Lentil

{{short description|Species of plant with edible seeds}} {{About|the species Vicia lens|the broader sense in plants|legume|the geological sense|lens (geology)}} {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2021}} {{Speciesbox | name = Lentil | image = 3 types of lentil.png | image_caption = Puy (left), green (center), and red (right) lentils | taxon = Vicia lens | authority = (L.) Coss. & Germ. (1845) | subdivision_ranks = Subspecies | subdivision = *''Vicia lens'' subsp. ''lamottei'' {{small|(Czefr.) H.Schaef., Coulot & Rabaute}} *''Vicia lens'' subsp. ''lens'' |subdivision_ref = <ref name=powo>{{cite web |title=''Vicia lens'' (L.) Coss. & Germ.. |work=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:524872-1 |access-date=3 September 2023}}</ref> | synonyms = {{Species list |Cicer lens|(L.) Willd. (1802) |Ervum lens|L. (1753) |Lathyrus lens|(L.) Bernh. (1800) |Lens culinaris|Medik. (1787) |Lens esculenta|Moench (1794), nom. superfl. |Lens lens|(L.) Huth (1893), not validly publ. |Lentilla lens|(L.) W.Wight (1912) |Orobus lens|(L.) Stokes (1812) }} | synonyms_ref = <ref name=powo/> }}

The '''lentil''' ('''''Vicia lens''''' or '''''Lens culinaris''''') is an annual legume grown for its lens-shaped edible seeds or ''pulses'', also called ''lentils''. It is about {{convert|40|cm|in|abbr=on}} tall, and the seeds grow in pods, usually with two seeds in each.

Lentil seeds are used around the world for culinary purposes, most commonly in stews or soups. In cuisines of the Indian subcontinent, where lentils are a staple, split lentils (often with their hulls removed) known as ''dal'' are often cooked into a thick curry that is usually eaten with rice or roti.

== Etymology ==

The English word "lentil" ultimately derives from the Latin {{lang|la|lens}} ({{gloss|lentil}}). The Latin word is of classical Roman or Latin origin and may be the source of the prominent Roman family name Lentulus, just as the family name "Cicero" was derived from the chickpea, ''Cicer arietinum'', and "Fabia" (as in Quintus Fabius Maximus) from the fava bean (''Vicia faba'').<ref>Harold McGee, "On Food and Cooking", 2004 Edition, Scribners. {{ISBN|0-684-80001-2}}. pg. 483.</ref> Optical lenses (those of the animalian eye and artificial ones) got their name because their (archetypal) shape resembles that of a lentil<!--WP:BLUE-->.

== Taxonomy ==

The genus ''Vicia'' is part of the subfamily Faboideae which is contained in the flowering plant family Fabaceae or commonly known as legume or bean family, of the order Fabales in the kingdom Plantae.<ref name="CABI-2009">{{Cite book|title=The lentil: botany, production and uses|date=2009|publisher=CABI|editor=Erskine, William |isbn=978-1-84593-487-3|location=Wallingford, UK|oclc=435462765}}</ref>

thumb|Lentil plants in the field before flowering

The former genus ''Lens'', now considered a section of genus ''Vicia'', consisted of the cultivated ''L. culinaris'' and six related wild taxa. As members of genus ''Lens'', these six are ''Lens orientalis'', ''Lens tomentosus'', ''Lens lamottei'', ''Lens odemensis'', ''Lens ervoides'', and ''Lens nigricans''. The seven members are often referred to as "taxa" instead of "species" and/or "subspecies", as while it is broadly agreed there are seven of them, whether they constitute distinct species is not broadly agreed on. Among the wild taxa, ''L. orientalis'' is considered to be the progenitor of the cultivated lentil ''L. culinaris''. Of the taxa, ''L. culinaris'' and ''L. orientalis'' are most often considered subspecies, and so are often also classified as ''L. culinaris'' subsp. ''culinaris'' and ''L. culinaris'' subsp. ''orientalis'' respectively.<ref name="Springer Science & Business Media-2007">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VfT6hZHpXPkC&pg=PA4|title=Lentil: An Ancient Crop for Modern Times|date=2007|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |editor=Shyam S. Yadav |editor2=David McNeil |editor3=Philip C. Stevenson |isbn=978-1-4020-6312-1|location=Berlin|oclc=213090571}}</ref> Following reassignment to genus ''Vicia'', they may also be referred to as ''Vicia lens'' subsp. ''culinaris'' and ''Vicia lens'' subsp. ''orientalis''.

== Botanical description == thumb|Illustration of the lentil plant, 1885|323x323px

Lentil is hypogeal, which means the cotyledons of the germinating seed stay in the ground and inside the seed coat. Therefore, it is less vulnerable to frost, wind erosion, or insect attack.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pulseaus.com.au/growing-pulses/bmp/lentil/southern-guide#plant-physiology|title=Pulse Australia - Southern guide|website=pulseaus.com.au|language=en|access-date=2017-11-18}}</ref>

The plant is a diploid, annual, bushy herb of erect, semierect, or spreading and compact growth and normally varies from {{convert|30|to|50|cm}} in height. It has many hairy branches and its stem is slender and angular. The rachis bears 10 to 15 leaflets in five to eight pairs. The leaves are alternate, of oblong-linear and obtuse shape and from yellowish green to dark bluish green in colour. In general, the upper leaves are converted into tendrils, whereas the lower leaves are mucronate. If stipules are present, they are small. The flowers, one to four in number, are small, white, pink, purple, pale purple, or pale blue in colour. They arise from the axils of the leaves, on a slender footstalk almost as long as the leaves. The pods are oblong, slightly inflated, and about {{convert|1.5|cm|in|frac=8}} long. Normally, each of them contains two seeds, about {{convert|0.5|cm|in|frac=8}} in diameter, in the characteristic lens shape. The seeds can also be mottled and speckled. The several cultivated varieties of lentil differ in size, hairiness, and colour of the leaves, flowers, and seeds.

Lentils are self-pollinating. The flowering begins from the lowermost buds and gradually moves upward, so-called acropetal flowering. About two weeks are needed for all the flowers to open on the single branch. At the end of the second day and on the third day after the opening of the flowers, they close completely and the colour begins to fade. After three to four days, the setting of the pods takes place.<ref name="Springer Science & Business Media-2007" />

== Types == thumb|Red and brown comparison {{more citations needed section|date=September 2025}}

Lentil may be classified for market based on an array of seed qualities. These qualities may include the size, shape ("round" or "lens"), seed coat colour and pattern, seed coat thickness, and internal cotyledon colour. The parameters for market type or classification name may also vary according to region. Additionally, when sold, lentil may be further classified according to whether it is hulled (seed coat removed) or unhulled, and if hulled, whether the cotyledon inside is split or left whole.

Lentil seed coat colour can be broadly grouped into tan, grey, green, brown, clear or black, the first four of which will slowly turn brown over time. Black seed coat, which can present solid black (almost purple) or slightly patchy, acts like a pattern, masking the base colour (tan, grey, green or brown) beneath, while clear coats lack pigmentation altogether.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Mirali|first1= Mahla|last2= Purves|first2= Randy W|last3= Stonehouse|first3= Rob|last4= Song|first4= Rui|last5= Bett|first5= Kirstin|last6= Vandenberg|first6= Albert|date= 2016|title= Genetics and Biochemistry of Zero-Tannin Lentils|journal= PLOS ONE|volume= 11|issue= 10|article-number=e0164624 |doi= 10.1371/journal.pone.0164624|pmid= 27788158|pmc= 5082924|bibcode= 2016PLoSO..1164624M|doi-access= free}}</ref> Seed coat colour is also influenced by the colour of the cotyledon, though this does not usually affect market classification.

Seed coat patterning is usually selected against in most market types with the exception of Puy or "French green" lentil, which has "marbled" patterning. As well as "marbled" (which comes in two genetic variants termed Marbled-1 and Marbled-2), coats may be "spotted", "dotted", "mottled", or show complex/mixed patterns.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Vandenberg|first1= A|last2= Slinkard|first2= AE|date= 1990|title= Genetics of seed coat color and pattern in lentil|url= https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a111030|journal= Journal of Heredity|volume= 81|issue= 6|pages= 484–488|doi= 10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a111030|access-date= 2025-09-16|url-access= subscription}}</ref> Seed coat colour is determined by the genotype of the seed parent, rather than the genetics of the plant the seed will become.

Common cotyledon colours are an orange-red colour and a light yellow, usually just called "red" (occasionally "orange") and "yellow" respectively. Three other colours, a brown-yellow, a light green, and a dark green have also been documented.

=== Red lentil === Red lentil varieties are defined by their red cotyledon, and moderate to thin seed coat. Red lentil varieties tend to be smaller than those of their green/brown counterparts, with large red lentil varieties meeting a similar size to small green lentil varieties. As the seed coat of red lentil is often removed, colour and pattern aren't usually selected for, though in recent years Australian red lentil varieties have been standardised for grey seed coats to allow for cultivars to be mixed. Australia is the largest producer of red lentil.

=== Green and brown lentil === Green and brown lentil varieties have yellow cotyledon, usually moderate or thin, and green or brown seed coats. Canada is the largest producer of green lentil. These lentils are sometimes referred to by notable historic cultivars instead of by size, especially in North America: for example, small green lentil may be referred to as Eston-types, large green lentils as Laird-types, and large brown lentil as Brewer-types.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Slinkard |first1=A. E. |last2=Bhatty|first2=R. S. |title=Laird lentil |journal=Canadian Journal of Plant Science |date=1979 |volume=59 |issue=2 |page=503:504 |doi=10.4141/cjps79-079 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Hall |first=Suzanne |title=Lentils 101: What To Do With Lentils And Why Bother |url=https://thechalkboardmag.com/lentils-101-what-to-do-with-lentils-and-why-bother/ |website=The Chalkboard |access-date=6 September 2024 |date=17 March 2014}}</ref> These lentils rarely hold their shape when cooked, and so are often used in soups or stews.

=== Specialty types === '''Black lentil''' * Beluga Black: The commercial/trade name of cultivar "Indianhead", named for the "Indian Head" research station in Canada where they were first selected for trial. These are one of the smallest cultivars and bead-like and almost spherical, with yellow cotyledon and black seed coat. While Beluga lentil was originally grown as a fodder crop, it became something of a designer food in the 1990s, and was given the name it is now known by for its resemblance to beluga caviar.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foodsubs.com/Lentils.html|title=Cook's Thesaurus: Lentils|access-date=15 December 2015|newspaper=Foodsubs.com}}</ref> This variety holds its form well when cooked, owing to thick seed coat, and is widely used in breeding program as a source of disease resistance. * Mt. Byron Black: Almost as small as Beluga lentil, Mt. Byron Black are a cultivar with black seed coat and red cotyledons. '''Regional types''' * Puy lentils (var. ''puyensis''): Small blue-green lentil with mottling, originating from France with a Protected Designation of Origin name. Lentils of this type, when grown outside of France, are often referred to a "French Green" lentils. * Alb-Leisa three traditional genotypes of lentils native to the Swabian Jura (Alps) in Germany and protected by the producers' association Öko-Erzeugergemeinschaft Alb-Leisa (engl. "Eco-producer association Alb-Leisa") '''Other''' * Spanish Brown/Pardina: Small round lentils with yellow cotyledon and medium-thick brown seedcoats. Despite the name, modern "Spanish Brown" does not originate from Spain. The cultivar Pardina, for example, is from a cross made in the US and subsequently trialled in Spain, where they were quite common (hence the name). Australian Materno, also considered a Spanish Brown variety, is a cross between Canadian cultivar CDC Matador and ILL7537, a breeding line which traces back to the ICARDA breeding program. * Zero Tannin/Clear-Coat: Yellow cotyledon lentils with thin clear coats. Not widely commercialised. * Green cotyledon: Green cotyledon lentils with green coats. Not widely commercialised.

{| class="wikitable floatright" style="width:12em; text-align:center;" |+ Lentils production <br>{{small|2023, tonnes}}<br/> |- |{{AUS}}||1,841,222 |- |{{CAN}}||1,671,072 |- |{{IND}}||1,558,636 |- |{{TUR}}||474,000 |- |{{USA}}||260,450 |- |{{NEP}}||200,787 |- |'''World'''||'''7,068,620''' |- |colspan=2|{{small|Source: FAOSTAT<br> of the United Nations}}<ref name="faostat">{{cite web|url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL|title=Lentils (dry) production in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)|date=2025|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT)|access-date=20 July 2025}}</ref> |}

== Production == In 2023, world production of dry lentils was 7 million tonnes, led by Australia, Canada, and India, which together accounted for 72% of the total (table).

== Cultivation == === History ===

The cultivated lentil ''Vicia lens'' subsp. ''lens'' was derived from its wild subspecies ''V. lens'' subsp. ''orientalis'', although other species may also have contributed some genes, according to Jonathan Sauer (''Historical Geography of Crop Plants'', 2017).<ref name="Sauer">{{cite book |last= Sauer |first=Jonathan D. |date= 2017|title= Historical Geography of Crop Plants: A Select Roster|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=moZHDwAAQBAJ |publisher= Routledge |isbn= 978-1-351-44062-2 |quote=The primary progenitor of the cultigen is evidently ''L. orientalis'' native to the Near East; the other species may have contributed some genetic diversity to the crop. ''V. lens'' (''Lens esculentus''), the domesticate, differs from the wild species in having indehiscent pods, due to a single recessive gene, and nondormant seeds.}}</ref> Unlike their wild ancestors, domesticated lentil crops have indehiscent pods and non-dormant seeds.<ref name="Sauer"/>

Lentil was domesticated in the Fertile Crescent of the Near East and then spread to Europe and North Africa and the Indo-Gangetic plain. The primary center of diversity for the domestic ''Vicia lens'' as well as its wild progenitor ''V. lens ssp. lamottei'' is considered to be the Middle East. The oldest known carbonized remains of lentil from Greece's Franchthi Cave are dated to 11,000 BC. In archaeobotanical excavations carbonized remains of lentil seeds have been recovered from widely dispersed places such as Tell Ramad in Syria (6250–5950 BC), Aceramic Beidha in Jordan, Hacilar in Turkey (5800–5000 BC), Tepe Sabz (Ita. Tepe Sabz) in Iran (5500–5000 BC) and Argissa-Magula Tessaly in Greece (6000–5000 BC), among other places.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jain |first1=Shri Mohan |last2=Al-Khayri |first2=Jameel M. |last3=Johnson |first3=Dennis V. |title=Advances in Plant Breeding Strategies: Legumes: Volume 7 |date=2019 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-030-23399-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=if60DwAAQBAJ}}</ref> Lentils were part of the ancient Israelite diet, served roasted or prepared as a soup/stew, as indicated by several biblical passages. Archaeological excavations at Tel Beit Shemesh have uncovered lentil remains dating from the Iron Age.<ref name=":2">{{Citation |last=Shafer-Elliott |first=Cynthia |title=Fruits, Nuts, Vegetables, and Legumes |date=2022 |work=T&T Clark Handbook of Food in the Hebrew Bible and Ancient Israel |pages=151 |editor-last=Fu |editor-first=Janling |url=https://www.bloomsburyfoodlibrary.com/encyclopedia-chapter?docid=b-9780567679826&tocid=b-9780567679826-chapter8 |access-date=2025-07-27 |series=T&T Clark Handbooks |edition=1 |place=London |publisher=T&T Clark |language=en |isbn=978-0-567-67982-6 |editor2-last=Shafer-Elliott |editor2-first=Cynthia |editor3-last=Meyers |editor3-first=Carol}}</ref>

=== Soil requirements === Lentils can grow on various soil types, from sand to clay loam, growing best in deep sandy loam soils with moderate fertility. A soil pH around 7 would be the best. Lentils do not tolerate flooding or water-logged conditions.<ref name="CABI-2009" />

Lentils improve the physical properties of soils and increase the yield of succeeding cereal crops. Biological nitrogen fixation or other rotational effects could be the reason for higher yields after lentils''.''<ref name="Springer Verlag-2007">{{Cite book|title=Lentil: an ancient crop for modern times|date=2007|publisher=Springer Verlag |editor=Shyam S. Yadav |editor2=David McNeil |editor3=Philip C. Stevenson |isbn=978-1-4020-6312-1|location=Berlin|oclc=213090571}}</ref>

=== Climate requirements === The conditions under which lentils are grown differ across different growing regions. In the temperate climates lentils are planted in the winter and spring under low temperatures and vegetative growth occurs in later spring and the summer. Rainfall during this time is not limited. In the subtropics, lentils are planted under relatively high temperatures at the end of the rainy season, and vegetative growth occurs on the residual soil moisture in the summer season. Rainfall during this time is limited. In West Asia and North Africa, some lentils are planted as a winter crop before snowfall. Plant growth occurs during the time of snow melting. Under such cultivation, seed yields are often much higher.<ref name="Springer Verlag-2007" />

===Seedbed requirements and sowing === The lentil requires a firm, smooth seedbed with most of the previous crop residues incorporated. For the seed placement and for later harvesting it is important that the surface is not uneven with large clods, stones, or protruding crop residue. It is also important that the soil be made friable and weed-free, so that seeding can be done at a uniform depth.<ref name="CABI-2009" />

The plant densities for lentils vary between genotypes, seed size, planting time and growing conditions, and also from region to region. In South Asia, a seed rate of {{convert|30|to|40|kg/ha|lb/acre|abbr=off}} is recommended. In West Asian countries, a higher seed rate is recommended, and also leads to a higher yield. The seeds should be sown {{convert|3|to|4|cm|in|frac=4}} deep. In agriculturally mechanized countries, lentils are planted using grain drills, but many other areas still hand broadcast.<ref name="CABI-2009" />

=== Cultivation management, fertilization === In intercropping systems &ndash; a practice commonly used in lentil cultivation &ndash; herbicides may be needed to assure crop health.<ref name="Springer Verlag-2007" /> Like many other legume crops, lentils can fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil with specific rhizobia.{{citation needed|date=December 2017}} Lentils grow well under low fertilizer input conditions, although phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium, and sulfur may be used for nutrient-poor soils.<ref name="CABI-2009" />

=== Diseases === {{main|List of lentil diseases}} Below is a list of the most common lentil diseases.

====Fungal diseases====

{| class="wikitable" |+ Fungal diseases |- |Alternaria blight | {{plainlist| * ''Alternaria alternata'' * ''Alternaria'' sp. }} |- |Anthracnose | {{plainlist| * ''Colletotrichum lindemuthianum'' * ''Colletotrichum truncatum'' }} |- |Aphanomyces root rot | ''Aphanomyces euteiches'' |- |Ascochyta blight | {{plainlist}} * ''Ascochyta fabae'' f.sp. ''lentis'' ** = ''Ascochyta lentis'' ** = ''Didymella'' sp. [[Teleomorph, anamorph and holomorph|[teleomorph]]] {{endplainlist}} |- |Black root rot | ''Fusarium solani'' |- |Black streak root rot | ''Thielaviopsis basicola'' |- |Botrytis gray mold | ''Botrytis cinerea'' |- |''Cercospora'' leaf spot | {{plainlist| * ''Cercospora cruenta'' * ''Cercospora lentis'' * ''Cercospora zonata'' }} |- |Collar rot | {{plainlist}} * ''Sclerotium rolfsii'' ** = ''Athelia rolfsii'' [teleomorph] ** = ''Corticium rolfsii'' {{endplainlist}} |- |Cylindrosporium leaf spot and stem canker | ''Cylindrosporium'' sp. |- |Downy mildew | {{plainlist| * ''Peronospora lentis'' * ''Peronospora viciae'' }} |- |Dry root rot | {{plainlist}} * ''Macrophomina phaseolina'' ** = ''Rhizoctonia bataticola'' {{endplainlist}} |- |Fusarium wilt | ''Fusarium oxysporum'' f.sp. ''lentis'' |- |Helminthosporium leaf spot | ''Helminthosporium'' sp. |- |Leaf rot | ''Choanephora'' sp. |- |Leaf yellowing | ''Cladosporium herbarum'' |- |Ozonium wilt | ''Ozonium texanum'' var. ''parasiticum'' |- |Phoma leaf spot | ''Phoma medicaginis'' |- |Powdery mildew | {{plainlist}} * ''Erysiphe pisi'' ** = ''Erysiphe polygoni'' * ''Leveillula taurica'' ** = ''Leveillula leguminosarum'' f. ''lentis'' ** = ''Oidiopsis taurica'' [anamorph] {{endplainlist}} |- |Pythium root and seedling rot | {{plainlist| * ''Pythium aphanidermatum'' * ''Pythium ultimum'' }} |- |Rust | {{plainlist}} * ''Uromyces craccae'' * ''Uromyces viciae-fabae'' ** = ''Uromyces fabae'' {{endplainlist}} |- |Sclerotinia stem rot | ''Sclerotinia sclerotiorum'' |- |Spot blotch | ''Bipolaris sorokiniana'' |- |Stemphylium blight | {{plainlist}} * ''Stemphylium botryosum'' ** = ''Pleospora tarda'' [teleomorph] * ''Stemphylium sarciniforme'' {{endplainlist}} |- |Wet root rot | {{plainlist}} * ''Rhizoctonia solani'' ** = ''Thanatephorus cucumeris'' [teleomorph] {{endplainlist}} |}

====Nematodes, parasitic====

{| class="wikitable" |+ Nematodes, parasitic |- |Cyst nematode ||''Heterodera ciceri'' |- |Reniform nematode | ''Rotylenchulus reniformis'' |- |Root knot nematode | {{plainlist| * ''Meloidogyne incognita'' * ''Meloidogyne javanica'' }} |- |Root lesion nematode | ''Pratylenchus'' spp. |- |Stem nematode | ''Ditylenchus dipsaci'' |}

====Viral diseases====

{| class="wikitable" |+Viral diseases |- |Bean (pea) leaf roll virus ||Beet western yellows virus |- |Bean yellow mosaic ||Bean yellow mosaic virus |- |Broad bean mottle ||Broad bean mottle virus |- |Broad bean stain ||Broad bean stain virus |- |Cucumber mosaic ||Cucumber mosaic virus |- |Pea seedborne mosaic ||Pea seed-borne mosaic virus |}

== Use by humans == {{More citations needed section|date=June 2021}}

=== Processing === A combination of gravity, screens and air flow is used to clean and sort lentils by shape and density. After destoning, they may be separated by a color sorter and then packaged.

A major part of the world's red lentil production undergoes a secondary processing step. These lentils are dehulled, split and polished. In the Indian subcontinent, this process is called dal milling.<ref name="CABI-2009" /> The moisture content of the lentils prior to dehulling is crucial to guarantee a good dehulling efficiency.<ref name="CABI-2009" /> The hull of lentils usually accounts for 6 to 7 percent of the total seed weight, which is lower than most legumes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=HUGHES|first1=Joe S.|last2=Swanson|first2=Barry G.|year=1986|title=Microstructure of lentil seeds (Lens culinaris)|url=http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1140&context=foodmicrostructure|journal=Food Structure|volume=5|pages=241–246|via=digitalcommons.usu.edu}}</ref> Lentil flour can be produced by milling the seeds, like cereals.

=== Culinary use === thumb|Split red lentils (size 6 mm)

Lentils can be eaten soaked, germinated, fried, baked or boiled &ndash; the most common preparation method.<ref name="CABI-2009" /> The seeds require a cooking time of 10 to 40 minutes, depending on the variety; small varieties with the husk removed, such as the common red lentil, require shorter cooking times (and unlike most legumes don't require soaking). Most varieties have a distinctive, earthy flavor. Lentils with husks remain whole with moderate cooking, while those without husks tend to disintegrate into a thick purée, which may enable various dishes. The composition of lentils leads to a high emulsifying capacity which can be even increased by dough fermentation in bread making.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bora|first=Pushkar Singh|title=Functional properties of native and succinylated lentil (Lens culinaris) globulins|journal=Food Chemistry|volume=77|issue=2|pages=171–176|doi=10.1016/s0308-8146(01)00332-6|year=2002}}</ref>

==== Lentil dishes ==== Lentils are used worldwide in many different dishes. Lentil dishes are most widespread throughout South Asia, the Mediterranean regions, West Asia, and Latin America. [[File:Daal_after_Tadka_Pulse_Soup_India.jpg|thumb|Dal tadka (lentil soup)]] In the Indian subcontinent, Fiji, Mauritius, Singapore and the Caribbean, lentil curry is part of the everyday diet, eaten with both rice and roti. Boiled lentils and lentil stock are used to thicken most vegetarian curries. They are also used as stuffing in dal parathas and puri for breakfast or snacks. Lentils are also used in many regional varieties of sweets. Lentil flour is used to prepare several different bread varieties, such as papadam.

They are frequently combined with rice, which has a similar cooking time. A lentil and rice dish is referred to in Levantine countries as ''mujaddara'' or ''mejadra''.<ref>{{cite news |title=A Humble Lentil Dish Not Just for Hippies |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/19/dining/a-humble-lentil-dish-not-just-for-hippies.html |access-date=21 September 2025 |work=The New York Times |date=14 Jun 2013}}</ref> In Iran, rice and lentil is served with fried raisin; this dish is called lentil rice (''adas polo)''.<ref>{{cite news |title=A Comforting Rice Dish That Won't Break the Bank |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/06/dining/persian-rice-recipe.html |access-date=21 September 2025 |work=The New York Times |date=6 March 2024 }}</ref> Rice and lentils are also cooked together in ''khichdi'', a common dish in the Indian subcontinent (India and Pakistan); another dish, ''kushari'', made in Egypt, is considered a national dish.<ref name="boston"/>

Lentils and pasta are another common combination in Middle Eastern cuisine,<ref>{{cite news |title=How to Turn the Humble Lentil Into an Extravagant Luxury |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/23/magazine/lentil-stew.html |access-date=21 September 2025 |work=The New York Times Magazine |date=23 Mar 2023 |author=Ligaya Mishan |author-link1=Ligaya Mishan}}</ref> found in countries like Israel, Palestine,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ottolenghi |first1=Yotam |author1-link=Yotam Ottolenghi |title=Basic instinct: Yotam Ottolenghi's recipes from Bethlehem |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2015/may/29/yotam-ottolenghi-bethlehem-recipes-broad-beans-maftoul-lentils-chicken-stew |access-date=21 September 2025 |work=The Guardian |date=29 May 2015}}</ref> Syria,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ottolenghi |first1=Yotam |title=Yotam Ottolenghi's recipes to mark the #CookForSyria campaign |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2016/oct/29/cook-for-syria-campaign-recipes-yotam-ottolenghi-chicken-meatballs-harak-osbao |access-date=21 September 2025 |work=The Guardian |date=29 October 2016}}</ref> Egypt,<ref name="boston">{{cite news |title=On the streets of Cairo, I fed my love for koshari - The Boston Globe |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/2023/10/10/lifestyle/streets-cairo-i-fed-my-love-koshari/ |access-date=21 September 2025 |work=BostonGlobe.com}}</ref> Lebanon,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Abood |first1=Maureen |title=Lebanese Lentil Soup (Rushta Recipe) |url=https://maureenabood.com/garlicky-lentil-soup-with-swiss-chard-and-lemon-dressed-up-rushta/ |website=Maureen Abood |access-date=21 September 2025 |date=1 March 2012}}</ref> among others.

Lentils are used to prepare an inexpensive and nutritious soup throughout Europe and North and South America, sometimes combined with chicken or pork. In Western countries, cooked lentils are often used in salads.<ref name="CABI-2009" /> In Italy, the traditional dish for New Year's Eve is Cotechino served with lentils.

Lentils are commonly eaten in Ethiopia in a stew-like dish called ''misir'', or ''misir wot'', one of the dishes people eat with Ethiopia's national food, ''injera'' flatbread.

Lentils were a chief part of the diet of ancient Iranians, who consumed lentils daily in the form of a stew poured over rice.

=== Nutritional value === {{nutritionalvalue|name=Lentils, mature seeds, cooked, boiled, with salt|kJ=477|water=69.64 g|protein=9.02 g|fat=0.38 g|carbs=19.54 g|sugars=1.8 g|fiber=7.9 g|calcium_mg=19|iron_mg=3.3|magnesium_mg=36|phosphorus_mg=180|potassium_mg=369|sodium_mg=238|zinc_mg=1.27|copper_mg=0.251|manganese_mg=0.494|selenium_ug=2.8|vitC_mg=1.5|vitD_iu= 0|vitE_mg=0.11|vitK_ug=1.7|thiamin_mg=0.169|riboflavin_mg=0.073|niacin_mg=1.06|pantothenic_mg=0.638|vitB6_mg=0.178|folate_ug=181|note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/175254/nutrients Link to Full USDA Database entry]}}

Boiled lentils are 70% water, 20% carbohydrates, 9% protein, and 0.4% fat (table). In a reference amount of {{convert|100|g|oz|frac=2|abbr=off}}, cooked lentils (boiled; variety unspecified) provide 114 calories, and are a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of folate (45% DV), copper (28% DV), and manganese (21% DV). They are a moderate source (10-19% DV) of thiamine, pantothenic acid, vitamin B₆, iron, and phosphorus, with other minerals in moderate content (table).

==== Digestive effects ==== The low levels of readily digestible starch (5 percent) and high levels of slowly digested starch make lentils of potential value to people with diabetes.<ref name="RamdathRenwick2016">{{cite journal|year=2016|title=The Role of Pulses in the Dietary Management of Diabetes|journal=Can J Diabetes|type=Review|volume=40|issue=4|pages=355–63|doi=10.1016/j.jcjd.2016.05.015|pmid=27497151 |vauthors=Ramdath D, Renwick S, Duncan AM}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Mudryj AN, Yu N, Aukema HM |year=2014|title=Nutritional and health benefits of pulses|journal=Appl Physiol Nutr Metab|type=Review. Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't|volume=39|issue=11|pages=1197–204|doi=10.1139/apnm-2013-0557|pmid=25061763 |bibcode=2014ApPNM..39.1197M }}</ref> The remaining 65% of the starch is a resistant starch classified as RS1.<ref>Kawaljit Singh Sandhu, Seung-Taik Lim ''Digestibility of legume starches as influenced by their physical and structural properties'' Elsevier, 16 March 2007</ref> A minimum of 10% in starch from lentils escapes digestion and absorption in the small intestine (therefore called "resistant starch").<ref>{{cite journal|author=Tovar J|year=1996|title=Bioavailability of carbohydrates in legumes: digestible and indigestible fractions|journal=Arch Latinoam Nutr|volume=44|issue=4 Suppl 1|pages=36S–40S|pmid=9137637}}</ref> Additional resistant starch is synthesized from gelatinized starch, during cooling, after lentils are cooked.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Johnson|first1=Casey R.|last2=Thavarajah|first2=Dil|last3=Thavarajah|first3=Pushparajah|last4=Payne|first4=Scott|last5=Moore|first5=Jayma|last6=Ohm|first6=Jae-Bom|title=Processing, cooking, and cooling affect prebiotic concentrations in lentil (Lens culinaris Medikus)|journal=Journal of Food Composition and Analysis|volume=38|pages=106–111|doi=10.1016/j.jfca.2014.10.008|year=2015}}</ref>

Lentils also have antinutrient factors, such as trypsin inhibitors and a relatively high phytate content. Trypsin is an enzyme involved in protein digestion, and phytates reduce the bioavailability of dietary minerals.<ref name="vidal">{{cite journal|vauthors=Vidal-Valverde C, Frias F, Estrella I, Gorospe MJ, Ruiz R, Bacon J |year=1994|title=Effect of processing on some antinutritional factors of lentils|journal=J Agric Food Chem|volume=42|issue=10|pages=2291–2295|doi=10.1021/jf00046a039|bibcode=1994JAFC...42.2291V }}</ref> The phytates can be reduced by prolonged soaking and fermentation or sprouting.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Egli|first1=I.|last2=Davidsson|first2=L.|last3=Juillerat|first3=M.a.|last4=Barclay|first4=D.|last5=Hurrell|first5=R.f.|date=2002-11-01|title=The Influence of Soaking and Germination on the Phytase Activity and Phytic Acid Content of Grains and Seeds Potentially Useful for Complementary Feedin|journal=Journal of Food Science|language=en|volume=67|issue=9|pages=3484–3488|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2621.2002.tb09609.x|bibcode=2002JFooS..67.3484E |issn=1750-3841}}</ref> Cooking nearly completely removes the trypsin inhibitor activity; sprouting is also effective.<ref name=vidal/>

== Breeding == Although lentils have been an important crop for centuries, lentil breeding and genetic research have a relatively short history compared to that of many other crops. Since the inception of The International Center for Agriculture Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) breeding programme in 1977 significant gains have been made. It supplies landraces and breeding lines for countries around the world, supplemented by other programmes in both developing (e.g. India) and developed (e.g. Australia and Canada) countries. In recent years, such collaborations among breeders and agronomists are becoming increasingly important.<ref name="Springer Science & Business Media-2007" />

The focus lies on high yielding and stable cultivars for diverse environments to match the demand of a growing population.<ref name="Kumar-2016">{{Cite journal|last1=Kumar|first1=Jitendra|last2=Gupta|first2=Sunanda|last3=Gupta|first3=Priyanka|last4=Dubey|first4=Sonali|last5=Tomar|first5=Ram Sewak Singh|last6=Kumar|first6=Shiv|date=2016|title=Breeding strategies to improve lentil for diverse agro-ecological environments|journal= Indian Journal of Genetics and Plant Breeding |volume=76|issue=4|page=530|doi=10.5958/0975-6906.2016.00071.7|bibcode=2016IJGPB..76..530K |issn=0019-5200}}</ref> In particular, progress in quantity and quality as well as in the resistance to disease and abiotic stresses are the major breeding aims.<ref name="Springer Science & Business Media-2007" /> Several varieties have been developed applying conventional breeding methodologies.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bats.ch/bats/publikationen/1995-1_TA/2-methods.php | title=BATS: Methods of Plant Breeding }}</ref> Serious genetic improvement for yield has been made, however, the full potential of production and productivity could not yet be tapped due to several biotic and abiotic stresses.<ref name="Kumar-2016" />

Wild ''Lens'' species are a significant source of genetic variation for improving the relatively narrow genetic base of this crop. The wild species possess many diverse traits including disease resistances and abiotic stress tolerances. The above-mentioned ''L. nigricans'' and ''L. orientalis'' possess morphological similarities to the cultivated ''L. culinaris''. But only ''L. culinaris'' and ''L. culinaris'' subsp. ''orientalis'' are crossable and produce fully fertile seed. Between the different related species hybridisation barriers exist. According to their inter-crossability with ''Lens'' taxa can be divided into three gene pools:

# Primary gene pool:''L. culinaris'', ''L. orientalis'', ''L. tomentosus'' # Secondary gene pool: ''L. lamottei'', ''L. odemensis'', ''L. ervoides'' # Tertiary gene pool: ''L. nigricans''

Crosses generally fail between members of different gene pools. However, plant growth regulators and/or embryo rescue allows the growth of viable hybrids between groups. Even if crosses are successful, many undesired genes may be introduced as well in addition to the desired ones. This can be resolved by using a backcrossing programme. Thus, mutagenesis is crucial to create new and desirable varieties. According to Yadav et al. other biotechnology techniques which may impact on lentil breeding are micro-propagation using meristamatic explants, callus culture and regeneration, protoplast culture and doubled haploid production.<ref name="Springer Science & Business Media-2007" />

There is a proposed revision of the gene pools using SNP phylogeny.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=Melissa M. L. |last2=Gujaria-Verma |first2=Neha |last3=Ramsay |first3=Larissa |last4=Yuan |first4=Hai Ying |last5=Caron |first5=Carolyn |last6=Diapari |first6=Marwan |last7=Vandenberg |first7=Albert |last8=Bett |first8=Kirstin E. |title=Classification and Characterization of Species within the Genus Lens Using Genotyping-by-Sequencing (GBS) |journal=PLOS ONE|date=27 March 2015 |volume=10 |issue=3 |article-number=e0122025 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0122025|pmid=25815480 |pmc=4376907 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1022025W |doi-access=free}}</ref>

== See also == {{div col|colwidth=30em}} * National Lentil Festival {{div col end}} {{Portal|Food}}

== References == {{Reflist}}

== Further reading == * Alan Davidson, ''The Oxford Companion to Food''. {{ISBN|0-19-211579-0}}

== External links == {{Cookbook|Lentil}} {{Commons}} {{unimelb|Lens.html}} * [http://www.indexmundi.com/en/commodities/agricultural/lentils/ Lentils – Country Production, Consumption, Exports, and Imports Statistics] * [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/afcm/lentil.html Alternative Field Crops Manual: Lentil]

{{Egyptian cuisine}} {{Taxonbar|from1=Q131226|from2=Q111391147}}

Category:Lentil Category:Fabeae Category:Edible legumes Category:Founder crops