Cabbage

{{pp-pc|small=yes}} {{short description|Leafy vegetable in the flowering plant family Brassicaceae}} {{About|the vegetable}} {{featured article}} {{Infobox cultivar | name = Cabbage | image = Cabbage and cross section on white.jpg | image_caption = A savoy cabbage and a cross section | species = ''Brassica oleracea'' | group = Capitata Group | origin = Europe, prior to 1000 BC | subdivision = {{plainlist| * White cabbage * Red cabbage * Savoy cabbage }} }}

'''Cabbage''', comprising several cultivars of ''Brassica oleracea'', is a leafy green, red (purple), or white (pale green) biennial plant grown as an annual vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It is descended from the wild cabbage (''B. oleracea'' var. ''oleracea''), and belongs to the "cole crops" or brassicas, meaning it is closely related to broccoli and cauliflower (var. ''botrytis''); Brussels sprouts (var. ''gemmifera''); and Savoy cabbage (var. ''sabauda'').

A cabbage generally weighs between {{convert|500|and|1000|g|lbs|sigfig=1}}. Smooth-leafed, firm-headed green cabbages are the most common, with smooth-leafed purple cabbages and crinkle-leafed savoy cabbages of both colours being rarer. Under conditions of long sunny days, such as those found at high northern latitudes in summer, cabbages can grow quite large. {{As of|2012}}, the heaviest cabbage was {{convert|62.71|kg|lboz|frac=2}}. <!-- Some records are discussed at the end of the history section. --> Cabbage heads are generally picked during the first year of the plant's life cycle, but plants intended for seed are allowed to grow a second year and must be kept separate from other cole crops to prevent cross-pollination. Cabbage is prone to several nutrient deficiencies, as well as to multiple pests, and bacterial and fungal diseases.

Cabbage was most likely domesticated somewhere in Europe in ancient history before 1000 BC. Cabbage use in cuisine has been documented since antiquity.<ref name="briefhistoricalsketch">A brief historical sketch is in Toussaint-Samat, pp. 622ff.</ref> It was described as a table luxury in the Roman Empire.<ref>The Natural History of Pompeii. Cambridge University Press. 2002. p. 94. ISBN 978-0-521-80054-9</ref> By the Middle Ages, cabbage had become a prominent part of European cuisine, as indicated by manuscript illuminations.<ref>Ingram, Christine (2000). The Cook's Guide to Vegetables. Hermes House. pp. 64–66. ISBN 978-1-84038-842-8.</ref> New variants were introduced from the Renaissance on, mostly by Germanic-speaking peoples. Savoy cabbage was developed in the 16th century. By the 17th and 18th centuries, cabbage was popularised as a staple food in central, northern, and Eastern Europe.<ref name="Tannahill">Tannahill, pp. 289–291</ref> It was also employed by European sailors to prevent scurvy during long sea voyages. Starting in the early modern era, cabbage was exported to the Americas, Asia, and around the world.<ref name="universityofarizona-cabbage">{{cite web|url=http://cals.arizona.edu/fps/sites/cals.arizona.edu.fps/files/cotw/cabbage.pdf|title=Green Cabbage|author=Nolte, Kurt|publisher=University of Arizona|access-date=2012-08-14|archive-date=2013-06-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130626020823/http://cals.arizona.edu/fps/sites/cals.arizona.edu.fps/files/cotw/cabbage.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Cabbages can be prepared many different ways for eating; they can be pickled, fermented (for dishes such as sauerkraut and kimchi), steamed, stewed, roasted, sautéed, braised, or eaten raw. Raw cabbage is a rich source of vitamin K, vitamin C, and dietary fiber. China is the largest producer of cabbages, providing 48% of the world total.

== Description == [[File:Brassica oleracea Helgoland1.jpg|thumb|right|upright|The cabbage inflorescence, which appears in the plant's second year of growth, features white or yellow flowers, each with four perpendicularly arranged petals.]]

Cabbage seedlings have a thin taproot and cordate (heart-shaped) cotyledons. The first leaves produced are ovate (egg-shaped) with a lobed petiole. Plants are {{convert|40|–|60|cm|abbr=off|frac=2}} tall in their first year at the mature vegetative stage, and {{convert|1.5-2|m|ft|abbr=off|frac=2}} tall when flowering in the second year.<ref name="Dixon p19">Dixon, p. 19</ref> Heads average between {{convert|1|and|8|lbs|sigfig=1|abbr=off|order=flip}}, with fast-growing, earlier-maturing varieties producing smaller heads.<ref name="UI">{{cite web |title=Cabbage |url=http://urbanext.illinois.edu/veggies/cabbage.cfm |access-date=2012-08-10 |publisher=University of Illinois Extension}}</ref> Most cabbages have thick, alternating leaves, with margins that range from wavy or lobed to highly dissected; some varieties have a waxy bloom on the leaves. Plants have root systems that are fibrous and shallow.<ref name="Katz279" /> About 90% of the root mass is in the upper {{convert|20|–|30|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} of soil; some lateral roots can penetrate up to {{convert|2|m|ft|abbr=on|frac=2}} deep.<ref name="Dixon p19" />

The inflorescence is an unbranched and indeterminate terminal raceme measuring {{convert|50|–|100|cm|in|-1|abbr=on}} tall,<ref name="Dixon p19" /> with flowers that are yellow or white. Each flower has four petals set in a perpendicular pattern, as well as four sepals, six stamens, and a superior ovary that is two-celled and contains a single stigma and style. Two of the six stamens have shorter filaments. The fruit is a silique that opens at maturity through dehiscence to reveal brown or black seeds that are small and round in shape. Self-pollination is impossible, and plants are cross-pollinated by insects.<ref name="Katz279" /> The initial leaves form a rosette shape comprising 7 to 15 leaves, each measuring {{convert|25|–|35|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} by {{convert|20|–|30|cm|in|0|abbr=on}};<ref name="Dixon p19" /> after this, leaves with shorter petioles develop and heads form through the leaves cupping inward.<ref name="WI1" />

Many shapes, colors and leaf textures are found in various cultivated varieties of cabbage. Leaf types are generally divided between crinkled-leaf, loose-head savoys and smooth-leaf firm-head cabbages, while the color spectrum includes white and a range of greens and purples. Oblate, round and pointed shapes are found.<ref name="Katz280">Katz and Weaver, p. 280</ref>

Cabbage has been selectively bred for head weight and morphological characteristics, frost hardiness, fast growth and storage ability. The appearance of the cabbage head has been given importance in selective breeding, with varieties being chosen for shape, color, firmness and other physical characteristics.<ref>Ordas and Cartea, p. 128</ref> Breeding objectives are now focused on increasing resistance to various insects and diseases and improving the nutritional content of cabbage.<ref>Ordas and Cartea, p. 135</ref> Scientific research into the genetic modification of ''B.&nbsp;oleracea'' crops, including cabbage, has included European Union and United States explorations of greater insect and herbicide resistance.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cabbage |url=http://www.gmo-compass.org/eng/database/plants/46.cabbage.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131018021027/http://www.gmo-compass.org/eng/database/plants/46.cabbage.html |archive-date=2013-10-18 |access-date=2013-10-19 |work=GMO Food Database |publisher=GMO Compass}}</ref>

There are several ''Guinness Book of World Records'' entries related to cabbage. These include the heaviest cabbage, at {{convert|62.71|kg|lboz|abbr=on|frac=2}},<ref>{{cite web |date=31 August 2012 |title=Heaviest cabbage |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/1000/heaviest-cabbage |access-date=2021-04-06 |publisher=Guinness World Records}}</ref> heaviest red cabbage, at {{convert|31.6|kg|lboz}},<ref>{{cite web |date=26 September 2020 |title=Heaviest red cabbage |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/11000/heaviest-red-cabbage |access-date=2021-04-06 |publisher=Guinness World Records}}</ref> longest cabbage roll, at {{convert|19.54|m|ft|abbr=on|frac=2}},<ref>{{cite web |date=26 September 2015 |title=Longest cabbage roll |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/5000/longest-cabbage-roll |access-date=2021-04-06 |publisher=Guinness World Records}}</ref> and the largest cabbage dish, at {{convert|2960|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |date=8 November 2014 |title=Largest cabbage dish |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/5000/largest-cabbage-dish |access-date=2021-04-06 |publisher=Guinness World Records}}</ref>

==Taxonomy== thumb|Cabbage Cabbage (''Brassica oleracea'' or ''B.&nbsp;oleracea'' var. ''capitata'',<ref name=USDA/> var. ''tuba'', var. ''sabauda''<ref name=WI1>{{cite web|url=http://learningstore.uwex.edu/assets/pdfs/A3684.PDF|title=Growing broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage and other cole crops in Wisconsin|publisher=University of Wisconsin|access-date=2012-08-12|year=1997|author1=Delahaut, K. A. |author2=Newenhouse, A. C|page=1}}</ref> or var. ''acephala'')<ref>{{cite web|url=https://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=BROL|title=''Brassica oleracea'' L.&nbsp;– Cabbage|publisher=United States Department of Agriculture|access-date=2012-08-10}}</ref> is a member of the genus ''Brassica'' and the mustard family Brassicaceae. Several other cruciferous vegetables (sometimes known as ''cole crops''<ref name=WI1/>) are cultivars of ''B.&nbsp;oleracea'', including broccoli, collard greens, brussels sprouts, kohlrabi and sprouting broccoli. All of these developed from the wild cabbage ''B.&nbsp;oleracea'' var. ''oleracea'', also called colewort or field cabbage. This original species evolved over thousands of years into those seen today, as selection resulted in cultivars having different characteristics, such as large heads for cabbage, large leaves for kale and thick stems with flower buds for broccoli.<ref name=USDA>{{cite web|url=https://plants.usda.gov/java/ClassificationServlet?source=profile&symbol=BROL&display=31|title=Classification for species ''Brassica oleracea'' L.|publisher=United States Department of Agriculture|work=PLANTS database|access-date=2012-08-10}}</ref>

"Cabbage" was originally used to refer to multiple forms of ''B.&nbsp;oleracea'', including those with loose or non-existent heads.<ref name=Texas/> A related species, ''Brassica rapa'', is commonly named Chinese, napa or celery cabbage, and has many of the same uses.<ref>{{cite book|title=Vegetables from Amaranth to Zucchini: The Essential Reference|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cWyWGlcmvO0C&pg=PA196|pages=195–196|author=Schneider, Elizabeth|publisher=HarperCollins|year=2001|isbn=978-0-688-15260-4}}</ref> It is also a part of common names for several unrelated species. These include cabbage bark or cabbage tree (a member of the genus ''Andira'') and cabbage palms, which include several genera of palms such as ''Mauritia'', ''Roystonea oleracea'', ''Acrocomia'' and ''Euterpe oenocarpus''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ygkoAAAAYAAJ&pg=PT337|page=337|title=Winston's Cumulative Encyclopedia: A Comprehensive Reference Book|volume=2|author=Morris, Charles|publisher=J. C. Winston|year=1915}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_n82hsbDJBMC&pg=PA150|page=150|title=Dictionary of the English/Creole of Trinidad & Tobago: On Historical Principles|author=Winer, Lise|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-7735-3406-3}}</ref>

=== Etymology === The original family name of brassicas was ''Cruciferae'', which derived from the flower petal pattern thought by medieval Europeans to resemble a crucifix.<ref name="Katz279">Katz and Weaver, p. 279</ref> The word ''brassica'' derives from ''bresic'', a Celtic word for cabbage.<ref name="Texas">{{cite web|url=http://aggie-horticulture.tamu.edu/archives/parsons/publications/vegetabletravelers/cabbage.html|title=Of Cabbages and Celts|access-date=2013-10-19|publisher=Texas A&M University|work=Aggie Horticulture}}</ref> The varietal epithet ''capitata'' is derived from the Latin word for 'having a head'.<ref name="Small 2009">{{cite book |author=Small, Ernst |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nyWY_YkV7qAC&pg=PA127 |title=Top 100 Food Plants |publisher=NRC Research Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-660-19858-3 |page=127}}</ref>

Many European and Asiatic names for cabbage are derived from the Celto-Slavic root ''cap'' or ''kap'', meaning "head".<ref name="Sturtevant 1919" /> The late Middle English word ''cabbage'' derives from the word ''caboche'' ("head"), from the Picard dialect of Old French. This in turn is a variant of the Old French ''caboce''.<ref name="Oxford">{{cite book|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000unse_x2z7/page/76 76]|title=The Oxford Dictionary of Word Histories|editor=Chantrell, Glynnis|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-19-863121-7|url=https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary0000unse_x2z7/page/76}}</ref>

== Cultivation ==

=== History === Although cabbage has an extensive history,<ref name="briefhistoricalsketch"/> it is difficult to trace its exact origins owing to the many varieties of leafy greens classified as "brassicas".<ref name=Ingram/> A possible wild ancestor of cabbage, ''Brassica oleracea'', originally found in Britain and continental Europe, is tolerant of salt but not encroachment by other plants and consequently inhabits rocky cliffs in cool damp coastal habitats,<ref>Dixon, p. 2</ref> retaining water and nutrients in its slightly thickened, turgid leaves. However, genetic analysis is consistent with feral origin of this population, deriving from plants escaped from field and gardens.<ref>{{Cite journal|doi = 10.1007/s10722-020-00945-0|title = Survey and genetic diversity of wild ''Brassica oleracea'' L. Germplasm on the Atlantic coast of France|year = 2020|last1 = Maggioni|first1 = Lorenzo|last2 = von Bothmer|first2 = Roland|last3 = Poulsen|first3 = Gert|last4 = Härnström Aloisi|first4 = Karolina|journal = Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution|volume = 67|issue = 7|pages = 1853–1866| bibcode=2020GRCEv..67.1853M |s2cid = 218772995|hdl = 10568/121870|hdl-access = free}}</ref> According to the triangle of U theory of the evolution and relationships between ''Brassica'' species, ''B. oleracea'' and other closely related kale vegetables (cabbages, kale, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, and cauliflower) represent one of three ancestral lines from which all other brassicas originated.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Chen, S. |author2=Nelson, M. N. |author3=Chèvre, A.- M. |author4=Jenczewski, E. |author5=Li, Z. |author6=Mason, A. |author7=Meng, J. |author8=Plummer, J. A. |author9=Pradhan, A. |author10=Siddique, K. H. M. |author11=Snowdon, R. J. |author12=Yan, G. |author13=Zhou, W. |author14=Cowling W. A. |title=Trigenomic bridges for ''Brassica'' improvement |journal=Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences |year=2011 |volume=30 |issue=6 |pages=524–547 |doi=10.1080/07352689.2011.615700|bibcode=2011CRvPS..30..524C |s2cid=84504896 }}</ref>

Cabbage was probably domesticated later in history than Near Eastern crops such as lentils and summer wheat. Because of the wide range of crops developed from the wild ''B.&nbsp;oleracea'', multiple broadly contemporaneous domestications of cabbage may have occurred throughout Europe. Nonheading cabbages and kale were probably the first to be domesticated, before 1000 BC,<ref name=Katz284>Katz and Weaver, p. 284</ref> perhaps by the Celts of central and western Europe,<ref name=Texas/> although recent linguistic and genetic evidence enforces a Mediterranean origin of cultivated brassicas.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Maggioni|first=Lorenzo|date=2015|title=Domestication of ''Brassica oleracea'' L.|url=https://pub.epsilon.slu.se/12424/1/maggioni_l_150720.pdf|journal=Acta Universitatis Agriculturae Sueciae|volume=Doctoral Thesis no. 2015:74}}</ref>

While unidentified brassicas were part of the highly conservative unchanging Mesopotamian garden repertory,<ref>"Cabbage plants" are mentioned in Oppenheim, A. Leo (1977) ''Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 313.</ref> it is believed that the ancient Egyptians did not cultivate cabbage,<ref name="encyclopedia">{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Cultivated Plants: From ''Acacia'' to ''Zinnia'' |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2013 |page=169 |isbn=978-1-59884-775-8}}</ref> which is not native to the Nile valley, though the word ''shaw't'' in Papyrus Harris of the time of Ramesses III has been interpreted as "cabbage".<ref name="Janick">Janick, p. 51</ref> The ancient Greeks had some varieties of cabbage, as mentioned by Theophrastus, although whether they were more closely related to today's cabbage or to one of the other ''Brassica'' crops is unknown.<ref name=Katz284/> The headed cabbage variety was known to the Greeks as ''krambe'' and to the Romans as ''brassica'' or ''olus'';<ref name="Dalby">{{cite book |author=Dalby, Andrew |title=Food in the Ancient World from A to Z |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |page=67 |isbn=978-1-135-95422-2}}</ref> the open, leafy variety (kale) was known in Greek as ''raphanos'' and in Latin as ''caulis''.<ref name="Dalby"/> Ptolemaic Egyptians knew the cole crops as ''gramb'', under the influence of Greek ''krambe'', which had been a familiar plant to the Macedonian antecedents of the Ptolemies.<ref name="Janick"/> By early Roman times, Egyptian artisans and children were eating cabbage and turnips among a wide variety of other vegetables and pulses.<ref>''Selected Papyri'' I, 186, noted in Alan K. Bowman, ''Egypt After the Pharaohs'', p 151.</ref>

Chrysippus of Cnidos wrote a treatise on cabbage, which Pliny knew,<ref>Pliny's Natural History, 20. 78–83.</ref> but it has not survived. The Greeks were convinced that cabbages and grapevines were inimical, and that cabbage planted too near the vine would impart its unwelcome odor to the grapes; this Mediterranean sense of antipathy survives today.<ref name="Toussaint">Toussaint-Samat, p. 622.</ref>

''Brassica'' was considered by some Romans a table luxury,<ref name="Pompeii">{{cite book |title=The Natural History of Pompeii |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2002 |page=94 |isbn=978-0-521-80054-9}}</ref> although Lucullus considered it unfit for the senatorial table.<ref>Toussaint-Samat, p. 623.</ref> The more traditionalist Cato the Elder, espousing a simple Republican life, ate his cabbage cooked or raw and dressed with vinegar; he said it surpassed all other vegetables, and approvingly distinguished three varieties; he also gave directions for its medicinal use, which extended to the cabbage-eater's urine, in which infants might be rinsed.<ref>Cato, ''De agricultura'', CLVI, CLVII; the passages are paraphrased by Pliny the Elder.</ref> Pliny the Elder listed seven varieties, including Pompeii cabbage, Cumae cabbage and Sabellian cabbage.<ref name="encyclopedia"/>

According to Pliny, the Pompeii cabbage, which could not stand cold, is "taller, and has a thick stock near the root, but grows thicker between the leaves, these being scantier and narrower, but their tenderness is a valuable quality".<ref name="Pompeii"/> The Pompeii cabbage was also mentioned by Columella in ''De Re Rustica''.<ref name="Pompeii"/> Apicius gives several recipes for ''cauliculi'', tender cabbage shoots. The Greeks and Romans claimed medicinal usages for their cabbage varieties that included relief from gout, headaches and the symptoms of poisonous mushroom ingestion.<ref name=UCD>{{cite web|url=http://aic.ucdavis.edu/profiles/Cabbage_2006.pdf|publisher=University of California – Davis|access-date=2012-08-21|title=Commodity Profile: Cabbage|author1=Boriss, Hayley|author2=Kreith, Marcia|date=February 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121207142003/http://aic.ucdavis.edu/profiles/Cabbage_2006.pdf|archive-date=2012-12-07|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The antipathy towards the vine made it seem that eating cabbage would enable one to avoid drunkenness.<ref name="Toussaint"/> Cabbage continued to figure in the ''materia medica'' of antiquity as well as at table: in the first century AD Dioscorides mentions two kinds of coleworts with medical uses, the cultivated and the wild,<ref name="Sturtevant 1919">{{cite book |author=Sturtevant, Edward Lewis |author-link=Edward Lewis Sturtevant |title=Sturtevant's Notes on Edible Plants |year=1919 |publisher=J.B.&nbsp;Lyon |pages=115, 117 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/20118475|isbn=9780486204598 }}</ref> and his opinions continued to be paraphrased in herbals right through the 17th century.

At the end of Antiquity cabbage is mentioned in ''De observatione ciborum'' ("On the Observance of Foods") by Anthimus, a Greek doctor at the court of Theodoric the Great. Cabbage appears among vegetables directed to be cultivated in the ''Capitulare de villis'', composed in 771–800 AD, that guided the governance of the royal estates of Charlemagne.

In Britain, the Anglo-Saxons cultivated ''cawel''.<ref>Bosworth, Joseph. ed. ''An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary'', ''s.v.'' "cawel" gives parallels: Scottish ''kail, kale''; Frisian ''koal, koel''; Dutch ''kool'' (fem.); German ''kohl'' (masc.), etc. but also Welsh ''cawl''; Cornish ''caul'' (masc.); etc. Compare Latin ''caulis''.</ref> When round-headed cabbages appeared in 14th-century England they were called ''cabaches'' and ''caboches'', words drawn from Old French and applied at first to refer to the ball of unopened leaves,<ref>''OED'': "cabbage".</ref> the contemporaneous recipe that commences "Take cabbages and quarter them, and seethe them in good broth",<ref>Forgeng, Jeffrey L. and McLean, Will (2009) ''Daily Life in Chaucer's England''. ABC-CLIO. p. 298. {{ISBN|9780313359514}}</ref> also suggests the tightly headed cabbage.

[[File:Tacuinum Sanitatis-cabbage harvest.jpg|thumb|Harvesting cabbage, ''Tacuinum Sanitatis'', 15th century]] Manuscript illuminations show the prominence of cabbage in the cuisine of the High Middle Ages,<ref name=Ingram>{{cite book|pages=64–66|title=The Cook's Guide to Vegetables|author=Ingram, Christine|publisher=Hermes House|year=2000|isbn=978-1-84038-842-8}}</ref> and cabbage seeds feature among the seed list of purchases for the use of King John II of France when captive in England in 1360,<ref>Parrain, Charles (1966) "The evolution of agricultural technique" in M. M. Postan, ed. ''The Cambridge Economic History of Europe: I. The Agrarian Life of the Middle Ages''. Cambridge University Press. p. 166. {{ISBN|9781139054423}}, {{doi|10.1017/CHOL9780521045056}}</ref> but cabbages were also a familiar staple of the poor: in the lean year of 1420 the "Bourgeois of Paris" noted that "poor people ate no bread, nothing but cabbages and turnips and such dishes, without any bread or salt".<ref> {{Cite web |url=https://pantherfile.uwm.edu/carlin/www/parisjournal1.html |title=Extracts from ''A Parisian Journal, 1405-1449'', translated by Janet Shirley from the anonymous ''Journal d'un bourgeois de Paris'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1968). |access-date=2014-02-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222204356/https://pantherfile.uwm.edu/carlin/www/parisjournal1.html |archive-date=2014-02-22 |url-status=dead }} </ref> French naturalist Jean Ruel made what is considered the first explicit mention of head cabbage in his 1536 botanical treatise ''De Natura Stirpium'', referring to it as ''capucos coles'' ("head-coles").<ref name="Wright2001">{{cite book |author=Wright, Clifford A.|title=Mediterranean Vegetables: A Cook's ABC of Vegetables and Their Preparation in Spain, France, Italy, Greece, Turkey, the Middle East, and North Africa with More Than 200 Authentic Recipes for the Home Cook|year=2001|publisher=Harvard Common Press|isbn=978-1-55832-196-0|pages=77–79|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tka838efZvkC&pg=PA77}}</ref>

In Istanbul, Sultan Selim III penned a tongue-in-cheek ode to cabbage: without cabbage, the halva feast was not complete.<ref>A translation is in Isin, Mary (2013) ''Sherbet and Spice: The Complete Story of Turkish Sweets and Desserts''. I.B. Tauris. p. 146. {{ISBN|978-1848858985}}</ref> In India, cabbage was one of several vegetable crops introduced by colonizing traders from Portugal, who established trade routes from the 14th to 17th centuries.<ref name="Dabholkar 2006">{{cite book |author=Dabholkar, A. R. |title=General Plant Breeding |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oxooQMXeYhcC&pg=PA135 |year=2006 |publisher=Concept Publishing |isbn=978-81-8069-242-0 |page=135}}</ref> Carl Peter Thunberg reported that cabbage was not yet known in Japan in 1775.<ref name="Sturtevant 1919"/>

Many cabbage varieties—including some still commonly grown—were introduced in Germany, France, and the Low Countries.<ref name=Texas/> During the 16th century, German gardeners developed the savoy cabbage.<ref name=Sydney/> During the 17th and 18th centuries, cabbage was a food staple in such countries as Germany, England, Ireland and Russia, and pickled cabbage was frequently eaten.<ref name="Tannahill"/> Sauerkraut was used by Dutch, Scandinavian and German sailors to prevent scurvy during long ship voyages.<ref name="universityofarizona-cabbage"/>

Jacques Cartier first brought cabbage to the Americas in 1541–42, and it was probably planted by the early English colonists, despite the lack of written evidence of its existence there until the mid-17th century. By the 18th century, it was commonly planted by both colonists and native American Indians.<ref name=Texas/> Cabbage seeds traveled to Australia in 1788 with the First Fleet, and were planted the same year on Norfolk Island. It became a favorite vegetable of Australians by the 1830s and was frequently seen at the Sydney Markets.<ref name=Sydney>{{cite web|url=http://www.freshforkids.com.au/veg_pages/cabbage/cabbage.html|title=Cabbage|publisher=Sydney Markets, Ltd|access-date=2012-08-10|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120808031331/http://www.freshforkids.com.au/veg_pages/cabbage/cabbage.html|archive-date=2012-08-08}}</ref> In Brno, Czech Republic there is an open-air market named after cabbage which has been in operation since 1325, the Zelný trh.

=== Modern cultivation === [[File:Dojranski zelki.jpg|thumb|A cabbage field in North Macedonia]] Cabbage is generally grown for its densely leaved heads, produced during the first year of its biennial cycle. Plants perform best when grown in well-drained soil in a location that receives full sun. Different varieties prefer different soil types, ranging from lighter sand to heavier clay, but all prefer fertile ground with a pH between 6.0 and 6.8.<ref name=Brad56/> For optimal growth, there must be adequate levels of nitrogen in the soil, especially during the early head formation stage, and sufficient phosphorus and potassium during the early stages of expansion of the outer leaves.<ref name="Wien and Wurr 533">Wien and Wurr, p. 533</ref>

thumb|Gathering cabbages in the US, early 20th century

Temperatures between {{convert|4|and|24|C|F}} prompt the best growth, and extended periods of higher or lower temperatures may result in premature bolting (flowering).<ref name=Brad56>Bradley et al., pp. 56–57</ref> Flowering induced by periods of low temperatures (a process called vernalization) only occurs if the plant is past the juvenile period. The transition from a juvenile to adult state happens when the stem diameter is about {{convert|6|mm|in|frac=16|abbr=on}}. Vernalization allows the plant to grow to an adequate size before flowering. In certain climates, cabbage can be planted at the beginning of the cold period and survive until a later warm period without being induced to flower, a practice that was common in the eastern US.<ref>Wien and Wurr, pp. 512–515</ref>

thumb|right|upright|Green and purple cabbages Plants are generally started in protected locations early in the growing season before being transplanted outside, although some are seeded directly into the ground from which they will be harvested.<ref name=UI/> Seedlings typically emerge in about 4–6 days from seeds planted {{convert|1/2|in|mm|abbr=on|order=flip}} deep at a soil temperature between {{convert|20|and|30|C|F}}.<ref>Maynard and Hochmuth, p. 111</ref> Growers normally place plants {{convert|12|to|24|in|cm|order=flip|abbr=on}} apart.<ref name=UI/> Closer spacing reduces the resources available to each plant (especially the amount of light) and increases the time taken to reach maturity.<ref>Wien and Wurr, p. 534</ref>

Some varieties of cabbage have been developed for ornamental use; these are generally called "flowering cabbage". They do not produce heads and feature purple or green outer leaves surrounding an inner grouping of smaller leaves in white, red, or pink.<ref name=UI/> Early varieties of cabbage take about 70 days from planting to reach maturity, while late varieties take about 120 days.<ref>Maynard and Hochmuth, p. 415</ref>

Cabbages are mature when they are firm and solid to the touch. They are harvested by cutting the stalk just below the bottom leaves with a blade. The outer leaves are trimmed, and any diseased, damaged, or necrotic leaves are removed.<ref>{{cite book |author=Thompson, A. Keith |title=Fruit and Vegetables: Harvesting, Handling and Storage |year=2003 |edition=2nd |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |page=178 |isbn=978-1-4051-0619-1}}</ref> Delays in harvest can result in the head splitting as a result of expansion of the inner leaves and continued stem growth.<ref>Wien and Wurr, p. 524</ref>

When being grown for seed, cabbages must be isolated from other ''B.&nbsp;oleracea'' subspecies, including the wild varieties, by {{convert|1/2|to|1|mi|km|1|order=flip|abbr=on}} to prevent cross-pollination. Other ''Brassica'' species, such as ''B.&nbsp;rapa'', ''B.&nbsp;juncea'', ''B.&nbsp;nigra'', ''B.&nbsp;napus'' and ''Raphanus sativus'', do not readily cross-pollinate.<ref>Katz and Weaver, p. 282</ref>

===Cultivars=== thumb|White cabbage There are several cultivar groups of cabbage, each including many cultivars: * Savoy&nbsp;– Characterized by crimped or curly leaves, mild flavor and tender texture<ref name=Ingram/> * Spring greens (Brassica oleracea)&nbsp;– Loose-headed, commonly sliced and steamed<ref name=Ingram/> * Green&nbsp;– Light to dark green, slightly pointed heads.<ref name=Ingram/> * Red&nbsp;– Smooth red leaves, often used for pickling or stewing<ref name=Ingram/> * White, also called Dutch&nbsp;– Smooth, pale green leaves<ref name=Ingram/>

Some sources only delineate three cultivars: savoy, red and white, with spring greens and green cabbage being subsumed under the last.<ref>Ordas and Cartea, p. 124</ref>

===Cultivation problems=== Due to its high level of nutrient requirements, cabbage is prone to nutrient deficiencies, including boron, calcium, phosphorus and potassium.<ref name=Brad56/> There are several physiological disorders that can affect the postharvest appearance of cabbage. Internal tip burn occurs when the margins of inside leaves turn brown, but the outer leaves look normal. Necrotic spot is where there are oval sunken spots a few millimeters across that are often grouped around the midrib. In pepper spot, tiny black spots occur on the areas between the veins, which can increase during storage.<ref>{{cite web |title=Storage of cabbage |url=https://www.ontario.ca/page/storage-cabbage |publisher=ISSN 1198-712X, Published February 1990|work=ontario.ca|date=6 July 2022 |access-date=2025-08-08}}</ref>

Fungal diseases include wirestem, which causes weak or dying transplants; ''Fusarium'' yellows, which result in stunted and twisted plants with yellow leaves; and blackleg (see ''Leptosphaeria maculans''), which leads to sunken areas on stems and gray-brown spotted leaves.<ref name=Brad57/> The fungi ''Alternaria brassicae'' and ''A.&nbsp;brassicicola'' cause dark leaf spots in affected plants. They are both seedborne and airborne, and typically propagate from spores in infected plant debris left on the soil surface for up to twelve weeks after harvest. ''Rhizoctonia solani'' causes the post-emergence disease wirestem, resulting in killed seedlings ("damping-off"), root rot or stunted growth and smaller heads.<ref name="Keinath2007">{{cite book |author1=Keinath, Anthony P. |author2=Cubeta, Marc A. |author3=Langston Jr., David B. |chapter=Cabbage diseases: Ecology and control |title=Encyclopedia of Pest Management |volume=2 |year=2007 |editor-last=Pimentel, David |publisher=CRC Press |pages=56–59 |isbn=978-1-4200-5361-6}}</ref>

[[File:Groene savooiekool schade van kooluil (Mamestra brassicae damage).jpg|thumb|right|Cabbage moth damage to a savoy cabbage]]

One of the most common bacterial diseases to affect cabbage is black rot, caused by ''Xanthomonas campestris'', which causes chlorotic and necrotic lesions that start at the leaf margins, and wilting of plants. Clubroot, caused by the soilborne slime mold-like organism ''Plasmodiophora brassicae'', results in swollen, club-like roots. Downy mildew, a parasitic disease caused by the oomycete ''Peronospora parasitica'',<ref name="Keinath2007"/> produces pale leaves with white, brownish or olive mildew on the lower leaf surfaces; this is often confused with the fungal disease powdery mildew.<ref name=Brad57/>

Pests include root-knot nematodes and cabbage maggots, which produce stunted and wilted plants with yellow leaves; aphids, which induce stunted plants with curled and yellow leaves; harlequin cabbage bugs, which cause white and yellow leaves; thrips, which lead to leaves with white-bronze spots; striped flea beetles, which riddle leaves with small holes; and caterpillars, which leave behind large, ragged holes in leaves.<ref name=Brad57>Bradley et al., pp. 57–59</ref> The caterpillar stage of the "small cabbage white butterfly" (''Pieris rapae''), commonly known in the United States as the "imported cabbage worm", is a major cabbage pest in most countries.<ref name="Finch2007"/>

The large white butterfly (''Pieris brassicae'') is prevalent in eastern European countries. The diamondback moth (''Plutella xylostella'') and the cabbage moth (''Mamestra brassicae'') thrive in the higher summer temperatures of continental Europe, where they cause considerable damage to cabbage crops.<ref name="Finch2007"/> The mustard leaf beetle (''Phaedon cochleariae''), is a common pest of cabbage plants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gross |first1=Jürgen |last2=Müller |first2=Caroline |last3=Vilcinskas |first3=Andreas |last4=Hilker |first4=Monika |date=November 1998 |title=Antimicrobial Activity of Exocrine Glandular Secretions, Hemolymph, and Larval Regurgitate of the Mustard Leaf BeetlePhaedon cochleariae |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022201198947814 |journal=Journal of Invertebrate Pathology |language=en |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=296–303 |doi=10.1006/jipa.1998.4781 |pmid=9784354|bibcode=1998JInvP..72..296G |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The mustard leaf beetle will often choose to feed on cabbage over their natural host plants as cabbage is more abundant in palatable compounds such as glucosinolates that encourage higher consumption.<ref name="Müller-2015">{{Cite journal |last1=Müller |first1=Thorben |last2=Müller |first2=Caroline |date=24 August 2015 |title=Behavioural phenotypes over the lifetime of a holometabolous insect |journal=Frontiers in Zoology |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=S8 |doi=10.1186/1742-9994-12-S1-S8 |issn=1742-9994 |pmc=4722364 |pmid=26816525 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2015FrZoo..12S...8M }}</ref> The cabbage looper (''Trichoplusia ni'') is infamous in North America for its voracious appetite and for producing frass that contaminates plants.<ref>Turini TA, Daugovish O, Koike ST, Natwick ET, Ploeg A, Dara SK, Fennimore SA, Joseph S, LeStrange M, Smith R, Subbarao KV, Westerdahl BB. Revised continuously. ''UC IPM Pest Management Guidelines Cole Crops.'' UC ANR Publication 3442. Oakland, CA.</ref> In India, the diamondback moth has caused losses up to 90 percent in crops that were not treated with insecticide.<ref>Janick, p. 195</ref> Destructive soil insects such as the cabbage root fly (''Delia radicum'') has larvae can burrow into the part of plant consumed by humans.<ref name="Finch2007">{{cite book |author1=Finch, Stan |author2=Collier, Rosemanry H. |chapter=Cruciferous root crop insects: Ecology and control |title=Encyclopedia of Pest Management |volume=2 |year=2007 |editor-last=Pimentel, David |publisher=CRC Press |pages=131–134 |isbn=978-1-4200-5361-6}}</ref>

Planting near other members of the cabbage family, or where these plants have been placed in previous years, can prompt the spread of pests and disease.<ref name=Brad56/> Excessive water and excessive heat can also cause cultivation problems.<ref name=Brad57/>

Factors that contribute to reduced head weight include: growth in the compacted soils that result from no-till farming practices, drought, waterlogging, insect and disease incidence, and shading and nutrient stress caused by weeds.<ref name="Wien and Wurr 533"/>

=== Production === {{Table alignment}} {| class="wikitable floatright col2right" |+ Cabbage production <br>{{small|2023, millions of tonnes}} |- | {{CHN}} ||35.5 |- | {{IND}} ||10.0 |- | {{RUS}} ||2.6 |- | {{KOR}} ||2.5 |- | {{UKR}} ||1.6 |- | '''World''' ||'''73.8''' |- |colspan=2|{{small|Source: FAOSTAT<br> of the United Nations}}<ref name="faostat">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL|title=Cabbage production in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)|date=2025|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|access-date=22 June 2025}}</ref> |}

In 2023, world production of cabbages was 74 million tonnes, led by China with 48% of the total (table). Other substantial producers were India, Russia, and South Korea.<ref name=faostat/>

==Toxicity== When overcooked, toxic hydrogen sulfide gas is produced.<ref name="Corriher-2001">{{cite journal |author=Corriher, Shirley O. |date=2000–2001 |title=Corriher's Compendium of Ingredients and Cooking Problems |url=http://units.sla.org/division/dfan/FFT/vol32no1.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Food for Thought |volume=32 |issue=1 |page=6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217112600/http://units.sla.org/division/dfan/FFT/vol32no1.pdf |archive-date=2008-12-17}}</ref>

Excessive consumption of cabbage may lead to increased intestinal gas (which causes bloating and flatulence) due to the trisaccharide raffinose, which the human small intestine cannot digest, but is digested by bacteria in the large intestine.<ref name="St. John2011">{{cite web |title=The digestive system and gas |url=http://www.webmd.com/digestive-disorders/digestive-diseases-gas |access-date=24 June 2013 |website=WebMD}}</ref>

Cabbage has been linked to outbreaks of some food-borne illnesses, including ''Listeria monocytogenes''<ref>{{cite web |author1=Davis, J. G. |author2=Kendall, P. |date=April 19, 2013 |title=Preventing ''E. coli'' from Garden to Plate |url=http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/foodnut/09369.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305133942/http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/foodnut/09369.html |archive-date=2012-03-05 |access-date=2012-08-10 |publisher=Colorado State University}}</ref> and ''Clostridium botulinum''. The latter toxin has been traced to pre-made, packaged coleslaw mixes, while the spores were found on whole cabbages that were otherwise acceptable in appearance.<ref name="chapIV">{{cite web |date=April 12, 2012 |title=Chapter IV. Outbreaks Associated with Fresh and Fresh-Cut Produce. Incidence, Growth, and Survival of Pathogens in Fresh and Fresh-Cut Produce |url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/ScienceResearch/ResearchAreas/SafePracticesforFoodProcesses/ucm091265.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109123857/https://www.fda.gov/Food/ScienceResearch/ResearchAreas/SafePracticesforFoodProcesses/ucm091265.htm |archive-date=November 9, 2012 |access-date=2012-08-10 |work=Analysis and Evaluation of Preventive Control Measures for the Control and Reduction/Elimination of Microbial Hazards on Fresh and Fresh-Cut Produce |publisher=US Food and Drug Administration}}</ref> ''Shigella'' species are able to survive in shredded cabbage.<ref name="chapIV" /> Two outbreaks of ''E.&nbsp;coli'' in the United States have been linked to cabbage consumption. Biological risk assessments have concluded that there is the potential for further outbreaks linked to uncooked cabbage, due to contamination at many stages of the growing, harvesting and packaging processes. Contaminants from water, humans, animals and soil have the potential to be transferred to cabbage, and from there to the end consumer.<ref>{{cite web |date=December 2001 |title=Cabbage Risk Assessment Introduction and Summary |url=http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/food/inspection/fruitveg/risk_assessment_pdf/cabbage/30ra.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055715/http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/food/inspection/fruitveg/risk_assessment_pdf/cabbage/30ra.pdf |archive-date=2013-09-21 |access-date=2012-08-19 |publisher=Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs}}</ref>

Whilst not a toxic vegetable in its natural state, an increase in intestinal gas can lead to the death of many small animals like rabbits due to gastrointestinal stasis.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Spicer |first=Bradly |date=2022-09-21 |title=Gastrointestinal (GI) Stasis: How to prevent a killer problem |url=https://www.cottontailclub.com/gi-stasis-how-to-prevent-a-killer-problem/ |website=Cottontailclub |language=en-US}}</ref>

Cabbage and other cruciferous vegetables contain small amounts of thiocyanate, a compound associated with goiter formation when iodine intake is deficient.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Vanderpas J |year=2006 |title=Nutritional epidemiology and thyroid hormone metabolism |url=http://www.iccidd.org/cm_data/2006_Vanderpas_Nutritional_epidemiology_and_thyroid_hormone_metabolism_AnnRevNutr.pdf |journal=Annu Rev Nutr |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=293–322 |doi=10.1146/annurev.nutr.26.010506.103810 |pmid=16704348 |bibcode=2006ARNut..26..293V }}</ref>

==Uses== ===Culinary=== {{see also|List of cabbage dishes}} {{Cookbook}} The characteristic flavor of cabbage is caused by glucosinolates, a class of sulfur-containing glucosides. Although found throughout the plant, these compounds are concentrated in the highest quantities in the seeds; lesser quantities are found in young vegetative tissue, and they decrease as the tissue ages.<ref>Katz and Weaver, pp. 282–283</ref> Cooked cabbage is often criticized for its pungent, unpleasant odor and taste. These develop when cabbage is overcooked and hydrogen sulfide gas is produced.<ref name="Corriher-2001" />

Cabbage consumption varies widely around the world: Russia has the highest annual per capita consumption at {{convert|20|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, followed by Belgium at {{convert|4.7|kg|lboz|abbr=on}} and the Netherlands at {{convert|4.0|kg|lboz|abbr=on}}. Americans consume {{convert|8.6|lb|kg|order=flip|abbr=on}} annually per capita.<ref name="UCD" />{{nutritionalvalue | name = Cabbage, raw | kJ = 103 | protein = 1.28 g | fat = 0.1 g | carbs = 5.8 g | fiber = 2.5 g | sugars = 3.2 g | calcium_mg = 40 | iron_mg = 0.47 | magnesium_mg = 12 | phosphorus_mg = 26 | potassium_mg = 170 | sodium_mg = 18 | zinc_mg = 0.18 | manganese_mg = 0.16 | vitC_mg = 36.6 | thiamin_mg = 0.061 | riboflavin_mg = 0.040 | niacin_mg = 0.234 | pantothenic_mg = 0.212 | vitB6_mg = 0.124 | folate_ug = 43 | vitK_ug = 76 | water = 92 g | note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/169975/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry] }}

=== Nutrition === Raw cabbage is 92% water, 6% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contains negligible fat (table). In a reference amount of {{cvt|100|g}}, raw cabbage supplies 25 calories, and is a rich source of vitamin C and vitamin K, containing 41% and 63%, respectively, of the Daily Value (DV, table), and a moderate source of folate (11% DV), with no other micronutrients in significant content.

=== Local market and storage === Cabbages sold for market are generally smaller, and different varieties are used for those sold immediately upon harvest and those stored before sale. Those used for processing, especially sauerkraut, are larger and have a lower percentage of water.<ref name=Katz280/> Both hand and mechanical harvesting are used, and hand-harvesting is generally used for cabbages destined for market sales. In commercial-scale operations, hand-harvested cabbages are trimmed, sorted, and packed directly in the field to increase efficiency.<ref name="Katz&Weaver">Katz and Weaver, p. 285</ref>

Vacuum cooling rapidly refrigerates the vegetable, allowing for earlier shipping and a fresher product. Cabbage can be stored the longest at {{convert|-1|to|2|C|F}} with a humidity of 90–100%; these conditions will result in up to six months of longevity. When stored under less ideal conditions, cabbage can still last up to four months.<ref name="Katz&Weaver"/>

===Food preparation=== thumb|right|Cabbage with moong-dal curry Cabbage is prepared and consumed in many ways. The simplest options include eating the vegetable raw or steaming it, though many cuisines pickle, stew, sauté or braise cabbage.<ref name="Ingram" /> Savoy cabbages are usually used in salads. Smooth-leaf types are both sold to consumers and used for commercial processing.<ref name="Katz280" />

[[File:Glavice kiselog kupusa u bačvi s rasolom.jpg|thumb|Whole sour cabbage in a barrel with brine]] Pickling is a common way of preserving cabbage, creating dishes such as sauerkraut and kimchi,<ref name="UI" /> although kimchi is more often made from napa cabbage (a related but separate species).<ref name="Ingram" />

In Poland, cabbage is one of the main food crops, and it features prominently in Polish cuisine. It is frequently eaten, either cooked or as sauerkraut, as a side dish or as an ingredient in such dishes as bigos (cabbage, sauerkraut, meat, and wild mushrooms, among other ingredients), gołąbki (stuffed cabbage), and pierogi (filled dumplings). Other central and eastern European countries, such as Hungary and Romania, also have traditional dishes that feature cabbage as a main ingredient.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g9KcADhDPqkC&pg=PA53|pages=53–54|title=International Cuisine|author=MacVeigh, Jeremy|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2008|isbn=978-1-4180-4965-2}}</ref>

Tofu and cabbage is a staple of Chinese cooking,<ref>Tannahill, p. 146</ref> while the British dish bubble and squeak is made primarily with leftover potato and boiled cabbage and eaten with cold meat.<ref>Tannahill, p. 277</ref> In India and Ethiopia, cabbage is often included in spicy salads and braises.<ref name="Marks 2008">{{cite book |author=Marks, Gil |title=Olive Trees and Honey: A Treasury of Vegetarian Recipes from Jewish Communities Around the World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lb3MVYVp_9sC&pg=PT392 |year=2008 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |isbn=978-0-544-18750-4 |page=392}}</ref> In the United States, cabbage is used primarily for the production of coleslaw, followed by market use and sauerkraut production.<ref name="UCD" />

=== Phytochemicals and cancer research=== Phytochemicals in cabbage and other cruciferous vegetables, including such compounds as isothiocyanates, sulforaphane, and other glucosinolates, are under basic research to determine their possible biological effects.<ref name="lpi">{{cite web |title=Isothiocyanates |url=https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/dietary-factors/phytochemicals/isothiocyanates |publisher=Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University |access-date=22 June 2025 |date=April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Dinkova-Kostova AT, Kostov RV |title=Glucosinolates and isothiocyanates in health and disease |journal=Trends in Molecular Medicine |year=2012 |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=337–47 |pmid=22578879|doi=10.1016/j.molmed.2012.04.003}}</ref>

Although the relationship between a diet rich in cruciferous vegetables and the risk of cancer has been widely studied, there remains insufficient evidence that consuming cabbage compounds decreases cancer risk, as of 2024.<ref name=lpi/><ref name="guo">{{cite journal |vauthors=Guo C, Liu Y, Fu H, Zhang X, Li M |title=Effect of cruciferous vegetable intake on cancer: An umbrella review of meta-analysis |journal=Journal of Food Science |volume=89 |issue=9 |pages=5230–5244 |date=September 2024 |pmid=39138635 |doi=10.1111/1750-3841.17300 |url=https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1750-3841.17300|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

In a 2021 study, cabbage was suggested as valuable for its prohibitive and restoring effects in type 2 diabetes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Uuh‐Narvaez |first=Jonatan Jafet |last2=Segura‐Campos |first2=Maira Rubí |date=November 2021 |title=Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata): A food with functional properties aimed to type 2 diabetes prevention and management |url=https://ift.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1750-3841.15939 |journal=Journal of Food Science |language=en |volume=86 |issue=11 |pages=4775–4798 |doi=10.1111/1750-3841.15939 |issn=0022-1147|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===Herbalism===

In addition to its usual purpose as an edible vegetable, cabbage has been used historically in herbalism. The Ancient Greeks recommended consuming the vegetable as a laxative,<ref name="Wright2001"/> and used cabbage juice as an antidote for mushroom poisoning,<ref>{{cite book |author=Decoteau, Dennis R. |title=Vegetable Crops |year=2000 |publisher=Prentice Hall |page=174 |isbn=978-0-13-956996-8}}</ref> for eye salves, and for liniments for bruises.<ref name="Phillips 1827">{{cite book |author=Phillips, Henry |author-link=Henry Phillips (horticulturist) |title=History of Cultivated Vegetables: Comprising their Botanical, Medicinal, Edible, and Chemical Qualities; Natural History |year=1827 |publisher=Henry Colburn |page=99 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pDkaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA99}}</ref> The ancient Roman, Pliny the Elder, described both culinary and medicinal properties of the vegetable.<ref name="Dalby 1996">{{cite book |author1=Dalby, Andrew |author2=Grainger, Sally |title=The Classical Cookbook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T7S5iC3pZp0C&pg=PA52 |year=1996 |publisher=Getty Publications |isbn=978-0-89236-394-0 |page=52}}</ref> Ancient Egyptians ate cooked cabbage at the beginning of meals to reduce the intoxicating effects of wine.<ref name="Janick"/> This traditional usage persisted in European literature until the mid-20th century.<ref name="Hatfield 2004"/>

The supposed cooling properties of the leaves were used in Britain as a treatment for trench foot in World War I, and as compresses for ulcers and breast abscesses. Other medicinal uses recorded in European folk medicine include treatments for rheumatism, sore throat, hoarseness, colic, and melancholy.<ref name="Hatfield 2004">{{cite book |author=Hatfield, Gabrielle |title=Encyclopedia of Folk Medicine: Old World and New World Traditions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2GGz6708nqgC&pg=PA60 |year=2004 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-57607-874-7 |pages=59–60}}</ref> Both mashed cabbage and cabbage juice have been used in poultices to remove boils and treat warts, pneumonia, appendicitis, and ulcers.<ref name="Hatfield 2004"/>

== See also == * {{annotated link|List of cabbage dishes}} * '''''<small>{{portal-inline|Food}}</small>'''''

== References == {{Reflist|30em}}

==Works cited== * {{cite book|ref=Bradley|title=The Organic Gardener's Handbook of Natural Pest and Disease Control|editor1=Bradley, Fern Marshall|editor2=Ellis, Barbara W.|editor3=Martin, Deborah L.|year=2009|publisher=Rodale, Inc|isbn=978-1-60529-677-7|url=https://archive.org/details/organicgardeners00brad_0}} * {{cite book |ref=Dixon|title=Vegetable Brassicas and Related Crucifers|author=Dixon, Geoffrey R. |series=Crop Production Science in Horticulture |volume=14 |year=2007 |publisher=CAB International |isbn=978-0-85199-395-9}} * {{cite book|ref=Janick |title=Plant Breeding Reviews |author=Janick, Jules |volume=35 |year=2011 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-10049-3}} * {{cite book|ref=Katz |title=Encyclopedia of Food and Culture|author1=Katz, Solomon H. |author2=Weaver, William Woys|year=2003|publisher=Scribner|volume=2|isbn=978-0-684-80565-8}} * {{cite book |ref=Maynard|title=Knott's Handbook for Vegetable Growers|author1=Maynard, Donald N. |author2=Hochmuth, George J.|edition=5th |year=2007 |publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-0-471-73828-2}} * {{cite book |ref=Ordas|chapter=Cabbage and Kale|author1=Ordas, Amando |author2=Cartea, M. Elena|title=Vegetables I: Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Chenopodiaceae, and Cucurbitaceae|publisher=Springer|volume=2|editor=Prohens, J. |editor2=Nuez, F|year=2008 |isbn=978-0-387-72291-7}} * {{cite book|ref=Tannahill|title=Food in History|author=Tannahill, Reay|year=1973|publisher=Stein and Day|isbn=978-0-8128-1437-8}} *{{cite book|ref=Toussaint-Samat|isbn=978-1405181198|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|author=Toussaint-Samat, Maguelonne |title=A History of Food|edition= 2nd |year=2009}} * {{cite book|ref=Wurr |title=The Physiology of Vegetable Crops |editor=Wien, H. C. |chapter=Cauliflower, broccoli, cabbage and brussel sprouts |author1=Wien, H. C. |author2=Wurr, D. C. E. |publisher=CAB International |year=1997|isbn=978-0-85199-146-7}}

==External links== {{Wiktionary}} {{Commons category}} {{Spoken Wikipedia|En-Cabbage article.ogg|date=2020-03-28}} * {{Cookbook-inline|Cabbage}} * [http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/19006 ''Cabbages and Cauliflowers: How to Grow Them'' by James John Howard Gregory&nbsp;– Project Gutenberg.]

{{Brassica oleraca}} {{Taxonbar|from1=Q35051|from2=Q146212}} {{Authority control}}

Category:Cabbage Category:Brassica oleracea Category:Crops originating from Europe Category:Food plant cultivars Category:Leaf vegetables Category:Edible plants Category:Plants