards-trend/|url-status=live}}</ref> which is why the electrification of long-distance transport, such as long-distance shipping, remains challenging.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-02-22 |title=China bets on electric ships in push to decarbonise waterways, expand EV success |url=https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3344150/china-amps-electric-ships-push-decarbonise-waterways-leverage-ev-prowess |access-date=2026-03-17 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en}}</ref> {{As of|2025}} practical electric aircraft are small and limited to a few hundred kilometres.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-09-18 |title=We have hybrid cars, now hybrid planes are coming |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cx27vlp3zzgo |access-date=2026-03-17 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB}}</ref>
=== Cost of ownership === Electric vehicles with low worldwide market share, such as ships,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-03-05 |title=China steps up its clean energy push with electric ships |url=https://www.scmp.com/opinion/comment/article/3345393/china-steps-its-clean-energy-push-electric-ships |access-date=2026-03-17 |website=South China Morning Post |language=en |quote=While electric vessels offer zero emissions and lower operational costs, the upfront cost is significantly higher than conventional fuel-driven ships because of pricey batteries and electric propulsion systems. The technology is already available, so it's about bringing down costs and producing on a scale to create a competitive industry.}}</ref> typically carry a higher initial purchase price than comparable ICE vehicles. This elevated upfront cost constitutes a significant barrier to entry. While long-term financial analyses may favor EVs, the immediate capital outlay often dictates purchasing decisions, slowing the pace of the overall market transition.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |title=Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) for Electric Vehicles (EV) vs Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (ICE) |url=https://nickelinstitute.org/en/nickel-applications/nickel-in-batteries/total-cost-of-ownership-tco-for-electric-vehicles-ev-vs-internal-combustion-engine-vehicles-ice |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=nickelinstitute.org |language=en-US}}</ref>
The higher initial price is often offset by superior total cost of ownership (TCO) over the vehicle's lifespan.<ref name=":02" /> Operational expenses for EVs are markedly lower.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-07-21 |title=Electric vs. Gas Cars: Is It Cheaper to Drive an EV? |url=https://www.nrdc.org/stories/electric-vs-gas-cars-it-cheaper-drive-ev |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=www.nrdc.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-03-11 |title=Cheaper and Cleaner: Electric Vehicle Owners Save Thousands |url=https://www.nrdc.org/bio/isabella-sullivan/cheaper-and-cleaner-electric-vehicle-owners-save-thousands |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=www.nrdc.org |language=en}}</ref>
=== Battery longevity and replacement === Advances in lithium-ion batteries, driven at first by the personal-use electronics industry, allow full-sized, highway-capable EVs to travel nearly as far on a single charge as conventional cars go on a single tank of gasoline. Lithium batteries have been made safe, can be recharged in minutes instead of hours (see recharging time), and now last longer than the typical vehicle (see lifespan). The production cost of these lighter, higher-capacity lithium-ion batteries is gradually decreasing as the technology matures and production volumes increase.<ref>Korosec, Kirsten. [https://techcrunch.com/2020/07/30/panasonic-boosts-energy-density-trims-cobalt-in-new-2170-battery-cell-for-tesla "Panasonic boosts energy density, trims cobalt in new 2170 battery cell for Tesla"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200829055225/https://techcrunch.com/2020/07/30/panasonic-boosts-energy-density-trims-cobalt-in-new-2170-battery-cell-for-tesla/|date=29 August 2020}}, July 30, 2020</ref><ref>[https://www.autoblog.com/2020/08/05/daimler-catl-long-range-electric-car-batteries "Daimler deepens CATL alliance to build long-range, fast-charging EV batteries"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200823164111/https://www.autoblog.com/2020/08/05/daimler-catl-long-range-electric-car-batteries/|date=23 August 2020}}, Reuters, August 5, 2020; and [https://www.automotiveworld.com/news-releases/porsche-the-perfect-cell "Porsche: The perfect cell"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125221054/https://www.automotiveworld.com/news-releases/porsche-the-perfect-cell/|date=25 November 2020}}, ''Automotive World'', August 28, 2020</ref> Research is also underway to improve battery reuse and recycling, which would further reduce the environmental impact of batteries.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Baum |first1=Zachary J. |last2=Bird |first2=Robert |last3=Yu |first3=Xiang |last4=Ma |first4=Jia |date=2022-10-14 |title=Correction to "Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling─Overview of Techniques and Trends" |journal=ACS Energy Letters |language=en |volume=7 |issue=10 |pages=3268–3269 |bibcode=2022ACSEL...7.3268B |doi=10.1021/acsenergylett.2c01888 |issn=2380-8195 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Martinez-Laserna |first1=E. |last2=Gandiaga |first2=I. |last3=Sarasketa-Zabala |first3=E. |last4=Badeda |first4=J. |last5=Stroe |first5=D. -I. |last6=Swierczynski |first6=M. |last7=Goikoetxea |first7=A. |date=2018-10-01 |title=Battery second life: Hype, hope or reality? A critical review of the state of the art |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |volume=93 |pages=701–718 |bibcode=2018RSERv..93..701M |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2018.04.035 }}</ref> Many companies and researchers are also working on newer battery technologies, including solid state batteries<ref>Patel, Prachi. [https://spectrum.ieee.org/ion-storage-systems-ceramic-electrolyte-news-solid-state-batteries "Ion Storage Systems Says Its Ceramic Electrolyte Could Be a Gamechanger for Solid-State Batteries"], IEEE.org, February 21, 2020</ref> and alternate technologies.<ref>Lambert, Fred. [https://electrek.co/2020/08/12/tesla-researchers-show-path-next-gen-battery-cell-breakthrough-energy-density "Tesla researchers show path to next-gen battery cell with breakthrough energy density"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200824065614/https://electrek.co/2020/08/12/tesla-researchers-show-path-next-gen-battery-cell-breakthrough-energy-density/|date=24 August 2020}}, Electrek, August 12, 2020</ref>
The risk of requiring an out-of-warranty battery replacement represents the greatest source of long-term financial uncertainty for many prospective EV retail owners. Despite consumer anxieties, actual battery replacement events are statistically rare, and modern EV batteries are demonstrating significantly greater durability than initially anticipated.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Research Shows EV Battery Replacements Very Rare {{!}} GreenCars |url=https://www.greencars.com/expert-insights/research-shows-ev-battery-replacements-very-rare |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=www.greencars.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Alvarez |first=Simon |date=2024-05-27 |title=Study finds only 2.5% of EV batteries have been replaced to date |url=https://www.teslarati.com/study-only-2-5-percent-ev-batteries-replaced-to-date/ |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=TESLARATI |language=en-US}}</ref> Studies have confirmed that EV batteries can outlast the vehicle's lifetime with minimal degradation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Modern EV Batteries Rarely Fail: Study |url=https://insideevs.com/news/717187/ev-battery-replacements-due-failure-study/ |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=InsideEVs |language=en}}</ref>
The financial risk associated with future replacement is collapsing due to advancements in battery manufacturing and economics.<ref>{{Cite web |last=ocatsaros |date=2024-12-10 |title=Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Prices See Largest Drop Since 2017, Falling to $115 per Kilowatt-Hour: BloombergNEF |url=https://about.bnef.com/insights/commodities/lithium-ion-battery-pack-prices-see-largest-drop-since-2017-falling-to-115-per-kilowatt-hour-bloombergnef/ |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=BloombergNEF |language=en-US}}</ref> Industry reports project that global market oversupply will persist through 2028, accelerating price reductions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lithium battery oversupply, low prices seen through 2028 despite energy storage boom: CEA {{!}} Utility Dive |url=https://www.utilitydive.com/news/lithium-ion-battery-oversupply-low-prices-energy-storage-boom/725942/ |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=www.utilitydive.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-05 |title=The battery industry has entered a new phase – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/commentaries/the-battery-industry-has-entered-a-new-phase |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref>
=== Performance in extreme climates === Electric vehicle range and battery performance are negatively affected by extreme cold, as ambient temperatures necessitate diverting energy for cabin heating and maintaining optimal battery temperature. A comprehensive winter performance study by the Canadian Automobile Association (CAA) revealed that cold weather significantly impacts driving range, with vehicles experiencing reductions between 14% and 39% compared to their official estimates when operated at −15<sup>∘</sup>C.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Winter EV Performance Study Reveals Cold Weather Reduces EV Range By Up To 39% {{!}} EV.com |url=https://ev.com/news/winter-ev-performance-study-reveals-cold-weather-reduces-ev-range-by-up-to-39 |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=ev.com |language=en}}</ref> This quantifiable range loss presents a significant practical challenge for owners in cold climates. However, as the industry matures, increasing standardization and optimization of these thermal systems are expected to mitigate cold weather range anxiety.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Here's How Much Range These Popular EVs Lose In The Cold |url=https://insideevs.com/news/747374/ev-range-loss-cold-heat-pump-data/ |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=InsideEVs |language=en}}</ref>
==== Heating ==== A heat pump system, capable of cooling the cabin during summer and heating it during winter, is an efficient way of heating and cooling EVs.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Beedham|first=Matthew|date=2021-02-03|title=What's a heat pump and why do EVs use them?|url=https://thenextweb.com/news/whats-a-heat-pump-and-why-do-evs-use-them|access-date=2021-07-28|website=TNW {{!}} Shift|language=en|archive-date=28 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728143302/https://thenextweb.com/news/whats-a-heat-pump-and-why-do-evs-use-them|url-status=live}}</ref> For vehicles which are connected to the grid, battery EVs can be preheated, or cooled, with little or no need for battery energy, especially for short trips. Most new electric cars come with heat pumps as standard.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-07-26 |title=Heat pumps in electric vehicles: What are they for? {{!}} Inquieto |url=https://www.soyinquieto.com/en/blog/heat-pumps-in-electric-vehicles-what-are-they-for/ |access-date=2023-11-05 |language=en-US}}</ref>
=== Safety === Electric vehicle safety regulations have evolved significantly since the initial UN ECE Regulation 100. Current regulations focus on thermal runaway protection, with various international standards mandating advance warning systems and thermal propagation containment measures.
Recent technological developments address thermal runaway concerns more proactively. Advanced fire protection materials for EV batteries have become a critical research area, with developments in ceramics, mica, aerogels, coatings, and phase change materials designed to prevent or delay thermal runaway propagation.<ref name="auto12">{{Cite book |url=https://www.idtechex.com/en/research-report/fire-protection-materials-for-ev-batteries/988 |title=Fire Protection Materials for EV Batteries 2024–2034: Markets, Trends, and Forecasts |date=2024-01-31 |isbn=978-1-83570-016-7 |language=en}}</ref>
Current regulations vary by region, with China being an early adopter of thermal runaway-specific requirements mandating prevention of fire or smoke exiting battery packs for five minutes after an event occurs. However, industry experts suggest longer escape times may be necessary for future regulations, with original equipment manufacturers targeting extended protection periods to pre-empt future regulatory requirements.<ref name="auto12" />
Research published in the British Medical Journal indicates that electric cars hit pedestrians at twice the rate of petrol or diesel vehicles due to being quieter.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Searles |first=Michael |date=2024-05-22 |title=Electric cars 'hit pedestrians at twice the rate of petrol or diesel vehicles' |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/05/21/electric-cars-pedestrians-twice-rate-petrol-diesel/ |url-access=subscription |access-date=2024-06-13 |work=The Telegraph |language=en-GB |issn=0307-1235 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240614091055/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2024/05/21/electric-cars-pedestrians-twice-rate-petrol-diesel/ |archive-date= 2024-06-14 }}</ref>
=== Repair shops === The infrastructure for vehicle repairs after accidents is a concern for insurers and mechanics due to safety requirements.<ref>Nick Carey; Josie Kao and Louise Heavens. (5 July 2023). "EV batteries remain major challenge for insurers – UK's Thatcham". [https://www.reuters.com/business/autos-transportation/ev-batteries-remain-major-challenge-insurers-uks-thatcham-2023-07-04/ Reuters website] Retrieved 5 July 2023.</ref> Although no fatalities have been reported in electric vehicle repair till year 2024, repairing the high voltage battery includes electrical injury, arc flash and fire hazard.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Linja-aho |first=Vesa |date=September 2024 |title=Assessing the Electrical Risks in Electric Vehicle Repair: Results for use in Developing Safe Working Practices and Regulations |journal=IEEE Industry Applications Magazine |volume=30 |issue=5 |pages=32–41 |bibcode=2024IIAM...30e..32L |doi=10.1109/MIAS.2024.3387142 |issn=1077-2618}}</ref> Batteries and other components must be carefully evaluated rather than being totally written off by insurers.<ref>Nick Carey. (27 June 2023). "UK firm Metis touts battery sensor that could ease EV scrappage problem". [https://www.reuters.com/technology/uk-firm-metis-touts-battery-sensor-that-could-ease-ev-scrappage-problem-2023-06-27/ Reuters website] Retrieved 5 July 2023.</ref>
=== Socio-economic === A 2003 study in the United Kingdom found that "[p]ollution is most concentrated in areas where young children and their parents are more likely to live and least concentrated in areas to which the elderly tend to migrate," and that "those communities that are most polluted and which also emit the least pollution tend to be amongst the poorest in Britain."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mitchell |first1=Gordon |last2=Dorling |first2=Danny |date=2003 |title=An Environmental Justice Analysis of British Air Quality |journal=Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=909–929 |bibcode=2003EnPlA..35..909M |doi=10.1068/a35240}}</ref> A 2019 UK study found that "households in the poorest areas emit the least NOx and PM, whilst the least poor areas emitted the highest, per km, vehicle emissions per household through having higher vehicle ownership, owning more diesel vehicles and driving further."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barnes |first1=Joanna H. |last2=Chatterton |first2=Tim J. |last3=Longhurst |first3=James W.S. |date=August 2019 |title=Emissions vs exposure: Increasing injustice from road traffic-related air pollution in the United Kingdom |journal=Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment |volume=73 |pages=56–66 |bibcode=2019TRPD...73...56B |doi=10.1016/j.trd.2019.05.012 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
The transport planner, Karel Martens, in a 2009 article warned that electric vehicles only solve the problem of emissions by cars while not solving or improving their impact on the amount of space used by cars or parking issues. Martens who is of the field of Transport Justice, also said that electric vehicles do not improve accessibility to people who do not own cars.<ref name=":32">{{Cite web |title=Kan de wereld de elektrische auto wel aan? |url=https://www.trouw.nl/nieuws/het-gevaar-van-de-elektrische-auto~b5e27595/?referrer=https://www.google.com/ |access-date=2025-04-25 |language=Nl}}</ref><ref name=":42">Elektrische auto belemmert duurzame mobiliteit Martens, C.J.C.M. 2009, Article / Letter to editor (Geografie. Vaktijdschrift voor Geografen, 18, 8, (2009), pp. 14–15) https://repository.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/handle/2066/78366/78366.pdf?sequence=1</ref>
== Government incentivization == {{Main|Government incentives for plug-in electric vehicles}}
{{See also|Electric car use by country}}
The IEA suggests that taxing inefficient internal combustion engine vehicles could encourage adoption of EVs, with taxes raised being used to fund subsidies for EVs.<ref name="global-ev-outlook-20232" /> Government procurement is sometimes used to encourage national EV manufacturers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=171263|title=EESL to procure 10,000 Electric Vehicles from TATA Motors|website=Press Information Bureau |date=29 September 2017 |access-date=7 February 2018|archive-date=8 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180208123532/http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=171263}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://qz.com/1095005/tata-motors-and-mahindra-are-in-the-drivers-seat-as-india-revs-up-its-grand-electric-vehicles-plan/ |date=October 6, 2017 |title=As India revs up its grand electric vehicles plan, Tata and Mahindra are in the driver's seat|last=Balachandran|first=Manu|work=Quartz|access-date=7 February 2018|archive-date=8 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180208004645/https://qz.com/1095005/tata-motors-and-mahindra-are-in-the-drivers-seat-as-india-revs-up-its-grand-electric-vehicles-plan/|url-status=live}}</ref> Many countries will ban sales of fossil fuel road vehicles between 2025 and 2040.<ref>{{Cite web|title=5 things to know about the future of electric vehicles|url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/05/electric-vehicle-sales-sustainability-iea/ |first1=Walé |last1=Azeez |access-date=2021-06-07|website=World Economic Forum|date=12 May 2021 |language=en|archive-date=16 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210616070220/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/05/electric-vehicle-sales-sustainability-iea/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Many governments offer incentives to promote the use of electric vehicles, with the goals of reducing air pollution and oil consumption. Some incentives intend to increase purchases of electric vehicles by offsetting the purchase price with a grant. Other incentives include lower tax rates or exemption from certain taxes, and investment in charging infrastructure.
{{As of|2025}} most European countries offer financial incentives to encourage commercial EV adoption.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-03 |title=Zero-emission commercial vehicles: Tax benefits and incentives (2025) |url=https://www.acea.auto/fact/zero-emission-commercial-vehicles-tax-benefits-and-incentives-2025/ |access-date=2026-03-17 |website=ACEA – European Automobile Manufacturers' Association |language=en-GB}}</ref> Partnerships between EV manufacturers and utility companies have also provided incentives and sales on EV purchases to promote cleaner energy usage and transportation.<ref name="US EPA2">{{Cite web |last=US EPA |first=OAR |date=2021-05-14 |title=Electric Vehicle Myths |url=https://www.epa.gov/greenvehicles/electric-vehicle-myths |access-date=2025-02-20 |website=United States Environmental Protection Agency |language=en}}</ref> Companies selling EVs have partnered with local electric utilities to provide large incentives on some electric vehicles.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Accelerating the Transition to Electric School Buses |url=https://uspirgedfund.org/reports/usf/accelerating-transition-electric-school-buses|access-date=2021-07-29|website=U.S. PIRG Education Fund |date= February 1, 2021 |archive-date=29 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210729182202/https://uspirgedfund.org/reports/usf/accelerating-transition-electric-school-buses|url-status=live}}</ref>
== Infrastructure management == With the increase in number of electric vehicles, it is necessary to create an appropriate number of charging stations to supply the increasing demand.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.vehcom.2019.100188|title=A traffic-aware electric vehicle charging management system for smart cities|year=2019|last1=Barbecho Bautista|first1=Pablo|last2=Lemus Cárdenas|first2=Leticia|last3=Urquiza Aguiar|first3=Luis|last4=Aguilar Igartua|first4=Mónica|journal=Vehicular Communications|volume=20|article-number=100188|hdl=2117/172770 |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.adhoc.2019.101929|title=Interoperability network model for traffic forecast and full electric vehicles power supply management within the smart city|year=2019|last1=Fernandez Pallarés|first1=Victor|last2=Cebollada|first2=Juan Carlos Guerri|last3=Martínez|first3=Alicia Roca|journal=Ad Hoc Networks|volume=93|article-number=101929|hdl=10251/144319 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> While the deployment of public charging infrastructure is accelerating globally, the adoption rate of EVs risks outpacing network expansion, leading to potential future congestion. Experts concur that large-scale EV adoption will inevitably stress local distribution networks if charging is conducted randomly during peak hours of electricity demand. This unmanaged demand risks grid instability and necessitates proactive management from utilities.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Diouf |first=Boucar |date=2025-09-05 |title=Is the Grid Ready for the Electric Vehicle Transition? |journal=Energies |language=en |volume=18 |issue=17 |page=4730 |doi=10.3390/en18174730 |doi-access=free |issn=1996-1073 }}</ref>
In the United States, charging ports saw quarterly increases between 4.6% and 6.3% in early 2024. However, projections indicate a measurable risk of insufficient density. In the US, the ratio of electric light-duty vehicles per public charging point is projected to climb dramatically from approximately 18:1 in 2023 to over 80:1 by 2035 . This sharply increasing ratio confirms that current deployment, while active, may be structurally insufficient to prevent charging queues unless aggressive government targets, such as the US objective of 500,000 public charging ports by 2030, are met and exceeded.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Alternative Fuels Data Center: Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Trends |url=https://afdc.energy.gov/fuels/electricity-infrastructure-trends |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=afdc.energy.gov |language=en-US}}</ref>{{Globalize inline|date=March 2026}}
Policy mandates are driving targeted deployment to alleviate infrastructure pressure. Countries like India have set requirements for installing chargers every 25 km along major highways.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=Trends in charging infrastructure – Global EV Outlook 2023 – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2023/trends-in-charging-infrastructure |access-date=2025-10-14 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref> Logistical hurdles regarding charge times are being addressed by rapid advancements in charging technology. Commercially available DC fast charging stations currently deliver 250–350 kW, and regulatory frameworks, such as the EU's Alternative Fuels Infrastructure Regulation (AFIR), are preparing for the eventual commercialization of 1 MW charging stations. The transition to 1 MW charging, however, requires significant investment in both installation and grid upgrades.<ref name=":12" />
=== Stabilization of the grid === [[File:V2GEnabledEVFastCharger.jpg|thumb|Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) charger where energy can flow back into the grid if needed]]
Since EVs can be plugged into the electric grid when not in use, battery-powered vehicles could reduce the need for dispatchable generation by feeding electricity into the grid from their batteries during periods of high demand and low supply (such as just after sunset) while doing most of their charging at night or midday, when there is unused generating capacity.<ref name="Liasi2">{{cite book |doi=10.1109/IranianCEE.2017.7985237 |chapter=Electric vehicles connection to microgrid effects on peak demand with and without demand response |title=2017 Iranian Conference on Electrical Engineering (ICEE) |year=2017 |last1=Liasi |first1=Sahand Ghaseminejad |last2=Golkar |first2=Masoud Aliakbar |pages=1272–1277 |isbn=978-1-5090-5963-8 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=It's not just cars driving the EV revolution in emerging markets |url=https://www.schroders.com/en-us/us/institutional/insights/its-not-just-cars-driving-the-ev-revolution-in-emerging-markets |access-date=2023-04-12 |website=www.schroders.com |language=en-us |quote=Beyond grid stabilisation benefits, smart charging of EVs, using differentiated electricity tariffs in off-peak hours, may also mitigate the pressure on electricity demand. That's because vehicles can be charged during the day, when demand is lower and renewables generation is available.}}</ref> This vehicle-to-grid (V2G) connection has the potential to reduce the need for new power plants, as long as vehicle owners do not mind reducing the life of their batteries, by being drained by the power company during peak demand. Electric vehicle parking lots can provide demand response.<ref name="Shafie-khah Heydarian-Forushani 20162">{{cite journal |last1=Shafie-khah |first1=Miadreza |last2=Heydarian-Forushani |first2=Ehsan |last3=Osorio |first3=Gerardo J. |last4=Gil |first4=Fabio A. S. |last5=Aghaei |first5=Jamshid |last6=Barani |first6=Mostafa |last7=Catalao |first7=Joao P. S. |title=Optimal Behavior of Electric Vehicle Parking Lots as Demand Response Aggregation Agents |journal=IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid |date=November 2016 |volume=7 |issue=6 |pages=2654–2665 |doi=10.1109/TSG.2015.2496796 |bibcode=2016ITSG....7.2654S }}</ref>
Current electricity infrastructure may need to cope with increasing shares of variable-output power sources such as wind and solar. This variability could be addressed by adjusting the speed at which EV batteries are charged, or possibly even discharged.<ref>{{Cite web |title=It's not just cars driving the EV revolution in emerging markets |url=https://www.schroders.com/en-us/us/institutional/insights/its-not-just-cars-driving-the-ev-revolution-in-emerging-markets |access-date=2023-04-12 |website=www.schroders.com |language=en-us |quote=Intermittency from solar or wind technologies can put creating voltage and frequency variations. Batteries can charge and discharge to stabilise the grid in such instances. The batteries of electric vehicles, e-buses or electric two-wheelers, while connected to the grid, could therefore play a role in protecting a grid's stability.}}</ref>
Some concepts see battery exchanges and battery charging stations, much like gas/petrol stations today. These will require enormous storage and charging potentials, which could be manipulated to vary the rate of charging, and to output power during shortage periods, much as diesel generators are used for short periods to stabilize some national grids.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.claverton-energy.com/energy-experts-library/downloads/enginesgasturbines |title=Engines and Gas Turbines | Claverton Group |publisher=Claverton-energy.com |date=18 November 2008 |access-date=19 September 2009 |archive-date=6 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090906092124/http://www.claverton-energy.com/energy-experts-library/downloads/enginesgasturbines |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[http://www.claverton-energy.com/download/131/ National Grid's use of Emergency. Diesel Standby Generator's in dealing with grid intermittency and variability. Potential Contribution in assisting renewables] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100217164416/http://www.claverton-energy.com/download/131/ |date=17 February 2010 }}, David Andrews, Senior Technical Consultant, Biwater Energy, A talk originally given by as the Energy Manager at Wessex Water at an Open University Conference on Intermittency, 24 January 2006</ref>
== In-development technologies == {{AI-generated|section=In-development|date=May 2026|reason=Text added here, see WP:AISIGNS -- superficial analyses, promotional tone, vocab distro typical of LLM text, etc}} {{Main|Electric double-layer capacitor}}
Conventional electric double-layer capacitors (supercapacitors) continue to be developed to achieve higher energy densities while maintaining their characteristic fast charging capabilities and extended lifespans. Recent research has focused on solid-state supercapacitor configurations that eliminate liquid electrolytes, providing enhanced safety and design flexibility.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=Chun |last2=Zhang |first2=Jin |last3=Young |first3=Neil P. |last4=Snaith |first4=Henry J. |last5=Grant |first5=Patrick S. |date=2016-05-10 |title=Solid-state supercapacitors with rationally designed heterogeneous electrodes fabricated by large area spray processing for wearable energy storage applications |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |bibcode=2016NatSR...625684H |doi=10.1038/srep25684 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=4861981 |pmid=27161379 |article-number=25684}}</ref> Advanced developments include all-graphene oxide flexible solid-state supercapacitors with enhanced electrochemical performance, achieving areal capacitances of 14.5 mF cm⁻² among the highest values for any graphene-based supercapacitor.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ogata |first1=Chikako |last2=Kurogi |first2=Ruriko |last3=Awaya |first3=Keisuke |last4=Hatakeyama |first4=Kazuto |last5=Taniguchi |first5=Takaaki |last6=Koinuma |first6=Michio |last7=Matsumoto |first7=Yasumichi |date=2017-08-09 |title=All-Graphene Oxide Flexible Solid-State Supercapacitors with Enhanced Electrochemical Performance |journal=ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces |volume=9 |issue=31 |pages=26151–26160 |bibcode=2017AAMI....926151O |doi=10.1021/acsami.7b04180 |issn=1944-8244 |pmid=28715632}}</ref>
Recent breakthroughs include dual storage mechanism nanoscale solid-state lithium-ion supercapacitors using atomic layer deposition-synthesized lithium phosphorus oxynitride (LiPON) as solid-state electrolyte, demonstrating capacitance densities of 500 nF·mm⁻² with excellent cycling stability over ten thousand cycles.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sallaz |first1=Valentin |last2=Bedjaoui |first2=Messaoud |last3=Poulet |first3=Sylvain |last4=Gauthier |first4=Nicolas |last5=Prabhakaran |first5=Sneka |last6=Perez |first6=Emeric |last7=Salvador |first7=Violaine |last8=Pillonnet |first8=Gaël |last9=Voiron |first9=Frédéric |last10=Oukassi |first10=Sami |date=2025-02-06 |title=Dual Storage Mechanism in Nanoscale Solid-State Lithium-Ion Supercapacitors |journal=ACS Electrochemistry |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=164–174 |doi=10.1021/acselectrochem.4c00022}}</ref> High-performance solid-state supercapacitors have been developed using silicon electrodes with graphene interconnected networks, showing remarkable performance characteristics comparable to high-power carbon-based supercapacitors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Romanitan |first1=Cosmin |last2=Varasteanu |first2=Pericle |last3=Mihalache |first3=Iuliana |last4=Culita |first4=Daniela |last5=Somacescu |first5=Simona |last6=Pascu |first6=Razvan |last7=Tanasa |first7=Eugenia |last8=Eremia |first8=Sandra A. V. |last9=Boldeiu |first9=Adina |last10=Simion |first10=Monica |last11=Radoi |first11=Antonio |last12=Kusko |first12=Mihaela |date=2018-06-25 |title=High-performance solid state supercapacitors assembling graphene interconnected networks in porous silicon electrode by electrochemical methods using 2,6-dihydroxynaphthalen |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |page=9654 |bibcode=2018NatSR...8.9654R |doi=10.1038/s41598-018-28049-x |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=6018509 |pmid=29942035}}</ref>
Advanced hybrid designs include all-solid-state planar micro-supercapacitors based on 2D vanadium nitride nanosheets and cobalt hydroxide nanoflowers, achieving energy densities of 12.4 mWh cm⁻³ and power densities of 1,750 mW cm⁻³.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Sen |last2=Wu |first2=Zhong-Shuai |last3=Zhou |first3=Feng |last4=Shi |first4=Xiaoyu |last5=Zheng |first5=Shuanghao |last6=Qin |first6=Jieqiong |last7=Xiao |first7=Han |last8=Sun |first8=Chenglin |last9=Bao |first9=Xinhe |date=2018-03-26 |title=All-solid-state high-energy planar hybrid micro-supercapacitors based on 2D VN nanosheets and Co(OH)2 nanoflowers |journal=npj 2D Materials and Applications |language=en |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1038/s41699-018-0052-8 |issn=2397-7132 |doi-access=free |article-number=7}}</ref> Flexible solid-state supercapacitors operating across wide temperature ranges from -70 °C to 220 °C have been demonstrated using polycation-polybenzimidazole blend electrolytes doped with phosphoric acid.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chaichi |first1=Ardalan |last2=Venugopalan |first2=Gokul |last3=Devireddy |first3=Ram |last4=Arges |first4=Christopher |last5=Gartia |first5=Manas Ranjan |date=2020-06-22 |title=A Solid-State and Flexible Supercapacitor That Operates across a Wide Temperature Range |journal=ACS Applied Energy Materials |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=5693–5704 |bibcode=2020ACSAE...3.5693C |doi=10.1021/acsaem.0c00636}}</ref>
=== Battery advancements === '''Solid-state batteries''' represent one of the most promising next-generation battery technologies, offering potential advantages over conventional lithium-ion batteries including higher energy density, faster charging, improved safety, and longer lifespan. According to a comprehensive review in Chemical Engineering Journal, all-solid-state lithium batteries using solid electrolytes are regarded as the next generation of energy storage devices, with recent breakthroughs significantly accelerating their path toward commercial viability.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pourzolfaghar |first1=Hamed |last2=Wang |first2=Po-Yuan |last3=Jiang |first3=Xin-Yu |last4=Kositsarakhom |first4=Supapitch |last5=Jirasupcharoen |first5=Wasitpol |last6=Suwantri |first6=Chinatip |last7=Jyothi |first7=Divya |last8=Prabhakaran |first8=Keerthana |last9=Li |first9=Yuan-Yao |date=2024-11-15 |title=Emerging trends and innovations in all-solid-state lithium batteries: A comprehensive review |journal=Chemical Engineering Journal |volume=500 |bibcode=2024ChEnJ.50057394P |doi=10.1016/j.cej.2024.157394 |article-number=157394 }}</ref>
The Fraunhofer ISI Solid-State Battery Roadmap 2035+,<ref>{{cite web |date=2022 |title=Solid-State Battery Roadmap 2035+ |url=https://www.isi.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/isi/dokumente/cct/2022/SSB_Roadmap.pdf |access-date=July 19, 2025 |website=Fraunhofer ISI |publisher=Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research}}</ref> developed with contributions from more than 100 European experts, provides a comprehensive assessment of solid-state battery development potential over the next decade, benchmarking against established lithium-ion batteries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wu |first1=Dengxu |last2=Wu |first2=Fan |title=Toward better batteries: Solid-state battery roadmap 2035+ |journal=ETransportation |date=April 2023 |volume=16 |article-number=100224 |doi=10.1016/j.etran.2022.100224 }}</ref> According to market analysis published in Scientific Talks, solid-state batteries are projected to reach mass production with costs of 140–175 USD per kWh by 2028–2030, depending on technological and manufacturing challenges.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alkhalidi |first1=Ammar |last2=Khawaja |first2=Mohamad K. |last3=Ismail |first3=Sundos Mohammad |date=2024-09-01 |title=Solid-state batteries, their future in the energy storage and electric vehicles market |journal=Science Talks |volume=11 |doi=10.1016/j.sctalk.2024.100382 |issn=2772-5693 |doi-access=free |article-number=100382}}</ref>
Recent commercial developments include Mercedes-Benz and Factorial Energy conducting road tests of semi-solid-state batteries in the EQS sedan, promising a 25% increase in range with energy densities of 391 watt-hours per kilogram. This represents the world's first integration of lithium-metal solid-state batteries into a production vehicle.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mercedes Unveils Semi-Solid-State EV Batteries – IEEE Spectrum |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/mercedes-benz |access-date=2025-07-19 |website=spectrum.ieee.org |language=en}}</ref> However, according to IEEE Spectrum analysis, solid-state batteries face significant "production hell" challenges, with experts noting pointed skepticism toward current technical announcements and the engineering obstacles that lie ahead.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Solid-State Batteries Could Face "Production Hell" – IEEE Spectrum |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/solid-state-battery-production-challenges |access-date=2025-07-19 |website=spectrum.ieee.org |language=en}}</ref>
Toyota continues to lead development efforts, targeting solid-state battery production by 2027–2028 with goals of 1,000 km range and 10-minute fast charging capabilities. The company claims recent technological advancements have overcome previous battery life trade-offs and switched focus to mass production readiness.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Toyota Teases Solid-State Batteries in 2027 – IEEE Spectrum |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/toyota-solid-state-battery |access-date=2025-07-19 |website=spectrum.ieee.org |language=en}}</ref> Research published in ACS Energy Letters emphasizes that while all-solid-state batteries show promise for electric vehicles, significant challenges remain in Li-metal implementation, interfacial stability, and large-scale manufacturing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sun |first=Yang-Kook |date=2020-10-09 |title=Promising All-Solid-State Batteries for Future Electric Vehicles |journal=ACS Energy Letters |volume=5 |issue=10 |pages=3221–3223 |bibcode=2020ACSEL...5.3221S |doi=10.1021/acsenergylett.0c01977}}</ref>
Sodium-ion batteries continue to show promise with potential energy densities of 400 Wh/kg and minimal expansion/contraction during charge cycles, while relying on more abundant and cost-effective materials than lithium-ion technology. Recent research published in Energy & Fuels highlights sodium-ion and all-solid-state sodium batteries as promising choices for future energy storage systems due to abundant sodium resources and lower costs compared to lithium-based systems.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shi |first1=Kuangyi |last2=Guan |first2=Bin |last3=Zhuang |first3=Zhongqi |last4=Chen |first4=Junyan |last5=Chen |first5=Yujun |last6=Ma |first6=Zeren |last7=Zhu |first7=Chenyu |last8=Hu |first8=Xuehan |last9=Zhao |first9=Sikai |last10=Dang |first10=Hongtao |last11=Guo |first11=Jiangfeng |last12=Chen |first12=Lei |last13=Shu |first13=Kaiyou |last14=Li |first14=Yuan |last15=Guo |first15=Zelong |date=2024-06-06 |title=Recent Progress and Prospects on Sodium-Ion Battery and All-Solid-State Sodium Battery: A Promising Choice of Future Batteries for Energy Storage |journal=Energy & Fuels |volume=38 |issue=11 |pages=9280–9319 |bibcode=2024EnFue..38.9280S |doi=10.1021/acs.energyfuels.4c00980 |issn=0887-0624}}</ref>
==== Battery management and intermediate storage ==== Another improvement is to decouple the electric motor from the battery through electronic control, using supercapacitors to buffer large but short power demands and regenerative braking energy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Horn |first1=Michael |last2=MacLeod |first2=Jennifer |last3=Liu |first3=Meinan |last4=Webb |first4=Jeremy |last5=Motta |first5=Nunzio |title=Supercapacitors: A new source of power for electric cars? |journal=Economic Analysis and Policy |date=March 2019 |volume=61 |pages=93–103 |doi=10.1016/j.eap.2018.08.003 }}</ref> The development of new cell types combined with intelligent cell management improved both weak points mentioned above. The cell management involves not only monitoring the health of the cells but also a redundant cell configuration (one more cell than needed). With sophisticated switched wiring, it is possible to condition one cell while the rest are on duty.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}}
=== Electric roads === {{Main|Electric road}}
[[File:Electric_road_systems.svg|thumb|Three types of electric road systems. An electric bus (black) receives power from the road: (A) with three inductive pickups (red) from a strip of resonant inductive coils (blue) embedded several centimeters under the road (gray); (B) with a current collector (red) sliding over a ground-level power supply rail segment (blue) flush with the surface of the road (gray); (C) with an overhead current collector (red) sliding against a powered overhead line (blue)]]
An electric road system (ERS) is a road which supplies electric power to vehicles travelling on it. Common implementations are overhead power lines above the road, ground-level power supply through conductive rails, and dynamic wireless power transfer (DWPT) through resonant inductive coils or inductive rails embedded in the road. Overhead power lines are limited to commercial vehicles while ground-level rails and inductive power transfer can be used by any vehicle, which allows for public charging through a power metering and billing systems. Of the three methods, ground-level conductive rails are estimated to be the most cost-effective.<ref name="Fernandez2">{{citation |author=Francisco J. Márquez-Fernández |title=Power conversion challenges with an all-electric land transport system |date=May 20, 2019 |url=http://emobilitycentre.se/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/Power-Conversion-Challenges-with-an-All-Electric-Land-Transport-System.pdf |publisher=Swedish Electromobility Centre}}</ref>{{rp|10–11}}
==== National electric road projects ==== Government studies and trials have been conducted in several countries seeking a national electric road system (ERS) network.
Korea was the first to implement an induction-based public electric road with a commercial bus line in 2013 after testing an experimental shuttle service in 2009,<ref name="TRL2">{{citation |author1=D Bateman |title=Electric Road Systems: a solution for the future |date=October 8, 2018 |url=https://trl.co.uk/sites/default/files/PIARC%20ERS%20Academy%20Report%20PPR875_Final%20Version.pdf |access-date=November 19, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803034309/https://trl.co.uk/sites/default/files/PIARC%20ERS%20Academy%20Report%20PPR875_Final%20Version.pdf |archive-date=August 3, 2020 |publisher=TRL |display-authors=1 |author2=D Leal}}</ref>{{rp|11–18}} but it was shut down due to aging infrastructure amidst controversy over the continued public funding of the technology.<ref name="korea-controversy2">{{cite news |author=Kwak Yeon-soo |date=24 March 2019 |title=ICT minister nominee accused of wasting research money |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/tech/2019/04/325_265924.html |newspaper=The Korea Times}}</ref>
United Kingdom municipal projects in 2015<ref name="uk-budget2">{{citation |author=Ed Targett |title=Who Killed the Electric Highway? |date=September 20, 2016}}</ref> and 2021 found wireless electric roads financially unfeasible.<ref name="uk-expensive2">{{citation |author=Steven Pinkerton-Clark |title=DynaCoV – Dynamic Charging of Vehicles – Project closedown report |date=June 22, 2022 |url=https://www.cenex.co.uk/app/uploads/2022/12/20220622-DynaCoV-Project-Closedown-Report.pdf}}</ref>
The Swedish Transport Administration electric road program started assessing electric road systems (ERS) in 2013.<ref name="businessmodel2">{{citation |author=Björn Hasselgren |title=Swedish ERS – program background, current analysis phase and plans ahead |date=October 9, 2019 |url=https://www.entelios.se/globalassets/los-energy2/entelios-innhold/hasselgren-ers-systems-in-sweden-191010.pdf |publisher=Swedish Transport Administration}}{{Dead link|date=March 2025|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>{{rp|5}} After receiving ERS construction offers in excess of the project's budget in 2023, Sweden pursued cost-reduction measures for either wireless ERS or rail ERS.<ref name="cost20232">{{citation |title=Vi avbryter upphandlingen för Sverige första permanenta elväg |date=August 28, 2023 |website=Trafikverket |url=https://www.trafikverket.se/vara-projekt/projekt-i-orebro-lan/sveriges-forsta-permanenta-elvag/nyheter-for-sveriges-forsta-permanenta-elvag/2023/vi-avbryter-upphandlingen-for-sverige-forsta-permanenta-elvag/}}</ref> The project's final report, published in 2024, recommended against funding a national ERS in Sweden as it would not be cost-effective, unless the technology was adopted by its trading partners such as by France and Germany. Following the report, the project was paused.<ref name="2024-summary2">{{citation |author=Trafikverket |title=Arbetet med Sveriges första permanenta elväg pausas |date=December 2, 2024 |url=https://www.trafikverket.se/vara-projekt/projekt-i-orebro-lan/sveriges-forsta-permanenta-elvag/nyheter-for-sveriges-forsta-permanenta-elvag/2024/arbetet-med-sveriges-forsta-permanenta-elvag-pausas/}}</ref><ref name="2024-full-report2">{{citation |author=Kenneth Natanaelsson |title=Planeringsunderlag elväg |date=November 29, 2024 |url=https://trafikverket.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1917105/FULLTEXT01.pdf |publisher=Trafikverket}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Trafikverket |date=2024-12-02 |title=Arbetet med Sveriges första permanenta elväg pausas |url=https://www.trafikverket.se/vara-projekt/projekt-i-orebro-lan/sveriges-forsta-permanenta-elvag/nyheter-for-sveriges-forsta-permanenta-elvag/2024/arbetet-med-sveriges-forsta-permanenta-elvag-pausas/ |access-date=2025-09-13 |website=Trafikverket |language=sv}}</ref>
Germany found in 2023 that the wireless electric road system (wERS) by Electreon collects 64.3% of the transmitted energy, poses many difficulties during installation, and blocks access to other infrastructure in the road.<ref name="WPTCE-japan-20242">{{cite book |last1=Wendt |first1=Andreas |title=2024 IEEE Wireless Power Technology Conference and Expo (WPTCE) |last2=Arnold |first2=Maximilian |last3=Ezer |first3=Oren |last4=Hoppe |first4=Axel |last5=Kanesaki |first5=Masaki |last6=Kneidl |first6=Maximilian |last7=Kurpat |first7=Thorsten |last8=Kühl |first8=Alexander |last9=Maemura |first9=Masato |date=2024 |isbn=979-8-3503-4913-9 |pages=177–182 |chapter=Wireless Electric Road Systems – Technology Readiness and Recent Developments |doi=10.1109/WPTCE59894.2024.10557264 |last10=Masuch |first10=Michael |last11=Pöllauer |first11=Alexander |last12=Schmidt |first12=Robert |last13=Sunderlin |first13=Håkan |last14=Yamaguchi |first14=Nobuhisa}}</ref> Germany trialed overhead lines in three projects in the 2010s and 2020s and reported they are too expensive, difficult to maintain, and pose a safety risk.<ref name="germany-end2">{{citation |title=Bilanz E-Highway: Lastwagen können Hälfte an CO2 sparen |date=March 1, 2024 |url=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/wirtschaft/energie-bilanz-e-highway-lastwagen-koennen-haelfte-an-co2-sparen-dpa.urn-newsml-dpa-com-20090101-240229-99-169944 |publisher=DPA}}</ref><ref name="germany-overhead-difficulties2">{{citation |author=Adrian Mahler |title=Verlängerung der Laufzeit wird das eWayBW-Pilotprojekt nicht retten |date=April 12, 2024 |website=BNN.DE |url=https://bnn.de/mittelbaden/gaggenau/meinung-verlaengerung-der-laufzeit-wird-ewaybw-nicht-retten}}</ref><ref name="germany-overhead-safety2">{{citation |author=Adrian Mahler |title=Kritik der FDP: eWayBW-Oberleitung verhindert Landung von Rettungshelikopter auf B462 |date=March 18, 2024 |website=BNN.DE |url=https://bnn.de/mittelbaden/gaggenau/oberleitung-verhindert-landung-von-rettungshelikopter-auf-b462}}</ref>
France found similar drawbacks for overhead lines as Germany did. France began several electric road pilot projects in 2023 for inductive and rail systems.<ref name="usinenouvelle-may-20242">{{citation |author=Marc Fressoz |title=Les autoroutiers divisés sur les solutions à mettre en place pour faire rouler des camions électriques |date=May 9, 2024 |website=L'USINENOUVELLE.com |url=https://www.usinenouvelle.com/article/les-autoroutiers-divises-sur-les-solutions-a-mettre-en-place-pour-faire-rouler-des-camions-electriques.N2208923}}</ref> Ground-level power supply systems are considered the most likely candidates.<ref name="ers-france-20222">{{citation |author=Laurent Miguet |title=Sur les routes de la mobilité électrique |date=April 28, 2022 |website=Le Moniteur |url=https://www.lemoniteur.fr/article/mobilite-electrique-2-5-une-fenetre-etroite-pour-brancher-les-autoroutes.2203237}}</ref>
== See also == {{Portal|Energy|Renewable energy|Technology|Cars|Environment }}
* {{anl|Electric rickshaw}} * {{anl|Electriquette}} * {{anl|Neighborhood Electric Vehicle|abbr=NEV}} * {{anl|Polluter pays principle}} * {{anl|Alternative fuel vehicle}} * {{anl|Vehicle classification by propulsion system}} * {{anl|Personal transporter|Personal electric vehicle| abbr=PEV}} <references group="note" responsive="1"></references> <references group="lower-alpha" responsive="1"></references>
== References == <references responsive="1"></references>
== Further reading == {{refbegin}} * {{cite journal |last1=Boulanger |first1=A G |last2=Chu |first2=A C |last3=Maxx |first3=S |last4=Waltz |first4=D L |date=2011 |title=Vehicle Electrification: Status and Issues |journal=Proceedings of the IEEE |volume=99 |issue=6 |pages=1116–1138 |doi=10.1109/JPROC.2011.2112750}} * {{cite journal |last1=Ma |first1=Shao-Chao |last2=Xu |first2=Jin-Hua |last3=Fan |first3=Ying |date=2022 |title=Characteristics and key trends of global electric vehicle technology development: A multi-method patent analysis |journal=Journal of Cleaner Production |volume=338 |bibcode=2022JCPro.33830502M |doi=10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.130502 |article-number=130502}} * International Energy Agency, [https://www.iea.org/reports/global-ev-outlook-2022 Global EV Outlook 2022]. * {{cite book |last1=Nanaki |first1=Evanthia A. |title=Electric Vehicles for Smart Cities |date=2021 |isbn=978-0-12-815801-2 |pages=13–49 |chapter=Electric vehicles |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-815801-2.00006-X}} * {{cite journal |last1=Haghani |first1=Milad |last2=Sprei |first2=Frances |last3=Kazemzadeh |first3=Khashayar |last4=Shahhoseini |first4=Zahra |last5=Aghaei |first5=Jamshid |date=2023 |title=Trends in electric vehicles research |journal=Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment |volume=123 |bibcode=2023TRPD..12303881H |doi=10.1016/j.trd.2023.103881 |doi-access=free |article-number=103881}} * {{cite journal |last1=Alonso-Cepeda |first1=Antonio |last2=Villena-Ruiz |first2=Raquel |last3=Honrubia-Escribano |first3=Andrés |last4=Gómez-Lázaro |first4=Emilio |date=2024 |title=A Review on Electric Vehicles for Holistic Robust Integration in Cities: History, Legislation, Meta-Analysis of Technology and Grid Impact |journal=Applied Sciences |volume=14 |issue=16 |page=7147 |doi=10.3390/app14167147 |doi-access=free}} {{refend}}
== External links == {{Commons category-inline|Electrically-powered vehicles|Electrically powered vehicles}}{{Motor fuel}}{{Automobile configuration}}{{Alternative propulsion}}{{Powertrain}}{{Electric vehicles}}{{Environmental technology}} {{Authority control}} Category:Electric vehicles Category:Sustainable transport Category:19th-century introductions