{{Short description|Mine that produces nickel}} [[File:Nickel mine at Hamn, Senja, Troms, Norway, 2014 August.jpg|thumb|Nickel mine in Senja, Norway]]A '''nickel mine''' is a mine that produces nickel. Some mines produce nickel primarily, while some mines produce nickel as a side-product of some other metal that has a higher concentration in the ore.<ref name="ullmann-1"/>
== Geology == Nickel occurs in two general types of ores, sulfides and oxides. The most important sulfide ore is pentlandite (Ni<sub>9</sub>S<sub>8</sub>) although many other nickel sulfides are known. Furthermore, nickel is often a constituent of iron sulfides such as pyrrhotite. The principal (i.e. economically most important) nickel oxides are nickeliferous limonite ((Fe<sub>1−x</sub>Ni<sub>x</sub>)O(OH)·nH<sub>2</sub>O).<ref name="ullmann-1">{{Ullmann|author=Kerfoot, Derek G. E. |title=Nickel|doi=10.1002/14356007.a17_157|year=2005}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |author=Frank K. Crundwell |author2=Michael S. Moats |author3=Venkoba Ramachandran |author4=Timothy G. Robinson |author5=William G. Davenport |chapter=Appendix B – Caron Process for Processing Nickel Laterites|date=2011 |title=Extractive Metallurgy of Nickel, Cobalt and Platinum Group Metals|pages=553–558|publisher=Elsevier|language=en|doi=10.1016/b978-0-08-096809-4.10044-9|isbn=978-0-08-096809-4}}</ref> Pentlandite supplies an estimated 65% of the world's nickel but nickel laterites constitute the largest reserves.
==Extraction== Nickel content of its ores is often only a few percent by weight.
Sulfide ores are subjected to comminution followed by froth flotation. Pentlandite and related minerals separate with sulfides of copper, cobalt, and iron.<ref name="ullmann-1"/>
Two hydrometallurgical methods have been developed to extract nickel and cobalt from nickel laterites, these processes are called sulphuric acid leaching and reduction roast-ammonia leaching. For high-magnesium silicates in lower profiles laterites the exploitation method used is smelting.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Elias|first=Mick|title=Nickel laterite deposits – geological overview, resources and exploitation|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/281422746|journal=ResearchGate}}</ref>
==Reserves and operations== thumb|right|World nickel production, 1946 ===Reserves production=== According to the intergovernmental International Nickel Study Group, in 2017 the countries with the largest volume of nickel ore reserves are Australia (19.5 million metric tons), Brazil (10.5 million metric tons), Russia (7.5 million metric tons), New Caledonia (6.5 million metric tons), Cuba (5.5 million metric tons), and the Philippines (just under 5 million metric tons).<ref name=FactbookNickel2018>{{cite web |url=http://insg.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/publist_The-World-Nickel-Factbook-2018.pdf |title=The World Nickel Factbook 2018 |publisher=International Nickel Study Group |year=2019 |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190710205419/http://insg.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/publist_The-World-Nickel-Factbook-2018.pdf |archive-date=10 July 2019}}</ref> As of 2017, 33 countries produced nickel ore.<ref name=FactbookNickel2018/> Nickel production increased from 2000 to 2013 (when it peaked), decreased from 2014 to 2016, and recovered from 2017 to 2018.<ref name=FactbookNickel2018/>
===Largest mines and operators=== As of 2017, the largest nickel mine operators are (in descending order of kilotonnes mined):<ref name=McCrae>{{cite web |first=Michael |last=McCrae | url=https://www.mining.com/top-nickel-miners-ranked-2017-production |title=Top nickel miners ranked |publisher=Mining.com |date=18 September 2018 |access-date=30 August 2022}}</ref>
* Vale SA, which operates Sudbury Mine (Canada), Voisey's Bay Mine (Canada), Sorowako mine (Indonesia), VNC Goro mine (New Caledonia), Onca Puma mine (Brazil) and Thompson (Canada).<ref name=McCrae/> * Norilsk Nickel, which operates Kola Division (Russia) and Nkomati mine (South Africa).<ref name=McCrae/> * Glencore, which operates Integrated Nickel Operations (Canada), Murrin Murrin (Australia), and Koniambo mine (New Caledonia).<ref name=McCrae/> * BHP, which operates Nickel West (Australia).<ref name=McCrae/> BHP formerly owned Ravensthorpe Nickel Mine in Ravensthorpe, Western Australia; the mine closed in January 2009.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pini|first1=Barbara|last2=Mayes|first2=Robyn|last3=McDonald|first3=Paula|s2cid=128372835|date=2010|title=The emotional geography of a mine closure: a study of the Ravensthorpe nickel mine in Western Australia|journal=Social & Cultural Geography|volume=11|issue=6|pages=559–574|doi=10.1080/14649365.2010.497850|issn=1464-9365}}</ref> * Anglo American plc, which operates Barro Alto (Brazil) and Codemin (Brazil).<ref name=McCrae/> * South32, which operates Cerro Matoso mine (Colombia).<ref name=McCrae/> * Sumitomo Metal Mining Co. (SMM), which operates Sorowako (Indonesia) and Ambatovy mine (Madagascar).<ref name=McCrae/> The company is a subsidiary of the ''keiretsu'' Sumitomo Group.<ref name=Bell>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thebalance.com/the-10-biggest-nickel-producers-2339731|author=Terence Bell|title=The Biggest Nickel Producers|website=The Balance}}</ref> * Western Areas, which operates Spotted Quoll mine (Australia) and Flying mine (Australia).<ref name=McCrae/> * Lundin Mining, which operates Eagle Mine (United States).<ref name=McCrae/> * Terrafame Ltd., which operates Talvivaara mine in Sotkamo (Finland).<ref name=McCrae/>
Other large nickel producers include Jinchuan Group Ltd.,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Li|first1=X.|last2=Wang|first2=S. J.|last3=Liu|first3=T. Y.|last4=Ma|first4=F. S.|date=2004-12-01|title=Engineering geology, ground surface movement and fissures induced by underground mining in the Jinchuan Nickel Mine|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013795204001309|journal=Engineering Geology|series=Engineering Geology in China|language=en|volume=76|issue=1|pages=93–107|doi=10.1016/j.enggeo.2004.06.008|issn=0013-7952|url-access=subscription}}</ref> the largest nickel producer in China,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB119973083056572589 |title=China's Jinchuan to buy miner Tyler |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal Asia |date=8 January 2008 |access-date=30 August 2022}}</ref> and Sherritt,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Plasket|first1=R. P.|last2=Romanchuk|first2=S.|date=1978-03-01|title=Recovery of nickel and copper from high-grade matte at Impala Platinum by the Sherritt process|journal=Hydrometallurgy|language=en|volume=3|issue=2|pages=135–151|doi=10.1016/0304-386X(78)90016-6|issn=0304-386X}}</ref> a Canadian company from Canada that refines nickel from lateritic ores and has operations in Canada, Cuba, Indonesia and Madagascar.<ref name=Bell/>
===Usage=== According to the intergovernmental International Nickel Study Group, as of 2017, an estimated 75% of primary nickel usage went to stainless steel; 3.7% went to the battery industry; and the remainder went to other applications.<ref name=FactbookNickel2018/> By 2023, approximately 65% of primary nickel usage went to stainless steel and 15% to the battery industry.<ref>{{cite web |title=Distribution of primary nickel consumption worldwide in 2023, by industry |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/545041/distribution-of-nickel-consumption-worldwide-by-industry/ |publisher=Statista}}</ref>
== Hazards == A study was conducted by scientists Dan et al on the effects of Nickel smelting fumes, to do this they did the study on NIH/3T3 cells and in the lung tissue of rats. They found that the fumes that the NIH/3T3 cells were transforming into malignant cells meaning that high exposure to Ni-smelting fumes may be harmful as Ni-smelting fumes may be a potential carcinogen in mammalian cells.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Han|first1=Dan|last2=Yang|first2=Yue|last3=Zhang|first3=Lin|last4=Wang|first4=Chao|last5=Wang|first5=Yue|last6=Tan|first6=Wen‐Qiao|last7=Hu|first7=Xue‐Ying|last8=Wu|first8=Yong‐Hui|date=September 2016|title=Nickel‐smelting fumes increased the expression of HIF‐1α through PI3K/ERK pathway in NIH/3T3 cells|journal=Journal of Occupational Health|language=en|volume=58|issue=5|pages=413–424|doi=10.1539/joh.15-0287-OA|pmid=27488040|issn=1341-9145|pmc=5356975}}</ref>
==In the Philippines== In the 2000s, a nickel boom began centered around Claver, Surigao del Norte in the Philippines; in 2017, the government of the Philippines (then the world's largest exporter of nickel ore) engaged in a crackdown against mine operators accused of violating environmental laws; the government closed the operations of 28 of the Philippine's 41 mining companies.<ref>{{cite news |first=Aurora |last=Almendral |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/27/world/asia/philippines-mining-environment.html |title=Philippines Moves to Shut Mines Accused of Polluting |newspaper=The New York Times |date=17 April 2017 |access-date=30 August 2022}}</ref> In 2020, the Philippines became the world's largest producer of nickel ore, after Indonesia halted nickel ore exports; both countries had extensively supplied China, the world's largest purchaser of nickel ore.<ref>{{cite news |title=Philippines set to become world's top nickel ore producer again, surpassing Indonesia |url=https://english.nna.jp/articles/1483 |access-date=January 13, 2021 |agency=Kyodo News |date=September 20, 2019}}</ref> The two largest Philippine nickel companies are Nickel Asia Corp. and Global Ferronickel Holdings Inc.; both operate in the Surigao del Norte region.<ref>{{cite news |first=Enrico |last=Dela Cruz |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-philippines-nickel/philippine-nickel-miners-to-restart-coronavirus-shuttered-sites-idUSKCN22A0VE |title=Philippine nickel miners to restart coronavirus-shuttered sites |date=28 April 2020 |work=Reuters}}</ref>
Nickel mines in the Philippines, while beneficial to the economy, have been harmful to both human health and well-being as well as to the environment.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Vanessa |last=Mock |title=Mining expansion threatens indigenous tribes in Philippines |url=https://www.dw.com/en/mining-expansion-threatens-indigenous-tribes-in-philippines/a-14767028 |access-date=30 August 2022 |publisher=DW News |language=en-GB}}</ref> One example of this is in the Mindoro Oriental region, where nickel mines have left behind toxic mine tailings. This has polluted the water, which is necessary for both humans to drink as well as for them to use for agricultural practices. The nickel mines have also destroyed lands that indigenous tribes have lived on for generations.
== Nickel mine pollution == thumb|Nickel Rim mine in Sudbury, Ontario From 1953 to 1958 Nickel Rim mines operating around Sudbury, Ontario deposited their mine tailings in an impoundment near the mine. The water in the impoundment was later tested and found to have low pH and high concentrations of iron, sulphur and dissolved metals such as aluminum and nickel. This is due to the oxidation of the tailings (usually sulfide minerals like pyrrhotite).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McGregor|first1=R. G.|last2=Blowes|first2=D. W.|last3=Jambor|first3=J. L.|last4=Robertson|first4=W. D.|s2cid=129891810|date=1998-12-01|title=Mobilization and attenuation of heavy metals within a nickel mine tailings impoundment near Sudbury, Ontario, Canada|journal=Environmental Geology|language=en|volume=36|issue=3|pages=305–319|doi=10.1007/s002540050346|issn=1432-0495}}</ref>
The limited oxygen diffusing into the layers<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=McGregor|first1=R. G|last2=Blowes|first2=D. W|date=2002-10-01|title=The physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of three cemented layers within sulfide-bearing mine tailings|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0375674202002558|journal=Journal of Geochemical Exploration|language=en|volume=76|issue=3|pages=195–207|doi=10.1016/S0375-6742(02)00255-8|issn=0375-6742|url-access=subscription}}</ref> causes the tailings to oxidize over a longer period of time, for this reason the water at the impoundment is going to discharge water with high concentrations of iron and sulphate for at least the next 50 years.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Johnson|first1=R.H|last2=Blowes|first2=D.W|last3=Robertson|first3=W.D|last4=Jambor|first4=J.L|date=January 2000|title=The hydrogeochemistry of the Nickel Rim mine tailings impoundment, Sudbury, Ontario|journal=Journal of Contaminant Hydrology|language=en|volume=41|issue=1–2|pages=49–80|doi=10.1016/S0169-7722(99)00068-6|bibcode=2000JCHyd..41...49J}}</ref>
A study found that the Mount Keith Nickel Mine which is an open pit mine in Western Australia is sequestering<ref name="Wilson 121–140">{{Cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Siobhan A.|last2=Harrison|first2=Anna L.|last3=Dipple|first3=Gregory M.|last4=Power|first4=Ian M.|last5=Barker|first5=Shaun L. L.|last6=Ulrich Mayer|first6=K.|last7=Fallon|first7=Stewart J.|last8=Raudsepp|first8=Mati|last9=Southam|first9=Gordon|date=2014-06-01|title=Offsetting of CO2 emissions by air capture in mine tailings at the Mount Keith Nickel Mine, Western Australia: Rates, controls and prospects for carbon neutral mining|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1750583614000851|journal=International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control|language=en|volume=25|pages=121–140|doi=10.1016/j.ijggc.2014.04.002|issn=1750-5836|hdl=10289/8967|hdl-access=free}}</ref> and storing large amounts of carbon dioxide through enhanced weathering of mineral waste, this means that this mine is offsetting approximately 11% of the annual greenhouse gas emissions released by this mine.<ref name="Wilson 121–140"/>
Nickel, copper as well as cobalt deposits became the most sought-after mineral exploration sites worldwide by private companies and national governments, when nickel prices more than doubled from 2017 to 2021. In the US, the only lucrative nickel mine in Riddle, Oregon ceased operation in 1987 due to pollution concerns, but some sites are now actively re-explored as the federal government considers these deposits of strategic importance due to the increased domestic demand for electric vehicles. In 2020, highly valuable nickel, copper and cobalt occurrences were discovered near Tamarack, Minnesota. Environmental groups have expressed concerns over the potential pollution of the Kettle River headwaters, and the Mississippi watershed. The Environmental Protection Agency considers hardrock mining the top polluting industry in the US, and there is a long history of toxic emission problems at such operations around the world.<ref>{{cite web |last=Seitz |first=Greg |date=3 July 2020 |url=https://www.stcroix360.com/2020/07/mining-exploration-near-headwaters-streams-causes-pollution-concerns/ |title=Mining exploration near headwaters streams causes pollution concerns |publisher=St. Croix 360 |access-date=30 August 2022}}</ref><ref>[https://www.slrconsulting.com/projects/tamarack-north-project-pea-update-cftf-design ''Tamarack North Project PEA Update – CFTF Design''] Retrieved 14 June 2021.</ref> Exploratory drilling near Tamarack occurred in 2022.<ref>{{cite news |title=This Remote Mine Could Foretell the U.S. Electric Car Industry's Future |first=Ana |last=Swanson |date=30 August 2022 |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/30/business/economy/electric-cars-us-nickel-mine.html |access-date=30 August 2022}}</ref>
==References== <references />
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