Intensive animal farming

{{short description|Branch of agriculture}} {{Use mdy dates|date=August 2018}} {{Agriculture|land}}{{Animal rights sidebar}} '''Intensive animal farming''', '''industrial livestock production''', and '''macro-farms''',<ref name="macro_farms-">{{cite news |title=The limits in sight for Spanish macro farms |url=https://inspain.news/the-limits-in-sight-for-spanish-macro-farms/ |access-date=January 24, 2022 |publisher=In Spain News |date=December 16, 2021}}</ref> also known as '''factory farming''',<ref>{{cite news |last=Lusk |first=Jayson |author-link=Jayson Lusk |date=23 September 2016 |title=Why Industrial Farms Are Good for the Environment |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/25/opinion/sunday/why-industrial-farms-are-good-for-the-environment.html |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923181249/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/25/opinion/sunday/why-industrial-farms-are-good-for-the-environment.html |archive-date=2016-09-23 |quote=Before 'factory farming' became a pejorative, agricultural scholars of the mid-20th century were calling for farmers to do just that — become more factorylike and businesslike. From that time, farm sizes have risen significantly. It is precisely this large size that is often criticized today in the belief that large farms put profit ahead of soil and animal health.}}</ref> is a type of intensive agriculture used by the meat and dairy industry to maximize animal production while minimizing costs.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/phillempert/2015/06/15/why-factory-farming-isnt-what-you-think/|title=Why Factory Farming Isn't What You Think |website=Forbes |date=June 2015}}</ref> To achieve this, agribusinesses keep livestock such as cattle, poultry, and fish at high stocking densities, at large scale, and using modern machinery, biotechnology, and pharmaceutics.<ref>Sources discussing "intensive farming", "intensive agriculture" or "factory farming":

* Fraser, David. [http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0158e/a0158e00.HTM ''Animal welfare and the intensification of animal production: An alternative interpretation''], Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2005. Turner, Jacky. [http://www.unsystem.org/SCN/archives/scnnews21/ch04.htm#TopOfPage "History of factory farming"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131116060714/http://www.unsystem.org/SCN/archives/scnnews21/ch04.htm|date=November 16, 2013}}, United Nations: "Fifty years ago in Europe, intensification of animal production was seen as the road to national food security and a better diet ... The intensive systems – called 'factory farms' – were characterised by confinement of the animals at high stocking density, often in barren and unnatural conditions." * Humphrys, John. [https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2001/apr/21/foodanddrink.features13 Why the organic revolution had to happen], ''The Observer'', April 21, 2001: "Nor is a return to 'primitive' farming practices the only alternative to factory farming and highly intensive agriculture." * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1205545.stm "Head to head: Intensive farming"], BBC News, March 6, 2001: "Here, Green MEP Caroline Lucas takes issue with the intensive farming methods of recent decades ... In the wake of the spread of BSE from the UK to the continent of Europe, the German Government has appointed an Agriculture Minister from the Green Party. She intends to end factory farming in her country. This must be the way forward and we should end industrial agriculture in this country as well." * [http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/Y2772E/y2772e0c.htm "Annex 2. Permitted substances for the production of organic foods"], Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: "'Factory' farming refers to industrial management systems that are heavily reliant on veterinary and feed inputs not permitted in organic agriculture. * [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1205545.stm "Head to head: Intensive farming"], BBC News, March 6, 2001: "Here, Green MEP Caroline Lucas takes issue with the intensive farming methods of recent decades ... In the wake of the spread of BSE from the UK to the continent of Africa, the German Government has appointed an Agriculture Minister from the Green Party. She intends to end factory farming in her country. This must be the way forward and we should end industrial agriculture in this country as well."</ref><ref name="Kaufmann" /> The main products are meat, milk and eggs for human consumption.<ref name="Danielle Nierenberg 2005">{{cite book |last=Nierenberg |first=Danielle |author-link=Danielle Nierenberg |editor-last=Mastny |editor-first=Lisa |year=2005 |title=Happier Meals: Rethinking the Global Meat Industry |publisher=Worldwatch Institute |location=Washington, D.C. |volume=171  |url=https://archive.org/details/happiermealsreth00nier |url-access=registration |isbn=978-1-878071-77-4 |oclc=62104329 |lccn=2005932799 |s2cid=152935538}}</ref>

While intensive animal farming can produce large amounts of animal products at a low cost with reduced human labor,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Intensive animal agriculture |url=https://www.fairr.org/news-events/insights/intensive-animal-agriculture |access-date=2025-01-18 |website=FAIRR |language=en}}</ref> it is controversial as it raises several ethical concerns,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bolotnikova |first=Marina |date=2024-08-07 |title=How Factory Farming Ends |url=https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/364288/how-factory-farming-ends-animal-rights-vegans-climate-ethics |access-date=2025-01-18 |website=Vox |language=en-US}}</ref> including animal exploitation, animal welfare issues (confinement, mutilations, stress-induced aggression, breeding complications),<ref>{{Cite news |last=Harari |first=Yuval Noah |date=2015-09-25 |title=Industrial farming is one of the worst crimes in history |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/sep/25/industrial-farming-one-worst-crimes-history-ethical-question |access-date=2025-01-18 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Greenwald |first=Glenn |author-link=Glenn Greenwald |date=October 5, 2017 |title=The FBI's Hunt for Two Missing Piglets Reveals the Federal Cover-Up of Barbaric Factory Farms |url=https://theintercept.com/2017/10/05/factory-farms-fbi-missing-piglets-animal-rights-glenn-greenwald/ |access-date=October 5, 2017 |work=The Intercept}}</ref> public health risks (zoonotic diseases, pandemic risks, antibiotic resistance),{{refn|<ref name=CAFOCDCP/><ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/oldcomm4/out17_en.html "The Welfare of Intensively Kept Pigs  – Report of the Scientific Veterinary Committee – Adopted 30 September 1997] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522231342/http://ec.europa.eu/food/fs/sc/oldcomm4/out17_en.html |date=May 22, 2013 }}, European Commission, and [https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/197 "Opinion of the AHAW Panel related to the welfare aspects of various systems of keeping laying hens"], European Food Safety Authority (March 7, 2005)</ref><ref name=mc0>{{cite news|url=http://archives.seattletimes.nwsource.com/cgi-bin/texis.cgi/web/vortex/display?slug=madcowdairy28&date=20031228|title=Supplements used in factory farming can spread disease|author=Blaine Harden|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=December 28, 2003|access-date=May 28, 2007|archive-date=March 2, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080302204242/http://archives.seattletimes.nwsource.com/cgi-bin/texis.cgi/web/vortex/display?slug=madcowdairy28&date=20031228}}</ref><ref name=hogs1>{{cite web|url=http://www.epi.state.nc.us/epi/mera/iloodoreffects.html|title=The Association of Health Effects with Exposure to Odors from Hog Farm Operations|publisher=North Carolina Department of Health and Human Services|date=December 7, 1998|author=A. Dennis McBride }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/health-and-human-body/human-body/food-safety.html#page=1|title=Food Article, Foodborne Illness Information, Pathogen Facts|author=Jennifer Ackerman|work=National Geographic|access-date=September 6, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512014645/http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/health-and-human-body/human-body/food-safety.html|archive-date=12 May 2008}}</ref>}} and worker exploitation, particularly of undocumented workers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nibert |first=David |author-link=David Nibert |url=http://cup.columbia.edu/book/animal-oppression-and-human-violence/9780231151894 |title=Animal Oppression and Human Violence: Domesecration, Capitalism, and Global Conflict |date=2013 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-15189-4 |location= |page=228}}</ref> Both intensive and extensive animal farming require significant land to feed the livestock and cause harm to the environment and wildlife through greenhouse gases, deforestation and eutrophication.<ref>{{cite news |last=van der Zee |first=Bibi |date=October 4, 2017 |title=Why factory farming is not just cruel – but also a threat to all life on the planet |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/04/factory-farming-destructive-wasteful-cruel-says-philip-lymbery-farmageddon-author |access-date=October 5, 2017 |work=The Guardian}}</ref><ref name=":12" /> The animal agriculture industry has been accused of actively supporting disinformation campaigns and preventing policies to address climate change.<ref>{{Citation |last=Lauber |first=Kathrin |title=The Animal Agriculture Industry's Role in Obstructing Climate Action |date=2025-10-14 |work=Climate Obstruction |pages=98–138 |editor-last=Roberts |editor-first=J. Timmons |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/61469/chapter/534850743 |access-date=2025-10-29 |edition=1 |publisher=Oxford University PressNew York |language=en |doi=10.1093/oso/9780197787144.003.0004 |isbn=978-0-19-778714-4 |last2=Morris |first2=Viveca |last3=Jacquet |first3=Jennifer |last4=Li |first4=Peter |last5=Möller |first5=Ina |last6=Secchi |first6=Silvia |last7=Wijeratna |first7=Alex |last8=Bona |first8=Melina De |editor2-last=Milani |editor2-first=Carlos R. S. |editor3-last=Jacquet |editor3-first=Jennifer |editor4-last=Downie |editor4-first=Christian|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Industrial livestock production is important in most of the large meat-producing regions, such as Brazil, the United States, China, Argentina, Australia, New Zealand and the European Union, with expansion of megafarms or concentrated animal feeding operations.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Harvey |first=Fiona |last2=Wasley |first2=Andrew |last3=Davies |first3=Madlen |date=2017-07-18 |title=Rise of mega farms: how the US model of intensive farming is invading the world |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/jul/18/rise-of-mega-farms-how-the-us-model-of-intensive-farming-is-invading-the-world |access-date=2025-10-29 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Sandra Laville |last2=Helena Horton |date=2025-06-12 |title=Revealed: More than 24,000 factory farms have opened across Europe |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2025/jun/12/research-reveals-24000-megafarms-across-europe |access-date=2025-10-29 |work=The Guardian}}</ref>

==History== {{further|History of agriculture}}

Intensive animal farming is a relatively recent development in the history of agriculture, utilizing scientific discoveries and technological advances to enable changes in agricultural methods that increase production. Innovations from the late 19th century generally parallel developments in mass production in other industries in the latter part of the Industrial Revolution. The discovery of vitamins and their role in animal nutrition, in the first two decades of the 20th century, led to vitamin supplements, which allowed chickens to be raised indoors.<ref name="John Steele Gordon 1996">John Steele Gordon (1996) "The Chicken Story", American Heritage, September 1996: 52–67</ref> The discovery of antibiotics and vaccines facilitated raising livestock in larger numbers by reducing disease. Chemicals developed for use in World War II gave rise to synthetic pesticides. Developments in shipping networks and technology have made long-distance distribution of agricultural produce feasible.

Agricultural production across the world doubled four times between 1820 and 1975 (1820 to 1920; 1920 to 1950; 1950 to 1965; and 1965 to 1975) to feed a global population of one billion human beings in 1800 and 6.5 billion in 2002.<ref name=dominion>Matthew Scully [https://books.google.com/books/about/Dominion.html?id=4lSplJlgc_sC Dominion: The Power of Man, the Suffering of Animals, and the Call to Mercy] Macmillan, 2002</ref>{{rp|29}} During the same period, the number of people involved in farming dropped as the process became more automated. In the 1930s, 24 percent of the American population worked in agriculture compared to 1.5 percent in 2002; in 1940, each farm worker supplied 11 consumers, whereas in 2002, each worker supplied 90 consumers.<ref name=dominion/>{{rp|29}}

The era of factory farming in Britain began in 1947 when a new Agriculture Act granted subsidies to farmers to encourage greater output by introducing new technology, in order to reduce Britain's reliance on imported meat. The United Nations writes that "intensification of animal production was seen as a way of providing food security."<ref>[http://www.unsystem.org/SCN/archives/scnnews21/ch04.htm#TopOfPage "The History of Factory Farming"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131116060714/http://www.unsystem.org/SCN/archives/scnnews21/ch04.htm |date=November 16, 2013 }}, United Nations.</ref> In 1966, the United States, United Kingdom and other industrialized nations, commenced factory farming of beef and dairy cattle and domestic pigs.<ref name="Danielle Nierenberg 2005"/> As a result, farming became concentrated on fewer larger farms. For example, in 1967, there were one million pig farms in America; as of 2002, there were 114,000.<ref name=dominion/>{{rp|29}} In 1992, 28% of American pigs were raised on farms selling >5,000 pigs per year; as of 2022 this grew to 94.5%.<ref>[https://www.farmkind.giving/the-small-farm-myth-debunked "Debunking the myth of the small farm: An analysis of USDA Agricultural Census data for 2022"], FarmKind and Bryant Research, 2024.</ref> From its American and West European heartland, intensive animal farming became globalized in the later years of the 20th century and is still expanding and replacing traditional practices of stock rearing in an increasing number of countries.<ref name="Danielle Nierenberg 2005"/> In 1990 intensive animal farming accounted for 30% of world meat production and by 2005, this had risen to 40%.<ref name="Danielle Nierenberg 2005"/>

==Process== The aim is to produce large quantities of meat, eggs, or milk at the lowest possible cost. Food is supplied in place. Methods employed to maintain health and improve production may include the use of disinfectants, antimicrobial agents, anthelmintics, hormones and vaccines; protein, mineral and vitamin supplements; frequent health inspections; biosecurity; and climate-controlled facilities. Physical restraints, for example, fences or creeps, are used to control movement or actions regarded as undesirable. Breeding programs are used to produce animals more suited to the confined conditions and able to provide a consistent food product.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Eating Animals |date=2010 |publisher=Hachette Book Group US |author-link= Jonathan Safran Foer |last=Foer |first=Jonathan Safran |isbn=978-0-316-12716-5 |oclc=669754727}}</ref>

Industrial production was estimated to account for 39 percent of the sum of global production of these meats and 50 percent of total egg production.<ref>FAO. 2007. The state of the world's animal genetic resources for food and agriculture. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome. 511 pp.</ref> In the US, according to its National Pork Producers Council, 80 million of its 95 million pigs slaughtered each year are reared in industrial settings.<ref name=dominion/>{{rp|29}}

The major concentration of the industry occurs at the slaughter and meat processing phase, with only four companies slaughtering and processing 81 percent of cows, 73 percent of sheep, 57 percent of pigs and 50 percent of chickens.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Logen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GAF3swEACAAJ |title=Sustainable Agriculture and Farming |date=2017-04-25 |publisher=Larsen and Keller Education |isbn=978-1-63549-000-8 |language=en}}</ref> This concentration at the slaughter phase may be in large part due to regulatory barriers that may make it financially difficult for small slaughter plants to be built, maintained or remain in business. Factory farming may be no more beneficial to livestock producers than traditional farming because it appears to contribute to overproduction that drives down prices. Through "forward contracts" and "marketing agreements", meatpackers are able to set the price of livestock long before they are ready for production.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.csindy.com/coloradosprings/this-cattlemans-got-a-beef/Content?oid=1121453|title=This Cattleman's Got a Beef|work=Colorado Springs Independent|date=November 20, 2003|access-date=June 18, 2012|archive-date=October 26, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131026033754/http://www.csindy.com/coloradosprings/this-cattlemans-got-a-beef/Content?oid=1121453}}</ref> These strategies often cause farmers to lose money, as half of all U.S. family farming operations did in 2007.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://foodandwater.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/FactoryFarmNation-web.pdf|title=''Factory Farm Nation: How America Turned its Livestock Farms into Factories''|date=November 2010|access-date=July 22, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522140235/http://foodandwater.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/FactoryFarmNation-web.pdf|archive-date=May 22, 2013}}</ref>

Many of the nation's livestock producers would like to market livestock directly to consumers but with limited USDA inspected slaughter facilities, livestock grown locally can not typically be slaughtered and processed locally.<ref>Testimony by Leland Swenson, president of the U.S. National Farmers' Union, before the House Judiciary Committee, September 12, 2000.</ref>

Small farmers are often absorbed into factory farm operations, acting as contract growers for the industrial facilities. In the case of poultry contract growers, farmers are required to make costly investments in construction of sheds to house the birds, buy required feed and drugs – often settling for slim profit margins, or even losses.

In the United States, one of the principal kinds of facilities for dense animal agriculture is the concentrated animal feeding operation (CAFO).<ref name=":0" /> Research has shown that many immigrant workers in CAFOs receive little to no job-specific training or safety and health information regarding the hazards associated with these jobs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ramos|first1=Athena K.|last2=Fuentes|first2=Axel|last3=Trinidad|first3=Natalia|date=November 9, 2016|title=Perception of Job-Related Risk, Training, and Use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) among Latino Immigrant Hog CAFO Workers in Missouri: A Pilot Study|journal=Safety|language=en|volume=2|issue=4|page=25|doi=10.3390/safety2040025|pmid=29607309|pmc=5875190|doi-access=free}}</ref> Workers with limited English proficiency are significantly less likely to receive any work-related training, since it is often only provided in English. As a result, many workers do not perceive their jobs as dangerous. This causes inconsistent personal protective equipment (PPE) use, and can lead to workplace accidents and injuries. Immigrant workers are also less likely to report any workplace hazards and injuries.

==Types== Intensive farms hold large numbers of animals, typically cows, pigs, turkeys, geese,<ref>See: "Landscape with Goose" – documentary film by Włodzimierz Szpak (1987)</ref> or chickens, often indoors, typically at high densities.

Intensive production of livestock and poultry is widespread in developed nations. For 2002–2003, the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) estimates of industrial production as a percentage of global production were 7 percent for beef and veal, 0.8 percent for sheep and goat meat, 42 percent for pork, and 67 percent for poultry meat.

===Chickens=== {{further|Poultry farming}} thumb|upright|left|Hens in Brazil

The major milestone in 20th-century poultry production was the discovery of vitamin D,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=DeLuca|first=Hector F|date=2014-01-08|title=History of the discovery of vitamin D and its active metabolites|journal=BoneKEy Reports|volume=3|page=479|doi=10.1038/bonekey.2013.213|issn=2047-6396|pmc=3899558|pmid=24466410}}</ref> which made it possible to keep chickens in confinement year-round. Before this, chickens did not thrive during the winter (due to lack of sunlight), and egg production, incubation, and meat production in the off-season were all very difficult, making poultry a seasonal and expensive proposition. Year-round production lowered costs, especially for broilers.<ref>''Poultry Nutrition'', Ray Ewing, Ray Ewing Press, Third Edition, 1947, page 754.</ref>

At the same time, egg production was increased by scientific breeding. After a few false starts, (such as the Maine Experiment Station's failure at improving egg production) success was shown by Professor Dryden at the Oregon Experiment Station.<ref>Dryden, James. ''Poultry Breeding and Management''. Orange Judd Press, 1916.</ref>

Improvements in production and quality were accompanied by lower labor requirements. In the 1930s through the early 1950s, 1,500 hens provided a full-time job for a farm family in America. In the late 1950s, egg prices had fallen so dramatically that farmers typically tripled the number of hens they kept, putting three hens into what had been a single-bird cage or converting their floor-confinement houses from a single deck of roosts to triple-decker roosts. Not long after this, prices fell still further and large numbers of egg farmers left the business. This fall in profitability was accompanied by a general fall in prices to the consumer, allowing poultry and eggs to lose their status as luxury foods.

Robert Plamondon<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.plamondon.com|title=Plamondon.com: the home of Robert Plamondon and all his works!|access-date=September 6, 2015}}</ref> reports that the last family chicken farm in his part of Oregon, Rex Farms, had 30,000 layers and survived into the 1990s. However, the standard laying house of the current operators is around 125,000 hens.

The vertical integration of the egg and poultry industries was a late development, occurring after all the major technological changes had been in place for years (including the development of modern broiler rearing techniques, the adoption of the Cornish Cross broiler, the use of laying cages, etc.). [[File:Fot.Andrew Skowron (47949180848).jpg|thumb|Broiler chickens, bred for meat production, regularly have health issues, as their genetics have been optimized for quick growth, sometimes causing broiler ascites syndrome.]]

By the late 1950s, poultry production had changed dramatically. Large farms and packing plants could grow birds by the tens of thousands. Chickens could be sent to slaughterhouses for butchering and processing into prepackaged commercial products to be frozen or shipped fresh to markets or wholesalers. Meat-type chickens currently grow to market weight in six to seven weeks, whereas only fifty years ago it took three times as long.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Havenstein | first1 = G.B. | last2 = Ferket | first2 = P.R. | last3 = Qureshi | first3 = M.A. | year = 2003a | title = Growth, livability, and feed conversion of 1957 versus 2001 broilers when fed representative 1957 and 2001 broiler diets | journal = Poult Sci | volume = 82 | issue = 10| pages = 1500–1508 | doi = 10.1093/ps/82.10.1500 | pmid = 14601725 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This is due to genetic selection and nutritional modifications (but not the use of growth hormones, which are illegal for use in poultry in the US<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/food-safety-education/get-answers/food-safety-fact-sheets/food-labeling/meat-and-poultry-labeling-terms/!ut/p/a1/jZHfT4MwEMf_Fh947NrJXDbfCIkRdJCFqF1fTIG2EKEl7eGCf72gccnMprvmHu7u8839KGaYYqb5e6041EbzZorZ8pVsyXK-Dkmcrud3JEqet-lDGJJVdjMCuz-AxL9Qf8YC8p8-vqDBtd2EG4VZx6FCtZYGUyUAce32wjpMpTElclwKGJDkBSBXCQE_hYbnoqm1wrQVfFKVqDN9A3Y4lBAI2zr8gtnxNGQ-vijxs8V9nPgkXfwGTpzrGzh_j3Fh1Zj86292gc791biZFVJYYWe9HdMVQOduPeKRsi_eJldmVpjWI6cklXGA6TGJu_aJfjwGMosQy4f91Sd72nr3/#15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200603202915/https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/food-safety-education/get-answers/food-safety-fact-sheets/food-labeling/meat-and-poultry-labeling-terms/!ut/p/a1/jZHfT4MwEMf_Fh947NrJXDbfCIkRdJCFqF1fTIG2EKEl7eGCf72gccnMprvmHu7u8839KGaYYqb5e6041EbzZorZ8pVsyXK-Dkmcrud3JEqet-lDGJJVdjMCuz-AxL9Qf8YC8p8-vqDBtd2EG4VZx6FCtZYGUyUAce32wjpMpTElclwKGJDkBSBXCQE_hYbnoqm1wrQVfFKVqDN9A3Y4lBAI2zr8gtnxNGQ-vijxs8V9nPgkXfwGTpzrGzh_j3Fh1Zj86292gc791biZFVJYYWe9HdMVQOduPeKRsi_eJldmVpjWI6cklXGA6TGJu_aJfjwGMosQy4f91Sd72nr3/#15|archive-date=June 3, 2020|title=Meat and Poultry Labeling Terms|website=USDA Food Safety Information Service}}</ref> and many other countries, and have no effect). Once a meat consumed only occasionally, the common availability and lower cost has made chicken a common meat product within developed nations. Growing concerns over the cholesterol content of red meat in the 1980s and 1990s further resulted in increased consumption of chicken.

Today, eggs are produced on large egg ranches on which environmental parameters are well controlled. Chickens are exposed to artificial light cycles to stimulate egg production year-round. In addition, forced molting is commonly practiced in the US, in which manipulation of light and food access triggers molting, in order to increase egg size and production. Forced molting is controversial, and is prohibited in the EU.<ref name="Wigley">{{cite web |url=https://www.ciwf.org.uk/includes/documents/cm_docs/2013/s/salmonella.pdf |publisher=Compassion in World Farming |title=Salmonella |author=Wigley, P. |year=2013 |access-date=March 19, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216160101/https://www.ciwf.org.uk/includes/documents/cm_docs/2013/s/salmonella.pdf |archive-date=February 16, 2017 }}</ref>

On average, a chicken lays one egg a day, but not on every day of the year. This varies with the breed and time of year. In 1900, average egg production was 83 eggs per hen per year. In 2000, it was well over 300. In the United States, laying hens are butchered after their second egg laying season. In Europe, they are generally butchered after a single season. The laying period begins when the hen is about 18–20 weeks old (depending on breed and season). Males of the egg-type breeds have little commercial value at any age, and all those not used for breeding (roughly fifty percent of all egg-type chickens) are killed soon after hatching. The old hens also have little commercial value. Thus, the main sources of poultry meat 100 years ago (spring chickens and stewing hens) have both been entirely supplanted by meat-type broiler chickens.

===Pigs=== {{Main|Intensive pig farming}}

[[File:Hog confinement barn interior.jpg|thumb |Pigs confined to a barn in an intensive system, Midwestern United States]]

Intensive piggeries (or hog lots) are a type of concentrated animal feeding operation (CAFO), specialized for the raising of domestic pigs up to slaughter weight. In this system, grower pigs are housed indoors in group-housing or straw-lined sheds, whilst pregnant sows are confined in sow stalls (gestation crates) and give birth in farrowing crates.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2022-08-25 |title=Welfare of pigs on farm |journal=EFSA Journal |volume=20 |issue=8 |pages=e07421 |doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2022.7421 |issn=1831-4732 |pmc=9405538 |pmid=36034323}}</ref>

The use of sow stalls has resulted in lower production costs and concomitant animal welfare concerns. Many of the world's largest producers of pigs (such as U.S. and Canada) use sow stalls, but some nations (such as the UK) and U.S. states (such as Florida and Arizona) have banned them.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Walton |first=Jon |date=October 14, 2019 |title=Pig welfare standards – unpicking the differences |url=https://adas.co.uk/news/pig-welfare-standards-unpicking-the-differences/ |access-date=July 4, 2024 |website=ADAS}}</ref>

Intensive piggeries are generally large warehouse-like buildings. Indoor pig systems allow the pig's condition to be monitored, ensuring minimum fatalities and increased productivity. Buildings are ventilated and their temperature regulated. Most domestic pig varieties are susceptible to heat stress, and all pigs lack sweat glands and cannot cool themselves. Pigs have a limited tolerance to high temperatures and heat stress can lead to death. Maintaining a more specific temperature within the pig-tolerance range also maximizes growth and growth to feed ratio. In an intensive operation pigs will lack access to a wallow (mud), which is their natural cooling mechanism. Intensive piggeries control temperature through ventilation or drip water systems (dropping water to cool the system).<ref>{{Cite web |title=How temperature affects pig farming |url=https://www.brfingredients.com/en/blog/posts/temperature-growth-pig-farming/ |access-date=2024-07-04 |website=www.brfingredients.com |language=en}}</ref>

Pigs are naturally omnivorous and are generally fed a combination of grains and protein sources (soybeans, or meat and bone meal). Larger intensive pig farms may be surrounded by farmland where feed-grain crops are grown. Alternatively, piggeries are reliant on the grains industry. Pig feed may be bought packaged or mixed on-site. The intensive piggery system, where pigs are confined in individual stalls, allows each pig to be allotted a portion of feed. The individual feeding system also facilitates individual medication of pigs through feed. This has more significance to intensive farming methods, as the close proximity to other animals enables diseases to spread more rapidly. To prevent disease spreading and encourage growth, drug programs such as antibiotics, vitamins, hormones and other supplements are pre-emptively administered.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How to Farm Pigs - Feeding |url=https://www.thepigsite.com/articles/how-to-farm-pigs-feeding |access-date=2024-07-04 |website=www.thepigsite.com |language=en}}</ref>

Indoor systems, especially stalls and pens (i.e. 'dry', not straw-lined systems) allow for the easy collection of waste. In an indoor intensive pig farm, manure can be managed through a lagoon system or other waste-management system. However, odor remains a problem which is difficult to manage.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Chastain |first1=John P. |last2=Henry |first2=Stephen |title=Swine Training Manual Table of Contents - Chapter 4 |url=https://www.clemson.edu/extension/camm/manuals/swine/sch4_03.pdf |access-date=2024-07-04 |website=www.clemson.edu |publisher=College of Agriculture, Forestry and Life Sciences {{!}} Clemson University, South Carolina}}</ref>

Piglets often receive range of treatments including castration, tail docking to reduce tail biting, teeth clipped (to reduce injuring their mother's nipples, gum disease and prevent later tusk growth) and their ears notched to assist identification. Treatments are usually made without painkillers. Weak runts may be slain shortly after birth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Morrison |first1=Rebecca |last2=Hemsworth |first2=Paul |date=2020-09-20 |title=Tail Docking of Piglets 1: Stress Response of Piglets to Tail Docking |journal=Animals |language=en |volume=10 |issue=9 |page=1701 |doi=10.3390/ani10091701 |doi-access=free |issn=2076-2615 |pmc=7552632 |pmid=32962266}}</ref>

Piglets also may be weaned and removed from the sows at between two and five weeks old<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nationalhogfarmer.com/mag/farming_revisiting_weaning_age |title=Revisiting Weaning Age Trends, Dynamics |date=October 15, 2005}}</ref> and placed in sheds. However, grower pigs – which comprise the bulk of the herd – are usually housed in alternative indoor housing, such as batch pens. During pregnancy, the use of a stall may be preferred as it facilitates feed-management and growth control. It also prevents pig aggression (e.g. tail biting, ear biting, vulva biting, food stealing). Group pens generally require higher stockmanship skills. Such pens will usually not contain straw or other material. Alternatively, a straw-lined shed may house a larger group (i.e. not batched) in age groups.

===Cattle=== {{Main|Cattle farming}}

Cattle are domesticated ungulates, a member of the family Bovidae, in the subfamily Bovinae, and descended from the aurochs (''Bos primigenius'').<ref>Bollongino, Ruth & al. Molecular Biology and Evolution. "Modern Taurine Cattle descended from small number of Near-Eastern founders". March 7, 2012. Accessed April 2, 2012. Op. cit. in Wilkins, Alasdair. io9.com. "DNA reveals that cows were almost impossible to domesticate". March 28, 2012. Accessed April 2, 2012</ref> They are raised as livestock for their flesh (called beef and veal), dairy products (milk), leather and as draught animals. As of 2009–2010 it is estimated that there are 1.3–1.4 billion head of cattle in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cattle-today.com/|title=Breeds of Cattle |publisher=Cattle Today|access-date=September 6, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/dailychart/2011/07/global-livestock-counts |title=Counting chickens |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=June 10, 2016}}</ref>

[[File:Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations diagram.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Diagram of feedlot system. This can be contrasted with more traditional grazing systems.]]

As of 2010, in the U.S. 766,350 producers participate in raising beef. The beef industry is segmented with the bulk of the producers participating in raising beef calves. Beef calves are generally raised in small herds, with over 90% of the herds having less than 100 head of cattle. Fewer producers participate in the finishing phase which often occurs in a feedlot, but nonetheless there are 82,170 feedlots in the United States.<ref>National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS), Agricultural Statistics Board, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). 2010; [https://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/current/USCatSup/USCatSup-12-17-2010.pdf Overview of the United States Cattle Industry]</ref>

[[File:Feedlot-1.jpg|left|thumb|Beef cattle on a feedlot in the Texas Panhandle. Such confinement creates more work for the farmer but allows the animals to grow rapidly.]]

Young cattle may begin by grazing with their mothers. Once cattle obtain an entry-level weight, about {{convert|650|lb|kg}}, they are transferred from the range to a feedlot to be fed a specialized animal feed which can include corn byproducts, barley, soy and other grains as well as alfalfa and cottonseed meal. Typical industrial production mixes will include premixes composed of microingredients such as vitamins, minerals, chemical preservatives, antibiotics, fermentation products, and other essential ingredients that are purchased from premix companies, usually in sacked form, for blending into commercial rations.

There are many potential impacts on human health from intensive cattle farming. Prophylactic antibiotics can be a source of antibiotic resistance. The intensive feeding systems lead to more ''E. coli'' contamination, and increased saturated fat in the meat due to grain-based diets. The environmental impacts also pose indirect health risks.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pollan |first=Michael |date=2002-03-31 |title=This Steer's Life |url=https://www.mifami.org/CitSci2020/Pollan-PowerSteer-CitSci2019.pdf |work=The New York Times}}</ref>

===Aquaculture=== {{main|Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture}}

[[File:IMTA cultured mussels (Mytilus edulis) in the Bay of Fundy Canada.jpg|thumb|Blue mussels cultivated in proximity to Atlantic salmon in the Bay of Fundy, Canada]]

Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA), also called integrated aquaculture,<ref name="Neori et al. 2004"/> is a practice in which the by-products (wastes) from one species are recycled to become inputs (fertilizers, food) for another, making aquaculture intensive. Fed aquaculture (e.g. fish and shrimp) is combined with inorganic extractive (e.g. seaweed) and organic extractive (e.g. shellfish) aquaculture to create balanced systems for environmental sustainability (biomitigation), economic stability (product diversification and risk reduction) and social acceptability (better management practices).<ref name="Chopin et al. 2001">{{cite journal | last1 = Chopin | first1 = T | last2 = Buschmann | first2 = AH | last3 = Halling | first3 = C | last4 = Troell | first4 = M | last5 = Kautsky | first5 = N | last6 = Neori | first6 = A | last7 = Kraemer | first7 = GP | last8 = Zertuche-Gonzalez | first8 = JA | last9 = Yarish | first9 = C | last10 = Neefus | first10 = C | year = 2001 | title = Integrating seaweeds into marine aquaculture systems: a key toward sustainability | journal = Journal of Phycology | volume = 37 | issue = 6| pages = 975–986 | doi = 10.1046/j.1529-8817.2001.01137.x | bibcode = 2001JPcgy..37..975C | s2cid = 85161308 }}</ref>

The system is multi-trophic as it makes use of species from different trophic or nutritional level, unlike traditional aquaculture.<ref name="Chopin 2006">{{cite journal | last1 = Chopin | first1 = T | year = 2006 | title = Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture. What it is, and why you should care... and don't confuse it with polyculture | journal = Northern Aquaculture | volume = 12 | issue = 4| page = 4 }}</ref>

Ideally, the biological and chemical processes in such a system should balance. This is achieved through the appropriate selection and proportions of different species providing different ecosystem functions. The co-cultured species should not just be biofilters, but harvestable crops of commercial value.<ref name="Chopin 2006"/> A working IMTA system should result in greater production for the overall system, based on mutual benefits to the co-cultured species and improved ecosystem health, even if the individual production of some of the species is lower compared to what could be reached in monoculture practices over a short-term period.<ref name="Neori et al. 2004">{{cite journal | last1 = Neori | first1 = A | last2 = Chopin | first2 = T | last3 = Troell | first3 = M | last4 = Buschmann | first4 = AH | last5 = Kraemer | first5 = GP | last6 = Halling | first6 = C | last7 = Shpigel | first7 = M | last8 = Yarish | first8 = C | year = 2004 | title = Integrated aquaculture: rationale, evolution and state of the art emphasizing seaweed biofiltration in modern mariculture | journal = Aquaculture | volume = 231 | issue = 1–4| pages = 361–391 | doi = 10.1016/j.aquaculture.2003.11.015 | bibcode = 2004Aquac.231..361N }}</ref>

==Regulation== {{main|Animal law}}

In various jurisdictions, intensive animal production of some kinds is subject to regulation for environmental protection. In the United States, a Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation (CAFO) that discharges or proposes to discharge waste requires a permit and implementation of a plan for management of manure nutrients, contaminants, wastewater, etc., as applicable, to meet requirements pursuant to the federal Clean Water Act.<ref name=CAFOCDCP>[https://web.archive.org/web/20061021104950/https://www.cdc.gov/cafos/about.htm "Concentrated animal feeding operations"], Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, United States Department of Health and Human Services.</ref><ref>US Code of Federal Regulations 40 CFR 122.42(e)</ref> Some data on regulatory compliance and enforcement are available. In 2000, the US Environmental Protection Agency published 5-year and 1-year data on environmental performance of 32 industries, with data for the livestock industry being derived mostly from inspections of CAFOs. The data pertain to inspections and enforcement mostly under the Clean Water Act, but also under the Clean Air Act and Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. Of the 32 industries, livestock production was among the top seven for environmental performance over the 5-year period, and was one of the top two in the final year of that period, where good environmental performance is indicated by a low ratio of enforcement orders to inspections. The five-year and final-year ratios of enforcement/inspections for the livestock industry were 0.05 and 0.01, respectively. Also in the final year, the livestock industry was one of the two leaders among the 32 industries in terms of having the lowest percentage of facilities with violations.<ref>US EPA. 2000. Profile of the agricultural livestock production industry. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Office of Compliance. EPA/310-R-00-002. 156 pp.</ref> In Canada, intensive livestock operations are subject to provincial regulation, with definitions of regulated entities varying among provinces. Examples include Intensive Livestock Operations (Saskatchewan), Confined Feeding Operations (Alberta), Feedlots (British Columbia), High-density Permanent Outdoor Confinement Areas (Ontario) and Feedlots or Parcs d'Engraissement (Manitoba). In Canada, intensive animal production, like other agricultural sectors, is also subject to various other federal and provincial requirements.

In the United States, farmed animals are excluded by half of all state animal cruelty laws including the federal Animal Welfare Act. The 28-hour law, enacted in 1873 and amended in 1994 states that when animals are being transported for slaughter, the vehicle must stop every 28 hours and the animals must be let out for exercise, food, and water. The United States Department of Agriculture claims that the law does not apply to birds. The Humane Slaughter Act is similarly limited. Originally passed in 1958, the Act requires that livestock be stunned into unconsciousness prior to slaughter. This Act also excludes birds, who make up more than 90 percent of the animals slaughtered for food, as well as rabbits and fish. Individual states all have their own animal cruelty statutes; however many states have right-to-farm laws that serve as a provision to exempt standard agricultural practices.<ref>[http://www.aldf.org/article.php?id=1027] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928151011/http://www.aldf.org/article.php?id=1027|date=September 28, 2011}} ALDF Farmed Animals and the Law</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.animallaw.info/statutes/stusfd7usca1901.htm |title=US – Food Animal – Humane Methods of Livestock Slaughter |publisher= Animal Legal & Historical Center |website=www.animallaw.info}}</ref>

In the United States there is an attempt to regulate farms in the most realistic way possible. The easiest way to effectively regulate the most animals with a limited number of resources and time is to regulate the large farms. In New York State many Animal Feeding Operations are not considered CAFOs since they have less than 300 cows. These farms are not regulated to the level that CAFOs are, which may lead to unchecked pollution and nutrient leaching. The EPA website illustrates the scale of this problem by saying in New York State's Bay watershed there are 247 animal feeding operations and only 68<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2015-07/documents/new_york_animal_agriculture_program_assessment_final_2.pdf|title=New York State Animal Agriculture Program Assessment|last=New York Animal Agriculture Program Assessment|date=December 3, 2019|website=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency}}</ref> of them are State Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (SPDES)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dec.ny.gov/permits/6054.html|title=State Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (SPDES) Permit Program|website=www.dec.ny.gov – NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation|access-date=2019-12-03}}</ref> permitted CAFOs.

In Ohio animal welfare organizations reached a negotiated settlement with farm organizations while in California, Proposition 2, Standards for Confining Farm Animals, an initiated law was approved by voters in 2008.<ref>[http://www.smartvoter.org/2008/11/04/ca/state/prop/2/ Proposition 2, Standards for Confining Farm Animals]. Retrieved August 12, 2010.</ref> Regulations have been enacted in other states and plans are underway for referendum and lobbying campaigns in other states.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/12/us/12farm.html "Farmers Lean to Truce on Animals' Close Quarters"] article by Erik Eckholm in ''The New York Times'' August 11, 2010. Retrieved August 12, 2010.</ref>

An action plan was proposed by the USDA in February 2009, called the Utilization of Manure and Other Agricultural and Industrial Byproducts. This program's goal is to protect the environment and human and animal health by using manure in a safe and effective manner. In order for this to happen, several actions need to be taken and these four components include:<ref name="UMOAIIB 2009">{{cite web |title=Utilization of Manure and Other Agricultural and Industrial Byproducts |url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/np206/NP214ActionPlan25Feb2009.pdf |publisher=USDA |access-date=31 July 2020 |date=5 February 2009}}</ref> * Improving the Usability of Manure Nutrients through More Effective Animal Nutrition and Management<ref name="UMOAIIB 2009"/> * Maximizing the Value of Manure through Improved Collection, Storage, and Treatment Options<ref name="UMOAIIB 2009"/> * Utilizing Manure in Integrated Farming Systems to Improve Profitability and Protect Soil, Water, and Air Quality<ref name="UMOAIIB 2009"/> * Using Manure and Other Agricultural Byproducts as a Renewable Energy Source<ref name="UMOAIIB 2009"/>

In 2012 Australia's largest supermarket chain, Coles, announced that as of January 1, 2013, they will stop selling company branded pork and eggs from animals kept in factory farms. The nation's other dominant supermarket chain, Woolworths, has already begun phasing out factory farmed animal products. All of Woolworth's house brand eggs are now cage-free, and by mid-2013 all of their pork will come from farmers who operate stall-free farms.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/ocean-robbins/animal-cruelty_b_2194615.html | work=Huffington Post | first=Ocean | last=Robbins | title=Is Animal Cruelty Doomed? | date=November 26, 2012}}</ref>

In June 2021, the European Commission announced the plan of a ban on cages for a number of animals, including egg-laying hens, female breeding pigs, calves raised for veal, rabbits, ducks, and geese, by 2027.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Moens|first=Jonathan|date=2021-09-29|title=The worst horrors of factory farming could soon be phased out in Europe|url=https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/22698265/europe-cage-ban-animal-welfare-eggs-pork-united-states|access-date=2021-11-03|website=Vox|language=en}}</ref>

== Political influence and lobbying == In 2026, the UK government proposed amendments to the National Planning Policy Framework aimed at facilitating the development of large-scale intensive livestock facilities. According to ''The Guardian,'' the proposed changes followed lobbying efforts by the British Poultry Council.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |last=Boren |first=Zach |date=2026-04-02 |title=UK looks to relax planning rules for factory farms after industry lobbying |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2026/apr/02/uk-looks-to-relax-planning-rules-for-factory-farms-after-industry-lobbying |access-date=2026-04-16 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> Groups warned that the reforms could have negative impacts on water quality, air pollution, and rural communities.<ref name=":3" />

== Animal welfare == {{update|section|date=August 2022}} In the UK, the Farm Animal Welfare Council was set up by the government to act as an independent advisor on animal welfare in 1979 and expresses its policy as five freedoms: from hunger and thirst; from discomfort; from pain, injury or disease; to express normal behavior; from fear and distress.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fawc.org.uk/default.htm|title=Farm Animal Welfare Council|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103222718/http://www.fawc.org.uk/Default.htm|archive-date=November 3, 2013}}</ref>

There are differences around the world as to which practices are accepted and there continue to be changes in regulations with animal welfare being a strong driver for increased regulation. For example, the EU is bringing in further regulation to set maximum stocking densities for meat chickens by 2010, {{update inline|date=July 2015|reason=It is past 2010}} where the UK Animal Welfare Minister commented, "The welfare of meat chickens is a major concern to people throughout the European Union. This agreement sends a strong message to the rest of the world that we care about animal welfare."<ref>[http://www.defra.gov.uk/news/2007/070508b.htm DEFRA press release] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090221050856/http://www.defra.gov.uk/news/2007/070508b.htm |date=February 21, 2009 }}</ref>

Factory farming is greatly debated throughout Australia, with many people disagreeing with the methods and ways in which the animals in factory farms are treated. Animals are often under stress from being kept in confined spaces and will attack each other. In an effort to prevent injury leading to infection, their beaks, tails and teeth are removed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.poultryhub.org/health/health-management/beak-trimming/|title=Beak trimming|access-date=August 5, 2012|archive-date=August 8, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808044313/http://www.poultryhub.org/health/health-management/beak-trimming/}}</ref> Many piglets will die of shock after having their teeth and tails removed, because painkilling medicines are not used in these operations. Factory farms are a popular way to gain space, with animals such as chickens being kept in spaces smaller than an A4 page.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Eating Animals |date=2010 |publisher=Hachette Book Group US |others=Foer, Jonathan Safran |isbn=978-0-316-12716-5 |page=47|oclc=669754727}}</ref>

Large scale chicken production regularly puts animals through high intensity, assembly line type processes – such as this chick processing line.

For example, in the UK, debeaking of chickens is deprecated, but it is recognized that it is a method of last resort, seen as better than allowing vicious fighting and ultimately cannibalism.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FAWC opinion on beak trimming of laying hens |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/fawc-opinion-on-beak-trimming-of-laying-hens |access-date=2025-06-20 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}}</ref> Between 60 and 70 percent<ref>Barnett JL, Hemsworth PH, Cronin GM, Jongman EC, and Hutson GD. 2001. "A review of the welfare issues for sows and piglets in relation to housing", ''Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 52:1–28''. Cited in: Pajor EA. 2002. "Group housing of sows in small pens: advantages, disadvantages and recent research", In: Reynells R (ed.), ''Proceedings: Symposium on Swine Housing and Well-being'' (Des Moines, Iowa: U.S. Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service, June 5, pp. 37–44). In: [http://www.hsus.org/farm/resources/research/practices/gestation_crates.html#003 An HSUS Report: Welfare Issues with Gestation Crates for Pregnant Sows], Humane Society of the United States. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100703084247/http://www.hsus.org/farm/resources/research/practices/gestation_crates.html#003 |date=July 3, 2010 }}</ref> of six million breeding sows in the U.S. are confined during pregnancy, and for most of their adult lives, in {{convert|2|by|7|ft|m|abbr=on}} gestation crates.<ref name="Kaufmann">{{Cite news |last=Kaufman |first=Marc |date=2007-01-26 |title=Largest Pork Processor to Phase Out Crates |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/25/AR2007012501785.html |access-date=2025-10-29 |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref>[http://www.farmsanctuary.org/campaign/gestation_evidence.htm The Welfare of Sows in Gestation Crates: A Summary of the Scientific Evidence.], Farm Sanctuary. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071223155956/http://www.farmsanctuary.org/campaign/gestation_evidence.htm |date=December 23, 2007 }}</ref> According to pork producers and many veterinarians, sows will fight if housed in pens. The largest pork producer in the U.S. said in January 2007 that it will phase out gestation crates by 2017.<ref name="Kaufmann"/> They are being phased out in the European Union, with a ban effective in 2013 after the fourth week of pregnancy.{{Update inline|date=July 2015|?=yes}}<ref>[http://www.hsus.org/farm/resources/research/practices/gestation_crates.html "An HSUS Report: Welfare Issues with Gestation Crates for Pregnant Sows"], The Humane Society of the United States, January 6, 2006. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100703084247/http://www.hsus.org/farm/resources/research/practices/gestation_crates.html |date=July 3, 2010 }}</ref> With the evolution of factory farming, there has been a growing awareness of the issues amongst the wider public, not least due to the efforts of animal rights and welfare campaigners.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/this_britain/article3307570.ece | work=The Independent | location=London | title=The true cost of cheap chicken | first1=Martin | last1=Hickman | date=January 4, 2008 | access-date=May 2, 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116044156/http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/this_britain/article3307570.ece | archive-date=January 16, 2008 }}</ref> As a result, gestation crates, one of the more contentious practices, are the subject of laws in the U.S.,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scrippsnews.com/node/25191|title=Animal rights concerns grow in California|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310202421/http://www.scrippsnews.com/node/25191|archive-date=March 10, 2012}}</ref> Europe<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/25/AR2007012501785_pf.html|title=Largest Pork Processor to Phase Out Crates|newspaper=The Washington Post|access-date=September 6, 2015}}</ref> and around the world to phase out their use as a result of pressure to adopt less confined practices.

Death rates for sows have been increasing in the US from prolapse, which has been attributed to intensive breeding practices. Sows produce on average 23 piglets a year.<ref>{{cite news |last= Greenaway|first=Twilight|date=October 1, 2018 |title='We've bred them to their limit': death rates surge for female pigs in the US|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/oct/01/death-rates-surge-female-pigs-us|work=The Guardian |access-date=October 6, 2018}}</ref>

In the United States alone, over 20 million chickens, 330,000 pigs and 166,000 cattle die during transport to slaughterhouses annually, and some 800,000 pigs are incapable of walking upon arrival. This is often due to being exposed to extreme temperatures and trauma.<ref>{{cite news |last=Kevany|first=Sophie |date=June 15, 2022 |title=More than 20 million farm animals die on way to abattoir in US every year|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jun/15/more-than-20-million-farm-animals-die-on-way-to-abattoir-in-us-every-year|work=The Guardian |location= |access-date=September 2, 2022}}</ref>

===Demonstrations===

From 2011 to 2014 each year between 15,000 and 30,000 people gathered under the theme ''We are fed up!'' in Berlin to protest against industrial livestock production.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/berlin-protests-focus-on-farming-and-food-safety-1.1316948|title=Berlin protests focus on farming and food safety|date=January 21, 2013|access-date=September 6, 2015}}</ref><ref>[http://www.dw.de/protesters-in-berlin-call-for-an-end-to-factory-farming/a-14780207-1 Deutsche Welle, ''Protesters in Berlin call for an end to factory farming'', 22 January 2011]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dw.de/farmers-defend-themselves-at-berlins-green-week/a-17369859|title=Farmers defend themselves at Berlin′s Green Week |date=January 17, 2014|work=DW.COM|access-date=September 6, 2015}}</ref>

Many global organizations have demonstrated against factory farming all over the world, driven by environmental, ethical, health concerns of the animals. These demonstrations are targeted towards agricultural practices in the industry, financing, and major meat producers. Some key demonstrations and movements over the years have been "Animal Rights Day" in cities like Milan and Mexico city,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Equality |first=Animal |date=2023-12-10 |title=Animal Equality hosts global protests on Animal Rights Day |url=https://animalequality.org/news/2023/12/10/global-protests-on-animal-rights-day/ |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Animal Equality |language=en-US}}</ref> Global Day of Action to Stop World Bank Factory Farm Finance,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Day of Action to Stop World Bank Factory Farm Finance |url=https://stopfinancingfactoryfarming.com/news/global-day-of-action-to-stop-world-bank-factory-farm-finance |access-date=2026-04-15 |website=Stop Financing Factory Farming |language=en-GB}}</ref> and legal challenges against factory farms in the Global South.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2026-02-11 |title=In the Global South, Activists Are Challenging Factory Farms in Court |url=https://sentientmedia.org/global-south-activists-are-challenging-factory-farms/ |access-date=2026-04-15 |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Human health impact== According to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), farms on which animals are intensively reared can cause adverse health reactions in farm workers. Workers may develop acute and chronic lung disease, musculoskeletal injuries, and may catch infections that transmit from animals to human beings (such as tuberculosis).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/conference/2006_conference/abstracts/session_D1.html | title=Factory Farming: The Impact of Animal Feeding Operations on the Environment and Health of Local Communities | access-date=December 13, 2009}}</ref> Communities living near these farms are at risk of respiratory illnesses, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), Q fever, and stress impacts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Casey |first=Joan A. |last2=Kim |first2=Brent F. |last3=Larsen |first3=Jesper |last4=Price |first4=Lance B. |last5=Nachman |first5=Keeve E. |date=2015-09-01 |title=Industrial Food Animal Production and Community Health |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-015-0061-0 |journal=Current Environmental Health Reports |language=en |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=259–271 |doi=10.1007/s40572-015-0061-0 |issn=2196-5412}}</ref>

=== Contaminants === The CDC writes that chemical, bacterial, and viral compounds from animal waste may travel in the soil and water. Residents near such farms report problems such as unpleasant smell, flies and adverse health effects.<ref name="CAFOCDCP" /> The CDC has identified a number of pollutants associated with the discharge of animal waste into rivers and lakes, and into the air. Antibiotic use in livestock may create antibiotic-resistant pathogens; parasites, bacteria, and viruses may be spread; ammonia, nitrogen, and phosphorus can reduce oxygen in surface waters and contaminate drinking water; pesticides and hormones may cause hormone-related changes in fish; animal feed and feathers may stunt the growth of desirable plants in surface waters and provide nutrients to disease-causing micro-organisms; trace elements such as arsenic and copper, which are harmful to human health, may contaminate surface waters.<ref name="CAFOCDCP" />

Pesticides are used to control organisms which are considered harmful<ref name="purdue">[http://www.btny.purdue.edu/Pubs/PPP/PPP-70.pdf The benefits of pesticides: A story worth telling] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609205608/http://www.btny.purdue.edu/Pubs/PPP/PPP-70.pdf|date=June 9, 2010}}. Purdue.edu. Retrieved on September 15, 2007.</ref> and they save farmers money by preventing product losses to pests.<ref name="Kelloggrl">Kellogg RL, Nehring R, Grube A, Goss DW, and Plotkin S (February 2000), [https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Technical/land/pubs/eip_pap.html Environmental indicators of pesticide leaching and run-off from farm fields] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020618151910/http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/Technical/land/pubs/eip_pap.html|date=June 18, 2002}}. United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service. Retrieved on October 3, 2007.</ref> In the US, about a quarter of pesticides used are used in houses, yards, parks, golf courses, and swimming pools<ref name="sustaining">Miller GT (2004), ''Sustaining the Earth'', 6th edition. Thompson Learning, Inc. Pacific Grove, California. Chapter 9, pp. 211–216.</ref> and about 70% are used in agriculture.<ref name="Kelloggrl" /> However, pesticides can make their way into consumers' bodies which can cause health problems.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Food safety: Pesticide residue |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/food-safety-pesticide-residue |access-date=2021-02-16 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref> One source of this is bioaccumulation in animals raised on factory farms.<ref name="sustaining" /><ref>[http://www.sustainabletable.org/issues/pesticides/ Sustainable Table] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020200653/http://www.sustainabletable.org/issues/pesticides/|date=October 20, 2011}} article ''Pesticides''</ref><ref name="pmep">[https://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/facts-slides-self/core-tutorial/module06/index.html Pesticides In the Environment]. Pesticide fact sheets and tutorial, module 6. cornell.edu. Retrieved on September 19, 2007. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090605073023/http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/facts-slides-self/core-tutorial/module06/index.html|date=June 5, 2009}}</ref>

In the European Union, growth hormones are banned on the basis that there is no way of determining a safe level. The UK has stated that in the event of the EU raising the ban at some future date, to comply with a precautionary approach, it would only consider the introduction of specific hormones, proven on a case-by-case basis.<ref>{{cite web |title=VPC report on growth hormones in meat |url=http://www.food.gov.uk/news/newsarchive/2006/jul/vpcreport |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120412225040/http://www.food.gov.uk/news/newsarchive/2006/jul/vpcreport |archive-date=April 12, 2012 |website=Food Standards Agency}}</ref> In 1998, the EU banned feeding animals antibiotics that were found to be valuable for human health. Furthermore, in 2006 the EU banned all drugs for livestock that were used for growth promotion purposes. As a result of these bans, the levels of antibiotic resistance in animal products and within the human population showed a decrease.<ref>{{cite web |date=June 19, 2009 |title=Non-therapeutic Use of Antibiotics in Animal Agriculture, Corresponding Resistance Rates, and What Can be Done About It |url=http://www.cgdev.org/content/article/detail/1422307/ |vauthors=Schneider K, Garrett L}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=February 10, 2010 |title=Denmark's Case for Antibiotic-Free Animals |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/denmarks-case-for-antibiotic-free-animals/ |work=CBS News}}</ref>

In the United States, the use of antibiotics in livestock is still prevalent.<ref>{{Cite web |last=CDC |date=2021-02-02 |title=Antibiotic Resistance and Food are Connected |url=https://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/food.html |access-date=2021-02-16 |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |language=en-us}}</ref> The FDA reports that 80 percent of all antibiotics sold in 2009 were administered to livestock animals, and that many of these antibiotics are identical or closely related to drugs used for treating illnesses in humans. Consequently, many of these drugs are losing their effectiveness on humans, and the total healthcare costs associated with drug-resistant bacterial infections in the United States are between $16.6 billion and $26 billion annually.<ref>{{cite web |date=March 9, 2011 |title=H.R. 965: Preservation of Antibiotics for Medical Treatment Act of 2011 |url=http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/112/hr965/text |access-date=August 5, 2012}}</ref>

=== Disease === Zoonotic diseases such as coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which caused the COVID-19 pandemic, are increasingly linked to environmental changes associated with intensive animal farming.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/28/is-factory-farming-to-blame-for-coronavirus|last=Spinney|first=Laura|title=Is factory farming to blame for coronavirus?|date=2020-03-28|work=The Guardian|access-date=2020-04-18|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The disruption of pristine forests driven by logging, mining, road building through remote places, rapid urbanisation and population growth is bringing people into closer contact with animal species they may never have been near before. According to Kate Jones, chair of ecology and biodiversity at University College London, the resulting transmission of disease from wildlife to humans is now "a hidden cost of human economic development".<ref>{{Cite news|last=Vidal|first=John|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/mar/18/tip-of-the-iceberg-is-our-destruction-of-nature-responsible-for-covid-19-aoe|title='Tip of the iceberg': is our destruction of nature responsible for Covid-19?|date=2020-03-18|work=The Guardian|access-date=2020-03-18|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The international trade in animal products increases the risk of global transmission of virulent diseases such as swine fever,<ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/research/agriculture/projects_showcase09_en.htm EU‑AGRINET] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523190228/http://ec.europa.eu/research/agriculture/projects_showcase09_en.htm|date=May 23, 2013}} article ''Fighting swine fever in Europe'' (Project Coordinator: Dr Trevor Drew at Veterinary Laboratories Agency)</ref> BSE, foot and mouth and bird flu.

Intensive farming may make the evolution and spread of harmful diseases easier. Many communicable animal diseases spread rapidly through densely spaced populations of animals and crowding makes genetic reassortment more likely. However, small family farms are more likely to introduce bird diseases and more frequent association with people into the mix, as happened in the 2009 flu pandemic.<ref>{{cite news |last=Brown |first=David |date=October 25, 2009 |title=Back where virus started, new scrutiny of pig farming |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/10/24/AR2009102402280.html?hpid=topnews |newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref>

Methicillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'' (MRSA) has been identified in pigs and humans raising concerns about the role of pigs as reservoirs of MRSA for human infection. One study found that 20% of pig farmers in the United States and Canada in 2007 harbored MRSA.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=T. Khannaa |author2=R. Friendshipa |author3=C. Deweya |author4=J.S. Weeseb |date=May 2008 |title=Methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus colonization in pigs and pig farmers |url=http://www.mrsa-net.nl/de/files/file-bron-ant-10055-0-Khanna.pdf |journal=Veterinary Microbiology |volume=128 |issue=3–4 |pages=298–303 |doi=10.1016/j.vetmic.2007.10.006 |pmid=18023542 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724161506/http://www.mrsa-net.nl/de/files/file-bron-ant-10055-0-Khanna.pdf |archive-date=July 24, 2011 |access-date=November 14, 2010}}</ref> A second study revealed that 81% of Dutch pig farms had pigs with MRSA and 39% of animals at slaughter carried the bug were all of the infections were resistant to tetracycline and many were resistant to other antimicrobials.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=de Neeling AJ, van den Broek MJ, Spalburg EC, van Santen-Verheuvel MG, Dam-Deisz WD, Boshuizen HC, van de Giessen AW, van Duijkeren E, Huijsdens XW |date=21 June 2007 |title=High prevalance methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus in pigs |url=https://mrsa.rivm.nl/flash/Publicatie%20over%20MRSA%20bij%20varkens%20in%20slachthuizen.pdf |journal=Veterinary Microbiology |access-date=November 14, 2010}}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> A more recent study found that MRSA ST398 isolates were less susceptible to tiamulin, an antimicrobial used in agriculture, than other MRSA or methicillin susceptible ''S. aureus''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rubin|first=JE|author2=Ball KR |author3=Chirino-Trejo M |title=Decreased susceptibility of MRSA ST398 to tiamulin|journal=Veterinary Microbiology|year=2011|doi=10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.03.030|volume=151|issue=3–4|pages=422–423|pmid=21511410}}</ref> Cases of MRSA have increased in livestock animals. CC398 is a new clone of MRSA that has emerged in animals and is found in intensively reared production animals (primarily pigs, but also cattle and poultry), where it can be transmitted to humans. Although dangerous to humans, CC398 is often asymptomatic in food-producing animals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/rn-301|title=Joint scientific report of ECDC, EFSA and EMEA on methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in livestock, companion animals and food|date=June 16, 2009|access-date=September 19, 2009}}</ref>

A 2011 nationwide study reported nearly half of the meat and poultry sold in U.S. grocery stores – 47 percent – was contaminated with ''S. aureus'', and more than half of those bacteria – 52 percent – were resistant to at least three classes of antibiotics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tgen.org/news/index.cfm?newsid=1948|title=Nationwide study finds U.S. meat and poultry is widely contaminated|date=April 15, 2011|access-date=July 15, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120523025801/http://www.tgen.org/news/index.cfm?newsid=1948|archive-date=May 23, 2012}}</ref> Although Staph should be killed with proper cooking, it may still pose a risk to consumers through improper food handling and cross-contamination in the kitchen. The senior author of the study said, "The fact that drug-resistant ''S. aureus'' was so prevalent, and likely came from the food animals themselves, is troubling, and demands attention to how antibiotics are used in food-animal production today."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/04/110415083153.htm|title=US meat and poultry is widely contaminated with drug-resistant Staph bacteria, study finds|access-date=September 6, 2015}}</ref>

In April 2009, lawmakers in the Mexican state of Veracruz accused large-scale hog and poultry operations of being breeding grounds of a pandemic swine flu, although they did not present scientific evidence to support their claim. A swine flu which have quickly killed more than 100 infected persons in that area, appears to have begun in the vicinity of a Smithfield subsidiary pig CAFO (concentrated animal feeding operation).<ref>{{cite news | author = David Kirby | title = Mexican Lawmaker: Factory Farms Are "Breeding Grounds" of Swine Flu Pandemic | url = http://www.huffingtonpost.com/david-kirby/mexican-lawmaker-factory_b_191579.html | work = The Huffington Post | date = April 28, 2009 | access-date = April 28, 2009}}</ref>

==Environmental impact==

{{Main|Environmental impact of meat production|Cattle#Environmental_impact}}

The production of meat and other animal products is a major driver of global environmental degradation, global warming, and biodiversity loss compared to plant-based foods.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web |last=Williams |first=Kelly L. |title=Factory farming facts: Animal welfare and food production {{!}} Humane World for Animals |url=https://www.humaneworld.org/en/all-animals/facts-about-factory-farms |access-date=2026-04-16 |website=www.humaneworld.org |language=en|date=2020-12-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-07-20 |title=Vegan diet massively cuts environmental damage, study shows |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jul/20/vegan-diet-cuts-environmental-damage-climate-heating-emissions-study |access-date=2026-04-16 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/meat-eaters-may-speed-worldwide-species-extinction-study-warns |title=Meat-eaters may speed worldwide species extinction, study warns |first=Virginia |last=Morell |date=August 11, 2015 |work=Science |access-date=December 14, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220105327/http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/08/meat-eaters-may-speed-worldwide-species-extinction-study-warns |archive-date=December 20, 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> However, compared to extensive animal farming, factory farming necessitates less land and emits less greenhouse gas for the same amount of product.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |title=The environmental impacts of intensive and extensive systems |url=https://www.leap.ox.ac.uk/environmental-impacts-intensive-and-extensive-systems |access-date=2026-04-16 |website=www.leap.ox.ac.uk |language=en}}</ref>

Generally, the environmental impacts of factory farming include:<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Halden |first1=Rolf|last2=Schwab|first2=Kellogg|date=n.d.|title=Environmental Impact of Industrial Farm Animal Production|url=http://www.ncifap.org/_images/212-4_envimpact_tc_final.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324090554/http://www.ncifap.org/_images/212-4_EnvImpact_tc_Final.pdf|archive-date=March 24, 2012|journal=A Report of the Pew Commission on Industrial Farm Animal Production}}</ref>

* Deforestation for animal feed production * Unsustainable pressure on land for production of high-protein/high-energy animal feed * Pesticide, herbicide, and fertilizer manufacture and use for feed production * Unsustainable use of water for feed-crops, including groundwater extraction * Pollution of soil, water and air by nitrogen and phosphorus from fertiliser used for feed-crops and from manure * Loss of biodiversity due to eutrophication, acidification, pesticides and herbicides * Worldwide reduction of genetic diversity of livestock and loss of traditional breeds * Species extinctions due to livestock-related habitat destruction (especially feed-cropping)

Most analyses show that intensively farmed chicken has the lowest overall environmental impact, whereas grass-fed beef has the highest.<ref name=":12" /> Animal rights activists point out that because factory farming is more efficient, it reduces the price of meat, which increases demand.<ref name=":22" />

Intensive animal farming produces a large amount of waste, which pollutes the air, soil and water. On intensive pig farms, the animals are generally kept on concrete with slats or grates for the manure to drain through. The manure is usually stored in slurry form (slurry is a liquid mixture of urine and feces). During storage on the farm, slurry emits methane and when manure is spread on fields it emits nitrous oxide and causes nitrogen pollution of land and water. Large quantities and concentrations of waste are produced. Air quality and groundwater are at risk when animal waste is improperly recycled.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-04-29 |title=Fields of filth: factory farms committing thousands of environmental breaches |url=https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/stories/2024-04-29/fields-of-filth-factory-farms-committing-thousands-of-environmental-breaches |access-date=2026-04-17 |website=TBIJ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nrdc.org/water/pollution/factor/stark.asp |access-date=November 2, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100831063238/http://www.nrdc.org/water/pollution/factor/stark.asp |archive-date=August 31, 2010 |title=America's Animal Factories: How States Fail to Prevent Pollution from Livestock Waste|website=Natural Resources Defense Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nrdc.org/water/pollution/nspills.asp|title=Industrial Agricultural Pollution 101|access-date=September 6, 2015|website=Natural Resources Defense Council|date=2022-07-21}}</ref>

==References== {{reflist}}

== External links == {{Wikiquote}} {{Commons category}}

* {{cite book| last = Crawford| first = Dorothy | title = Deadly Companions: How Microbes Shaped our History| date = 2018| publisher = Oxford University Press| location = Oxford, UK}} * [https://www.animal-ethics.org/animals-used-food-introduction Animals Used for Food], Animal Ethics * [http://nationalaglawcenter.org/research-by-topic/afo/ National Agriculture Law Center – Animal Feeding Operations] * [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/may/24/calls-to-reform-food-system-factory-farming-belongs-in-a-museum Calls to reform food system: 'Factory farming belongs in a museum']. ''The Guardian.'' May 24, 2017.

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