Clothing

{{Short description|Objects worn to cover the body}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2025}} {{hatnote group| {{Redirect|Clothes|the films|Clothes (1914 film)|and|Clothes (1920 film)}} {{Redirect|Outfit}} {{Redirect|Garment}} }} {{pp-move}} {{Lead rewrite|date=December 2025|talk=Lead_improvements}}

[[File:Clothes.jpg|thumb|Clothing in history, showing (from top) Egyptians, Ancient Greeks, Romans; Byzantines, Franks; and thirteenth through fifteenth century Europeans]]'''Clothing''' (also known as '''clothes''', '''garments''', '''dress''', '''apparel''', or '''attire''') is any item worn on a human body. Typically, clothing is made of fabrics or textiles. Over time, it has included garments made from animal skin and other thin sheets of materials and natural products found in the environment, put together. Clothing is worn primarily by humans and is a feature of all human societies. The amount and type of clothing worn depend on gender, body type, social factors, and geographic considerations. Garments cover the body, footwear covers the feet, gloves cover the hands, hats and headgear cover the head, and underwear covers the intimate parts.

Clothing serves many purposes: it can protect against the elements, rough surfaces, sharp stones, rash-causing plants, and insect bites by providing a barrier between the skin and the environment. Clothing can insulate against cold or heat and provide a hygienic barrier, keeping infectious and toxic materials away from the body. It can protect feet from injury and discomfort or facilitate navigation in varied environments. Clothing also protects from ultraviolet radiation. Wearers may use it to reduce glare or improve visual acuity in harsh environments, such as when wearing brimmed hats. Wearers may also use clothing for protection against injury in specific tasks and occupations, sports, and warfare. Fashioned with pockets, belts, or loops, clothing may provide a means to carry things while freeing the hands.

Clothing has significant social factors as well. Wearing clothes is a variable social norm. It may connote modesty. Being deprived of clothing in front of others may be embarrassing. In many parts of the world, not wearing clothes in public so that genitals, breast, or buttocks are visible may be considered indecent exposure. Pubic area or genital coverage is the most frequently encountered minimum across cultures and climates, implying social convention as the basis of customs. Wearers may also use clothing to communicate social status, wealth, group identity, and individualism.

==Origin and history== {{anchor|History}} {{Main|History of clothing and textiles}} {{See also|History of Western fashion|Category:History of clothing|Evolution of hair}}

===Early use=== [[File:Tautavel - Mannequin 10.jpg|thumb|''Homo heidelbergensis'' likely used fur clothing to adapt to the colder climate of Europe]] Estimates of when humans began wearing clothes range from 40,000 to as many as 3 million years ago. A 2003 study suggested humans were wearing clothing at least 100,000 years ago, based on evidence from lice. Human body lice cannot survive outside clothing and die within a few hours without shelter. This strongly implies that the date of the body louse's speciation from its parent, ''Pediculus humanus'', could not have occurred earlier than the earliest human adoption of clothing. This date, at which the body louse (''P. humanus corporis'') diverged from both its parent species and its sibling subspecies, the head louse (''P. humanus capitis''), has been estimated to be between 40,000 and 170,000 years before present.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reed |first1=David L. |last2=Smith |first2=Vincent S. |last3=Hammond |first3=Shaless L. |last4=Rogers |first4=Alan R. |last5=Clayton |first5=Dale H. |date=5 October 2004 |title=Genetic Analysis of Lice Supports Direct Contact between Modern and Archaic Humans |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=2 |issue=11 |article-number=e340 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020340 |pmc=521174 |pmid=15502871 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kittler |first1=Ralf |last2=Kayser |first2=Manfred |last3=Stoneking |first3=Mark |date=2003 |title=Molecular Evolution of Pediculus humanus and the Origin of Clothing |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982203005074 |journal=Current Biology |language=en |volume=13 |issue=16 |pages=1414–1417 |doi=10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00507-4|pmid=12932325 |bibcode=2003CBio...13.1414K }}</ref> However, recent transcriptome analyses cast doubt on whether lice provide a means to date the origin of clothes since they have found that "body and head lice were almost genetically identical. Indeed, the phenotypic flexibility associated with the emergence of body lice is probably a result of regulatory changes, perhaps epigenetic in origin, triggered by environmental signals."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Amanzougaghene |first1=Nadia |last2=Fenollar |first2=Florence |last3=Raoult |first3=Didier |last4=Mediannikov |first4=Oleg |date=21 January 2020 |title=Where Are We With Human Lice? A Review of the Current State of Knowledge |journal=Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology |volume=9 |page=474 |doi=10.3389/fcimb.2019.00474 |doi-access=free |issn=2235-2988 |pmc=6990135 |pmid=32039050}}</ref>

Dating with direct archeological evidence produces dates consistent with those of lice. In September 2021, scientists reported evidence of clothes being made 120,000 years ago based on findings in deposits in Morocco.<ref name="iSC-20210916">{{cite journal |last=Hallett |first=Emily Y. |display-authors=et al. |title=A worked bone assemblage from 120,000–90,000 year old deposits at Contrebandiers Cave, Atlantic Coast, Morocco |date=16 September 2021 |journal=iScience |volume=24 |issue=9 |article-number=102988 |doi=10.1016/j.isci.2021.102988 |pmid=34622180 |pmc=8478944 |bibcode=2021iSci...24j2988H |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="TG-20210916">{{cite news |last=Davis |first=Nicola |title=Scientists find evidence of humans making clothes 120,000 years ago – Tools and bones in Moroccan cave could be some of earliest evidence of the hallmark human behaviour |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/sep/16/scientists-find-evidence-of-humans-making-clothes-120000-years-ago |date=16 September 2021 |work=The Guardian |access-date=16 September 2021 |archive-date=28 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211228095707/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/sep/16/scientists-find-evidence-of-humans-making-clothes-120000-years-ago |url-status=live }}</ref>

The development of clothing is deeply connected to human evolution, with early garments likely consisting of animal skins and natural fibers adapted for protection and social signaling.<ref name="Gilligan2010" /> According to anthropologists and archaeologists, the earliest clothing likely consisted of fur, leather, leaves, or grass that was draped, wrapped, or tied around the body. Knowledge of such clothing remains inferential, as clothing materials deteriorate quickly compared with stone, bone, shell, and metal artifacts. Archeologists have identified very early sewing needles of bone and ivory from about 30,000 BC, found near Kostenki, Russia in 1988,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Hoffecker|first1=J.|last2=Scott|first2=J.|title=Excavations In Eastern Europe Reveal Ancient Human Lifestyles |website= University of Colorado at Boulder |date=21 March 2002 |url=http://www.colorado.edu/news/r/b278a670675fd8d2ca0700cdc0e9d808.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719175257/http://www.colorado.edu/news/r/b278a670675fd8d2ca0700cdc0e9d808.html |archive-date=19 July 2011}}</ref> and in 2016 a needle at least 50,000 years old from Denisova Cave in Siberia<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archaeology.org/news/2016/08/23/160823-denisova-cave-needle/|title=Denisova Cave Yields a 50,000-Year-Old Needle |website=Archaeology Magazine |date=23 August 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230624092913/https://www.archaeology.org/news/4784-160823-denisova-cave-needle |archive-date= 24 June 2023}}</ref> made by Denisovans. Dyed flax fibers that date back to 34,000 BC and could have been used in clothing have been found in a prehistoric cave in Georgia.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Balter |first=M.|year=2009|title=Clothes Make the (Hu) Man |doi-access=free |journal=Science|volume= 325 |issue=5946|page=1329|doi=10.1126/science.325_1329a|pmid=19745126}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Kvavadze E, Bar-Yosef O, Belfer-Cohen A, Boaretto E, Jakeli N, Matskevich Z, Meshveliani T|year=2009|title=30,000-Year-Old Wild Flax Fibers|url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:4270521|journal=Science|volume=325|issue=5946|page=1359|doi=10.1126/science.1175404|pmid=19745144|bibcode=2009Sci...325.1359K|s2cid=206520793|access-date=22 April 2017|archive-date=4 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200304052409/https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/4270521 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription}} [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/data/325/5946/1359/DC1/1 Supporting Online Material]</ref>

The oldest known piece of woven clothing is the Tarkhan dress, an over 5000 year old linen garment.<ref name="Lobell 2017">{{cite news| last=Lobell | first=Jarrett A. | title=World's Oldest Dress |volume=70|issue=1|magazine=Archaeology| date=2017|location=Tarkhan, Egypt | url=https://archaeology.org/issues/january-february-2017/collection/egypt-tarkhan-dress/top-10-discoveries-of-2016/ | access-date=5 November 2019|issn=0003-8113}}</ref><ref name="Lobell 2016">{{cite news |last=Lobell |first=Jarrett A. |date=2016 |title=Dressing for the Ages |url=https://archaeology.org/issues/online/collection/trenches-egypt-predynastic-period-tarkhan-dress/ |work=Archaeology|volume=69|issue=3|page=9|issn=0003-8113|access-date=4 June 2021}}</ref>

===Making clothing=== {{See also|Clothing industry||knitting|weaving}} Several distinct human cultures, including those residing in the Arctic Circle, have historically crafted their garments exclusively from treated and adorned animal furs and skins. In contrast, numerous other societies have complemented or substituted leather and skins with textiles woven, knitted, or twined from a diverse array of animal and plant fibers, such as wool, linen, cotton, silk, hemp, and ramie. [[File:Raja Ravi Varma, Lady Going for Pooja.jpg|alt=Sari|thumb|upright=.8|Hindu lady wearing sari, one of the most ancient and popular pieces of clothing in the Indian subcontinent, painting by Raja Ravi Varma]]

Although modern consumers may take clothing production for granted, making fabric by hand is a tedious, labor-intensive process involving fiber preparation, spinning, and weaving. The textile industry was the first to be mechanized – with the powered loom – during the Industrial Revolution.

Different cultures have developed various ways of making clothes from cloth. One approach involves draping the cloth. Many people wore, and still wear, garments consisting of rectangles of cloth wrapped to fit – for example, the dhoti for men and the sari for women in the Indian subcontinent, the Scottish kilt, and the Javanese sarong. The clothes may be tied up (dhoti and sari) or held in place with pins or belts (kilt and sarong). The cloth remains uncut, and people of various sizes can wear the garment.

Another approach involves measuring, cutting, and sewing the cloth by hand or with a sewing machine. Clothing can be cut from a sewing pattern and adjusted by a tailor to the wearer's measurements. An adjustable sewing mannequin or dress form is used to create form-fitting clothing. If the fabric is expensive, the tailor tries to use every bit of the rectangular cloth when constructing the garment; perhaps cutting triangular pieces from one corner of the cloth and adding them elsewhere as gussets. Traditional European patterns for shirts and chemises take this approach. These remnants can also be reused to make patchwork pockets, hats, vests, and skirts.

Modern European fashion treats cloth much less conservatively, typically cutting in ways that leave various odd-shaped cloth remnants. Industrial sewing operations sell these as waste; domestic sewers may turn them into quilts.

Over thousands of years of making clothing, humans have created an astonishing array of styles, many of which have been reconstructed from surviving garments, photographs, paintings, mosaics, and written descriptions. Costume history can inspire current fashion designers, as well as costumiers for plays, films, television, and historical reenactment.

== Clothing as comfort == [[File:Sp5hnk oh0.jpg|thumb|A young woman wearing t-shirt and shorts at the warm summer in Åland]] Comfort is related to various perceptions and to physiological, social, and psychological needs; after food, clothing satisfies these comfort needs. Clothing provides aesthetic, tactile, thermal, moisture, and pressure comfort.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Song |first=Guowen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XElWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA22 |title=Improving Comfort in Clothing |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-85709-064-5 |location=Oxford Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |page=22 |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164807/https://books.google.com/books?id=XElWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA22 |url-status=live }}</ref> ;Aesthetic comfort: Visual perception is influenced by color, fabric construction, style, garment fit, fashion compatibility, and finish of clothing material. Aesthetic comfort is necessary for psychological and social comfort.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Song |first=Guowen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XElWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA440 |title=Improving Comfort in Clothing |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-85709-064-5 |page=440 |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164807/https://books.google.com/books?id=XElWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA440 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Y. |title=The Science of Clothing Comfort |journal=Textile Progress |date=March 2001 |volume=31 |issue=1–2 |pages=1–135 |doi=10.1080/00405160108688951 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Lyle |first=Dorothy Siegert |url=http://archive.org/details/moderntextiles02edlyle |title=Modern textiles |date=1982 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-471-07805-0 |location=New York |page=29 |url-access=registration}}</ref> ;Thermoregulation and thermophysiological comfort: Thermophysiological comfort is the capacity of the clothing material that maintains the balance of moisture and heat between the body and the environment. It is a property of textile materials that creates ease by maintaining moisture and thermal levels in a human's resting and active states. The selection of textile material significantly affects the wearer's comfort. Different textile fibers have unique properties that make them suitable for use in various environments. For example, natural fibers are breathable and absorb moisture, while synthetic fibers are hydrophobic, repel moisture, and do not allow air to pass. Different environments demand a diverse selection of clothing materials. Hence, the appropriate choice is important.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cubrić |first1=Ivana Salopek |last2=Skenderi |first2=Zenun |title=Evaluating thermophysiological comfort using the principles of sensory analysis |journal=Collegium Antropologicum |date=March 2013 |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=57–64 |pmid=23697251 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Song |first=Guowen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XElWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA114 |title=Improving Comfort in Clothing |date=2011 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-85709-064-5 |page=114 |language=en |access-date=27 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624210255/https://books.google.com/books?id=XElWAgAAQBAJ&q=Thermophysiological+comfort&pg=PA114 |archive-date=24 June 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Stevens |first=Katy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VwKXtwAACAAJ|title=Thermophysiological comfort and water resistant protection in soft shell protective garments|date=2008|publisher=University of Leeds (School of Design) |language=en|access-date=27 June 2021|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624210559/https://books.google.com/books?id=VwKXtwAACAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hXRQAAAAYAAJ&q=Thermophysiological+comfort|title=Textile Trends|date=2001|publisher=Eastland Publications.|page=16|language=en|access-date=27 June 2021|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624211406/https://books.google.com/books?id=hXRQAAAAYAAJ&q=Thermophysiological+comfort|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U8pGAAAAYAAJ&q=Thermophysiological+comfort |title=Pre-print of Conference Proceedings: Textile Institute 1988 Annual World Conference, Sydney, Australia, 10–13 July |date=1988 |publisher=Textile Institute |isbn=978-1-870812-08-5 |page=9 |language=en |access-date=27 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624212500/https://books.google.com/books?id=U8pGAAAAYAAJ&q=Thermophysiological+comfort |archive-date=24 June 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ruckman |first1=J.E. |last2=Murray |first2=R. |last3=Choi |first3=H.S. |title=Engineering of clothing systems for improved thermophysiological comfort: The effect of openings |journal=International Journal of Clothing Science and Technology |date=March 1999 |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=37–52 |doi=10.1108/09556229910258098 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Varshney |first1=R. K. |last2=Kothari |first2=V. K. |last3=Dhamija |first3=S. |title=A study on thermophysiological comfort properties of fabrics in relation to constituent fibre fineness and cross-sectional shapes |journal=Journal of the Textile Institute |date=17 May 2010 |volume=101 |issue=6 |pages=495–505 |doi=10.1080/00405000802542184 }}</ref> The major determinants that influence thermophysiological comfort are permeable construction, heat, and moisture transfer rate.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Collier |first=Billie J. |url=http://archive.org/details/understandingtex0000coll |title=Understanding textiles |date=2000 |publisher=Upper Saddle River, NJ : Prentice Hall |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-13-021951-0 |page=539 |url-access=registration}}</ref> ;Thermal comfort: One of the primary criteria for our physiological needs is thermal comfort. The heat-dissipation effectiveness of clothing gives the wearer a feeling that is neither very hot nor very cold. The optimum temperature for thermal comfort of the skin surface is between {{Convert|28 and 30|C|F|abbr=}}. Thermophysiology reacts whenever the temperature falls below or exceeds the neutral point on either side; it is discomforting below 28 and above 30 degrees.<ref name="Gagge et al Comfort and thermal sensations">{{cite journal |last1=Gagge |first1=A. P. |last2=Stolwijk |first2=J. A. |last3=Hardy |first3=J. D. |title=Comfort and thermal sensations and associated physiological responses at various ambient temperatures |journal=Environmental Research |date=June 1967 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1016/0013-9351(67)90002-3 |pmid=5614624 |bibcode=1967ER......1....1G }}</ref> Clothing maintains a thermal balance; it keeps the skin dry and cool. It helps to keep the body from overheating while avoiding heat from the environment.<ref name="Gagge et al Comfort and thermal sensations"/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Song |first=Guowen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XElWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA149 |title=Improving Comfort in Clothing |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-85709-064-5 |pages=149, 166 |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164813/https://books.google.com/books?id=XElWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA149 |url-status=live }}</ref> ;Moisture comfort: Moisture comfort is the prevention of a damp sensation. According to Hollies' research, it feels uncomfortable when more than "50% to 65% of the body is wet."{{cite quote|date=August 2024}} ;Tactile comfort: Tactile comfort is a resistance to the discomfort related to the friction created by clothing against the body. It is related to the smoothness, roughness, softness, and stiffness of the fabric used in clothing. The degree of tactile discomfort may vary among individuals due to factors such as allergies, tickling, prickling, skin abrasion, coolness, and the fabric's weight, structure, and thickness. There are specific surface finishes (mechanical and chemical) that can enhance tactile comfort. Fleece sweatshirts and velvet clothing, for example. Soft, clingy, stiff, heavy, light, hard, sticky, scratchy, and prickly are all terms used to describe tactile sensations.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Au|first=K.F.|title=Advances in Knitting Technology|publisher=Woodhead Publishing|year=2011 |isbn=978-1-84569-372-5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Song |first=Guowen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XElWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA167 |title=Improving Comfort in Clothing |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-85709-064-5 |pages=167, 192, 208 |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164813/https://books.google.com/books?id=XElWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA167 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Song |first=Guowen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XElWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA223 |title=Improving Comfort in Clothing |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-85709-064-5 |pages=223, 235, 237, 427 |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164813/https://books.google.com/books?id=XElWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA223 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1533/9780857090645.2.216 |chapter=Improving tactile comfort in fabrics and clothing |title=Improving Comfort in Clothing |date=2011 |last1=Das |first1=A. |last2=Alagirusamy |first2=R. |pages=216–244 |isbn=978-1-84569-539-2 }}</ref> ;Pressure comfort: The comfort of the human body's pressure receptors' (present in the skin) sensory response towards clothing. Fabric with Lycra feels more comfortable because of this response and superior pressure comfort. The sensation response is influenced by the material's structure: snugging, looseness, heaviness, lightness, softness, or stiffness.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Song |first=Guowen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XElWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 |title=Improving Comfort in Clothing |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-85709-064-5 |pages=25, 235, 432 |access-date=19 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164813/https://books.google.com/books?id=XElWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA25 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1533/9781845696443.201 |chapter=Physiological comfort of fabrics and garments |title=Engineering Apparel Fabrics and Garments |date=2009 |last1=Fan |first1=J. |pages=201–250 |isbn=978-1-84569-134-9 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-1-84569-931-4.00029-5 |chapter=Improving the Comfort of Garments |title=Textiles and Fashion |date=2015 |last1=Hunter |first1=L. |last2=Fan |first2=J. |pages=739–761 |isbn=978-1-84569-931-4 }}</ref>

==Functions== [[File:Well-clothed baby.jpg|thumb|A baby wearing many items of winter clothing: headband, cap, fur-lined coat, scarf, and sweater]]

The most obvious function of clothing is to protect the wearer from the elements. It helps prevent wind damage and protects against sunburn. In the cold, it offers thermal insulation. Shelter can reduce the functional need for clothing. For example, coats, hats, gloves, and other outer layers are normally removed when entering a warm place. Similarly, clothing has seasonal and regional aspects, so thinner materials and fewer layers are generally worn in warmer regions and seasons than in colder ones. Boots, hats, jackets, ponchos, and coats designed to protect from rain and snow are specialized clothing items.

Clothing has been made from a wide variety of materials, ranging from leather and furs to woven fabrics and elaborate, exotic natural and synthetic fabrics. Not all body coverings are regarded as clothing. Articles carried rather than worn normally are considered accessories rather than clothing (such as Handbags), items worn on a single part of the body and easily removed (scarves), worn purely for adornment (jewelry), or items that do not serve a protective function. For instance, corrective eyeglasses, Arctic goggles, and sunglasses would not be considered an accessory because of their protective functions.

Clothing protects against many things that might injure or irritate the naked human body, including rain, snow, wind, and other weather, as well as the sun. Garments that are too sheer, thin, small, or tight offer less protection. Appropriate clothes can also reduce risk during activities such as work or sport. Some clothing protects against specific hazards, such as insects, toxic chemicals, weather, weapons, and abrasive substances.

Humans have devised clothing solutions to environmental or other hazards: such as space suits, armor, diving suits, swimsuits, bee-keeper gear, motorcycle leathers, high-visibility clothing, and other pieces of protective clothing. The distinction between clothing and protective equipment is not always clear-cut, since clothes designed to be fashionable often have protective value, and clothes designed for function often incorporate corporate fashion elements.

The choice of clothes also has social implications. They cover body parts that social norms require to be covered, serve as adornment, and fulfill other social purposes. Someone who lacks the means to procure appropriate clothing due to poverty or affordability, or lack of inclination, sometimes is said to be worn, ragged, or shabby.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baradel |first1=Lacey |title=Geographic Mobility and Domesticity in Eastman Johnson's ''The Tramp'' |journal=American Art |date=June 2014 |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=26–49 |doi=10.1086/677964 }}</ref>

Clothing performs a range of social and cultural functions, such as individual, occupational, gender differentiation, and social status.<ref name="Flugel1930">{{citation |date=1976|orig-date= 1930 |author=Flugel, John Carl |title=The Psychology of Clothes |series=International Psycho-analytical Library |volume=18 |publisher=New York: AMS Press. First published by Hogarth Press, London | isbn =978-0-404-14721-1}}{{pn|date=August 2024}} (This work is one of the earliest attempts at an overview of the psycho-social and practical functions of clothing{{fact|date=August 2024}})</ref> In many societies, norms about clothing reflect standards of modesty, religion, gender, and social status. Clothing may also function as an adornment and an expression of personal taste or style.

==Scholarship== ===Function of clothing=== Serious books on clothing and its functions appeared in the nineteenth century as European colonial powers interacted with new environments, such as tropical regions in Asia.<ref name="Jeffreys1858">e.g. {{citation |year=1858 |author=Jeffreys, Julius |title=The British Army in India: Its Preservation by an appropriate Clothing, Housing, Locating, Recreative Employment, and Hopeful Encouragement of the Troops |place=London |publisher=Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans & Roberts |url=https://archive.org/stream/britisharmyinin01jeffgoog#page/n7/mode/1up |access-date=8 September 2010}}</ref> Some scientific research into the multiple functions of clothing in the first half of the twentieth century, with publications such as J.C. Flügel's ''Psychology of Clothes'' in 1930,<ref name="Flugel1930" /> and Newburgh's seminal ''Physiology of Heat Regulation and The Science of Clothing'' in 1949.<ref name="Newburgh1968">{{citation |date=1968|orig-date= 1949 |editor=Newburgh, Louis Harry |title=Physiology of Heat Regulation and The Science of Clothing |place=New York & London |publisher=Hafner Publishing}}</ref> By 1968, the field of Environmental Physiology had advanced and expanded significantly. Still, the science of clothing as it relates to environmental physiology had changed little.<ref name="Hertig1969">{{cite journal |last1=Hertig |first1=Bruce A. |title=Physiology of Heat Regulation and the Science of Clothing |journal=Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine |date=February 1969 |volume=11 |issue=2 |page=100 |doi=10.1097/00043764-196902000-00012 |pmc=1520373 }}</ref> There has since been considerable research. The knowledge base has grown significantly, but the main concepts remain unchanged. Indeed, Newburgh's book continues to be cited by contemporary authors, including those attempting to develop thermoregulatory models of clothing development.<ref name="Gilligan2010">{{citation |date=January 2010 |author=Gilligan, Ian |title=The Prehistoric Development of Clothing: Archaeological Implications of a Thermal Model |journal=Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=15–80 |doi=10.1007/s10816-009-9076-x|s2cid=143004288 }}</ref>

===History of clothing=== [[File:Statue de Napir-Asu - Musée du Louvre - Antiquités orientales SB 2731 - photo 2.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|Clothing of the Napir Asu held in Louvre museum, {{Circa|1300 BC}}]] Clothing reveals much about human history. According to Professor Kiki Smith of Smith College, garments preserved in collections are resources for study similar to books and paintings.<ref name="Should These Clothes Be Saved">{{cite news |last1=Friedman |first1=Vanessa |title=Should These Clothes Be Saved? |work=The New York Times |date=29 April 2019}}</ref> Scholars around the world have studied a wide range of clothing topics, including the history of specific items of clothing,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Summers |first1=Leigh |title=Bound to Please: A History of the Victorian Corset |date=2001 |publisher=Berg |location=Oxford |isbn=185973-530-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Stutesman |first1=Drake |title=Hat: Origins, Language, Style |date=2019 |publisher=Reaktion Books |location=London |isbn=978-1-78914-136-8 |edition=1st}}</ref> clothing styles in different cultural groups,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cole |first1=Shaun |title=Don We Now Our Gay Apparel: Gay Men's Dress in the Twentieth Century |date=2000 |publisher=Berg |location=Oxford |isbn=1-85973-415-4}}</ref> and the business of clothing and fashion.<ref>{{cite book |last1=White |first1=Nicola |last2=Griffiths |first2=Ian |title=The Fashion of Business: Theory, Practice and Image |date=2000 |publisher=Berg |location=Oxford |isbn=1-85973-354-9}}</ref> The textile curator Linda Baumgarten writes that "clothing provides a remarkable picture of the daily lives, beliefs, expectations, and hopes of those who lived in the past.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Baumgarten |first1=Linda |title=What Clothes Reveail |date=2002 |publisher=The Colonial Williamsberg Foundation |location=Williamsburg, Virginia |isbn=0-300-09580-5}}</ref>

Clothing presents many challenges to historians. Clothing made of textiles or skins is subject to decay, and the erosion of physical integrity may be seen as a loss of cultural information.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=DeSilvey |first1=Caitlin |title=Observed Decay: Telling Stories with Mutable Things |journal=Journal of Material Culture |date=2006 |volume=11 |issue=3 |page=318 |doi=10.1177/1359183506068808 |s2cid=145167639 |url=http://mcu.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/11/3/318 |access-date=12 November 2020 |archive-date=14 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090414103855/http://mcu.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/11/3/318 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Costume collections often focus on important pieces of clothing considered unique or otherwise significant, limiting the opportunities scholars have to study everyday clothing.<ref name="Should These Clothes Be Saved"/>

==Cultural aspects== Clothing has long served as a marker of social status, gender, and cultural identity, reflecting broader societal structures and values.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hansen |first1=Karen Tranberg |title=The World in Dress: Anthropological Perspectives on Clothing, Fashion, and Culture |journal=Annual Review of Anthropology |date=October 2004 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=369–392 |doi=10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143805 }}</ref>

===Gender differentiation=== [[File:Habibie family portrait.jpg|thumb|Formal family portrait of former Indonesian's President B.J. Habibie. Women wear ''kain batik'' and ''kebaya'' with ''selendang'' (sash), while men wear ''jas'' and ''dasi'' (western suit with tie) with ''peci'' cap.]] thumb|Men and women gathered at sporting event in Sweden (1938) <gallery> File:Ring ceremony, Indian Hindu wedding.jpg|A Hindu North Indian wedding, the groom wearing a sherwani and pagri turban and the bride wearing a sari File:Shinzō Abe and Ivanka Trump (4).jpg|Japanese PM Shinzō Abe and Ivanka Trump (right) wearing Western-style gender-differentiated business suits (2017) File:3rd Duke of Fife in Kilt. Allan Warren.jpg|3rd Duke of Fife wearing a traditional Scottish kilt (1984) File:KangaSiyu1.jpg|A kanga, worn throughout the African Great Lakes region </gallery>

In most cultures, gender differentiation of clothing is considered appropriate. The differences are in styles, colors, fabrics, and types.

In contemporary Western societies, skirts, dresses, and high-heeled shoes are usually seen as women's clothing, while neckties are usually seen as men's clothing. Trousers were once seen as exclusively men's clothing, but nowadays are worn by both genders. Men's clothes are often more practical (that is, they can function well under a wide variety of situations), but a wider range of clothing styles is available for women. Typically, men are allowed to bare their chests in a greater variety of public places. It is generally common for a woman to wear clothing perceived as masculine, while the opposite is seen as unusual. Contemporary men may sometimes choose to wear men's skirts such as togas or kilts in particular cultures, especially on ceremonial occasions. In the past, such garments were often worn as everyday clothing by men.

In some cultures, sumptuary laws regulate what men and women are required to wear. Islam requires women to wear certain attire, usually a hijab. The items required vary across Muslim societies; however, women are usually required to cover more of their bodies than men are. Articles of clothing that Muslim women wear under these laws or traditions range from the headscarf to the burqa.

Some contemporary clothing styles designed to be worn by either gender, such as T-shirts, originated as menswear, while others, such as the fedora, were originally styles for women.

===Social status=== <gallery> Rajput Sherwani 2014-04-23 04-27.JPG|''Achkan'' sherwani and ''churidar'' (lower body) worn by Arvind Singh Mewar and his kin during a Hindu wedding in Rajasthan, India, are items traditionally worn by the elites of the Indian subcontinent. Barong Tagalog.jpg|A barong tagalog made for a wedding ceremony Prokudin-Gorskii-19.jpg|Alim Khan's bemedaled robe conveys a social message about his wealth, status, and power. </gallery> During the early modern period, individuals utilized their attire as a significant method of conveying and asserting their social status. Individuals used high-quality fabrics and trendy designs to communicate their wealth and social standing, as well as to signal their knowledge and understanding of current fashion trends to the general public. As a result, clothing played a significant role in making the social hierarchy perceptible to all members of society.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Andersson |first1=Eva I. |title=Swedish Burghers' Dress in the Seventeenth Century |journal=Costume |date=September 2017 |volume=51 |issue=2 |pages=171–189 |doi=10.3366/cost.2017.0023 }}</ref>

In some societies, clothing may be used to indicate rank or status. In ancient Rome, for example, only senators could wear garments dyed with Tyrian purple. In traditional Hawaiian society, only high-ranking chiefs could wear feather cloaks and palaoa, or carved whale teeth. In China, before the establishment of the republic, only the emperor could wear yellow. History provides many examples of elaborate sumptuary laws that regulated what people could wear. In societies without such laws, which include most modern societies, social status is signaled by the purchase of rare or luxury items that are limited in availability or cost to the wealthy or those of high status. In addition, peer pressure influences clothing choice.

===Religion=== {{main|Religious clothing}} <gallery> Gandhara Buddha (tnm).jpeg|The Buddha wearing kāṣāya robes, originating from ancient India. Fully ordained Buddhist monks and nuns wore these robes. Clerical clothing.jpg|Clerical clothing worn by Catholic priests </gallery> Some religious clothing might be considered a special case of occupational clothing. Sometimes it is worn only during religious ceremonies. However, it may be worn every day as a marker for a special religious status. Sikhs wear a turban as it is a part of their religion.

In some religions, such as Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism, and Jainism, the cleanliness of religious dresses is of paramount importance and considered to indicate purity. Jewish ritual requires rending (tearing) of one's upper garment as a sign of mourning. The Quran says about husbands and wives, regarding clothing: "...They are clothing/covering (Libaas) for you; and you for them" (chapter 2:187). Christian clergy members wear religious vestments during liturgical services and may wear specific non-liturgical clothing at other times.

Clothing appears in numerous contexts in the Bible. The most prominent passages are: the story of Adam and Eve who made coverings for themselves out of fig leaves, Joseph's coat of many colors, and the clothing of Judah and Tamar, Mordecai and Esther. Furthermore, the priests officiating in the Temple in Jerusalem wore very specific garments; the lack of them made one liable to death.

==Contemporary clothing== {{Western dress codes}}

=== Western dress code === The Western dress code has changed over the past 500+ years. The mechanization of the textile industry made a wide variety of cloth widely available at affordable prices. Styles have changed, and the availability of synthetic fabrics has altered the definition of what is "stylish". In the latter half of the twentieth century, blue jeans became very popular and are now worn to events that normally call for formal attire. Activewear has also become a large and growing market.

thumb|left|upright=.8|Jacket by Guy Laroche, from a woman's suit with a black skirt and blouse (1960) In the Western dress code, jeans are worn by both men and women. There are several styles of jeans, including high-rise, mid-rise, low-rise, bootcut, straight, cropped, skinny, cuffed, boyfriend, and capri.

The licensing of designer names was pioneered by designers such as Pierre Cardin, Yves Saint Laurent, and Guy Laroche in the 1960s and has been a common practice within the fashion industry from about the 1970s. Among the more popular are Marc Jacobs and Gucci, named after Marc Jacobs and Guccio Gucci, respectively.

=== Spread of Western styles === [[File:Move In Day 2011 (6099706937) (cropped).jpg|thumb|University students in casual clothes in the U.S.]]

By the early years of the twenty-first century, Western clothing styles had, to some extent, become international styles. This process began hundreds of years earlier, during the period of European colonialism. The process of cultural dissemination has been perpetuated over the centuries, spreading Western culture and styles, most recently through Western media corporations that have penetrated markets worldwide. Fast fashion clothing has also become a global phenomenon. These garments are less expensive, mass-produced Western clothing. Also, donated used clothing from Western countries is delivered to people in poor countries by charity organizations.

=== Ethnic and cultural heritage === People may wear ethnic or national dress on special occasions or in certain roles or occupations. For example, most Korean men and women have adopted Western-style dress for daily wear, but still wear traditional hanboks on special occasions, such as weddings and cultural holidays. Also, items of Western dress may be worn or accessorized in distinctive, non-Western ways. A Tongan man may combine a used T-shirt with a Tongan wrapped skirt, or tupenu.

===Sport and activity=== {{Main|Sportswear|Sportswear (fashion)}} For practical, comfort, or safety reasons, most sports and physical activities are practised wearing special clothing. Common sportswear garments include shorts, T-shirts, tennis shirts, leotards, tracksuits, and trainers. Specialized garments include wet suits (for swimming, diving, or surfing), salopettes (for skiing), and leotards (for gymnastics). Also, spandex is often used as a base layer to wick away sweat. Spandex is preferable for active sports that require form-fitting garments, such as volleyball, wrestling, track and field, dance, gymnastics, and swimming.

=== Fashion === {{Main|Fashion|2020s in fashion}} Paris set the 1900–1940 fashion trends for Europe and North America.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Mary Louise |last1=Roberts |title=Samson and Delilah revisited: the politics of women's fashion in 1920s France |journal=American Historical Review |volume=98 |issue=3 |date=1993 |pages=657–684 |doi=10.2307/2167545 |jstor=2167545 }}</ref> Day dresses had drop waists, sashes or belts around the low waist or hip and a skirt that hung anywhere from the ankle on up to the knee. Day wear had sleeves (long to mid-bicep) and a skirt that was straight, pleated, hemmed, or tiered. Jewelry was not conspicuous.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Simon |last1=Bliss |title='L'intelligence de la parure': Notes on Jewelry Wearing in the 1920s |journal=Fashion Theory |volume=20 |issue=1 |date=2016 |pages=5–26 |doi=10.1080/1362704X.2015.1077652 }}</ref> Hair was often bobbed, giving a boyish look.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Steven |last1=Zdatny |title=The Boyish Look and the Liberated Woman: The Politics and Aesthetics of Women's Hairstyles |journal=Fashion Theory |volume=1 |issue=4 |date=1997 |pages=367–397 |doi=10.2752/136270497779613639 }}</ref>

In the early twenty-first century, a diverse range of styles exists in fashion, varying by geography, exposure to modern media, and economic conditions, ranging from expensive haute couture to traditional garb to thrift store grunge. Fashion shows are events where designers showcase new and often extravagant designs.

==Political issues==

===Working conditions in the garments industry=== {{Further|Clothing industry}} [[File:Garments Factory in Bangladesh.JPG|thumb|Garments factory in Bangladesh]]

Although mechanization transformed most aspects of the human clothing industry, by the mid-twentieth century, garment workers continued to labor under challenging conditions that demanded repetitive manual labor. Often, mass-produced clothing is made in what some consider sweatshops, typified by long work hours, lack of benefits, and lack of worker representation. While most examples of such conditions are found in developing countries, clothes made in industrialized nations may also be manufactured under similar conditions.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hendriksz |first=Vivian |date=9 November 2017 |title='Made in Europe' label linked to European sweatshops |url=https://fashionunited.uk/news/business/made-in-europe-label-linked-to-european-sweatshops/2017110926692 |access-date=3 May 2022 |website=FashionUnited |language=en |archive-date=30 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730071915/https://fashionunited.uk/news/business/made-in-europe-label-linked-to-european-sweatshops/2017110926692 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Coalitions of NGOs, designers (including Katharine Hamnett, American Apparel, Veja, Quiksilver, eVocal, and Edun), and campaign groups such as the Clean Clothes Campaign (CCC) and the Institute for Global Labour and Human Rights as well as textile and clothing trade unions have sought to improve these conditions by sponsoring awareness-raising events, which draw the attention of both the media and the general public to the plight of the workers.

Outsourcing production to low wage countries such as Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka became possible when the Multi Fibre Agreement (MFA) was abolished. The MFA, which placed quotas on textile imports, was deemed a protectionist measure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Employment conditions in the clothing manufacturing sector |url=https://pehnavakart.com/employment-conditions-in-the-clothing-manufacturing-sector/ |access-date=5 April 2023 |website=Pehnava Kart |date=5 April 2023 |language=en-US |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405163734/https://pehnavakart.com/employment-conditions-in-the-clothing-manufacturing-sector/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Although many countries recognize treaties such as the International Labour Organization, which attempt to set standards for worker safety and rights, many countries have made exceptions to certain parts of the treaties or failed to enforce them thoroughly. India, for example, has not ratified sections 87 and 92 of the treaty.

The production of textiles has served as a consistent industry for developing nations, providing work and wages to millions of people, whether or not it is construed as exploitative.<ref>European Parliamentary Research Service. "[https://www.europarl.europa.eu/EPRS/140841REV1-Workers-conditions-in-the-textile-and-clothing-sector-just-an-Asian-affair-FINAL.pdf Workers' Conditions in the Textile and Clothing Sector: Just an Asian Affair?]" ''European Parliament'', Aug. 2014. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212053033/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/EPRS/140841REV1-Workers-conditions-in-the-textile-and-clothing-sector-just-an-Asian-affair-FINAL.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/EPRS/140841REV1-Workers-conditions-in-the-textile-and-clothing-sector-just-an-Asian-affair-FINAL.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |date=12 February 2020 }}</ref>

===Fur=== {{Main|Fur clothing}} The use of animal fur in clothing dates to prehistoric times. Currently, although fur is still used by indigenous people in Arctic regions and at higher elevations for its warmth and protection, in developed countries it is associated with expensive designer clothing.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Handwerk |first1=Brian |date=16 September 2021 |title=Evidence of Fur and Leather Clothing, Among World's Oldest, Found in Moroccan Cave |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/evidence-of-fur-and-leather-clothing-among-worlds-oldest-found-in-moroccan-cave-180978689/ |access-date=16 November 2022 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilcox |first=R. Turner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0xy5DyFZGUoC |title=The Mode in Furs: A Historical Survey with 680 Illustrations |date=1 January 2010 |publisher=Courier Corporation |isbn=978-0-486-47872-2 |language=ja}}</ref> Once uncontroversial, recently it has been the focus of campaigns because campaigners consider it cruel and unnecessary. PETA and other animal and animal liberation groups have called attention to fur farming and other practices they consider cruel.

Real fur in fashion is contentious, with Copenhagen (2022)<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=16 August 2022 |title=Copenhagen Fashion Week Bans Fur After PETA Protest |url=https://vegconomist.com/fashion-design-and-beauty/copenhagen-fashion-week-bans-fur/ |access-date=22 November 2022 |website=vegconomist |language=en-GB}}</ref> and London (2018)<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 September 2018 |title=London Fashion Week to go fur-free for the first time |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/newsbeat-45446028 |access-date=22 November 2022}}</ref> fashion weeks banning real fur in its runway shows following protests and government attention to the issue. Fashion houses such as Gucci and Chanel have banned the use of fur in their garments.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kratofil |first=Colleen |title=Luxury Fashion Brands That Are Anti-Fur |url=https://people.com/style/fur-free-luxury-fashion-brands/ |access-date=22 November 2022 |website=Peoplemag |language=en}}</ref> Versace and Furla also stopped using fur in their collections in early 2018. In 2020, the outdoor brand Canada Goose announced it would discontinue the use of new coyote fur on parka trims following protests.<ref>{{Cite news |date=24 June 2021 |title=Canada Goose to end the use of all fur on coats |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-57592599 |access-date=22 November 2022}}</ref>

Governing bodies have enacted legislation banning the sale of new real-fur garments. In 2021, Israel was the first government to ban the sale of real fur garments, except for those worn as part of a religious practice.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hernandez |first=Joe |date=14 June 2021 |title=Israel Has Become The 1st Country To Ban The Sale Of Most Fur Clothing |language=en |work=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/2021/06/14/1006279660/israel-has-become-the-first-country-to-ban-the-sale-of-fur-clothing |access-date=22 November 2022}}</ref> In 2019, the state of California banned fur trapping, with a total ban on the sale of all new fur garments except those made of sheep, cow, and rabbit fur going into effect on 1 January 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kaur |first=Harmeet |date=13 October 2019 |title=California becomes the first state to ban fur products |url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/10/13/us/california-bans-fur-products-trnd/index.html |access-date=22 November 2022 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref>

==Life cycle==

===Clothing maintenance=== Clothing suffers assault both from within and without. The human body sheds skin cells and oils and excretes sweat, urine, and feces, which may soil clothing. From the outside, sun damage, moisture, abrasion, and dirt assault garments. Fleas and lice can hide in seams. If not cleaned and refurbished, clothing becomes worn. It loses its aesthetics and functionality (as when buttons fall off, seams come undone, fabrics thin or tear, and zippers fail).

Often, people wear an item of clothing until it falls apart. Some materials present problems. Cleaning leather is difficult, and bark cloth (tapa) cannot be washed without dissolving it. Owners may patch tears and rips, and brush off surface dirt, but materials such as these inevitably age.

Most clothing consists of cloth, however, and most cloth can be laundered and mended (patching, darning, but compare felt).

=== Laundry, ironing, storage === {{Redirect|Folding clothes|the J. Cole song|Foldin Clothes}} [[File:Washers in Sheeley's Laundromat, Walden, NY.jpg|thumb|Laundromat in Walden, New York, United States]] Humans have developed many specialized methods for laundering clothing, ranging from early methods of pounding clothes against rocks in running streams, to the latest in electronic washing machines and dry cleaning (dissolving dirt in solvents other than water). Hot water washing (boiling), chemical cleaning, and ironing are all traditional methods of sterilizing fabrics for hygiene purposes.

Many kinds of clothing are designed to be ironed before they are worn to remove wrinkles. Most modern formal and semi-formal clothing is in this category (for example, dress shirts and suits). Ironed clothes are believed to look clean, fresh, and neat. Much contemporary casual clothing is made of knit materials that do not readily wrinkle and do not require ironing. Some clothing is permanent press, having been treated with a coating (such as polytetrafluoroethylene) that suppresses wrinkles and creates a smooth appearance without ironing. Excess lint or debris may end up on the clothing between launderings. In such cases, a lint remover may be useful.

Once clothes have been laundered and possibly ironed, they are usually hung on clothes hangers or folded, to keep them fresh until they are worn. Clothes are folded to allow them to be stored compactly, to prevent creasing, to preserve creases, or to present them more pleasingly, for instance, when they are put on sale in stores.

Certain types of insects and larvae feed on clothing and textiles, such as the black carpet beetle and clothing moths. To deter such pests, clothes may be stored in cedar-lined closets or chests,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bobvila.com/articles/cedar-closets/|title=Cedar Closets 101|date=8 September 2017|website=Bob Vila|language=en|access-date=12 June 2019|archive-date=5 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705082801/https://www.bobvila.com/articles/cedar-closets/|url-status=live}}</ref> or placed in drawers or containers with materials having pest repellent properties, such as lavender or mothballs. Airtight containers (such as sealed, heavy-duty plastic bags) may also deter insect pests from damaging clothing materials.

===Non-iron=== {{main|Permanent press}} A resin used to make non-wrinkle shirts releases formaldehyde, which can cause contact dermatitis in some people; no disclosure requirements exist, and in 2008, the U.S. Government Accountability Office tested clothing for formaldehyde and found that the highest levels generally occurred in non-wrinkle shirts and pants.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Bernard |first1=Tara Siegel |title=When Wrinkle-Free Clothing Also Means Formaldehyde Fumes |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/11/your-money/11wrinkle.html |work=The New York Times |date=11 December 2010 }}</ref> In 1999, a study of the effect of washing on the formaldehyde levels found that after six months of routine washing, 7 of 27 shirts still had levels in excess of 75 ppm (the safe limit for direct skin exposure).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Iwama |first1=Masahiko |last2=Nakashima |first2=Shigehito |last3=Aoyama |first3=Taiki |last4=Ohno |first4=Hiroyuki |last5=Suzuki |first5=Masako |last6=Yamamoto |first6=Katsuhiko |title=Changes of Free Formaldehyde Quantity in Non-iron Shirts by Washing and Storage |journal=Journal of Health Science |date=1999 |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=412–417 |doi=10.1248/jhs.45.412 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Mending=== When the raw material – cloth – was worth more than labor, it made sense to expend labor in saving it. In past times, mending was an art. A meticulous tailor or seamstress could mend rips with thread raveled from hems and seam edges so skillfully that the tear was practically invisible. Today, clothing is considered a consumable item. Mass-manufactured clothing is less expensive than the labor required to repair it. Many people buy a new piece of clothing rather than spend time mending. The thrifty still replace zippers and buttons and sew up ripped hems, however. Other mending techniques include darning and invisible mending or upcycling through visible mending inspired in Japanese Sashiko.

===Recycling=== thumb|Clothing salvage centre at the General Engineering Company (Canada) munitions factory during the Second World War It is estimated that 80-150 billion garments are produced annually.<ref>{{cite news |last=Wicker |first=Alden |date=31 January 2020 |title=Fashion has a misinformation problem |url=https://www.vox.com/the-goods/2020/1/27/21080107/fashion-environment-facts-statistics-impact |work=vox.com |location= |access-date=22 October 2021 |archive-date=22 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211022055652/https://www.vox.com/the-goods/2020/1/27/21080107/fashion-environment-facts-statistics-impact |url-status=live }}</ref> Used, unwearable clothing can be repurposed for quilts, rags, rugs, bandages, and many other household uses. Neutral colored or undyed cellulose fibers can be recycled into paper. In Western societies, used clothing is often thrown out or donated to charity (such as through a clothing bin). It is also sold to consignment shops, dress agencies, flea markets, and in online auctions. Also, used clothing is often collected on an industrial scale for sorting and shipment to poorer countries for reuse. Globally, used clothing is worth $4 billion, with the U.S. the leading exporter at $575 million.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Minter |first1=Adam |title=No One Wants Your Used Clothes Anymore |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2018-01-15/no-one-wants-your-used-clothes-anymore |access-date=17 January 2018 |work=Bloomberg View |date=15 January 2018 |archive-date=16 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180116172151/https://www.bloomberg.com/view/articles/2018-01-15/no-one-wants-your-used-clothes-anymore |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Banigan |first1=Melissa |title=East Africa Doesn't Want Your Hand-Me-Downs |url=https://www.racked.com/2018/1/25/16923226/east-africa-used-clothing-ban |access-date=26 January 2018 |work=Racked |publisher=Vox Media |date=25 January 2018 |archive-date=27 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180127143144/https://www.racked.com/2018/1/25/16923226/east-africa-used-clothing-ban |url-status=live }}</ref>

Synthetics, which come primarily from petrochemicals, are not renewable or biodegradable.<ref>[http://sweatshirtstation.com/articles/the-textile-materials-eco-battle-between-natural-and-synthetic-fabrics/ The Textile Materials Eco Battle Between Natural and Synthetic Fabrics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402130021/http://sweatshirtstation.com/articles/the-textile-materials-eco-battle-between-natural-and-synthetic-fabrics/ |date=2 April 2015 }} "Steven E. Davis, Sweatshirt Station".</ref>

Excess clothing inventory is sometimes destroyed to preserve brand value.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lieber |first1=Chavie |title=Why fashion brands destroy billions' worth of their own merchandise every year |url=https://www.vox.com/the-goods/2018/9/17/17852294/fashion-brands-burning-merchandise-burberry-nike-h-and-m |access-date=17 September 2018 |work=Vox |date=17 September 2018 |archive-date=17 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917165052/https://www.vox.com/the-goods/2018/9/17/17852294/fashion-brands-burning-merchandise-burberry-nike-h-and-m |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Global trade==

EU member states imported €166 billion of clothes in 2018; 51% came from outside the EU (€84 billion).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Where do our clothes come from? |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/-/edn-20190422-1 |access-date=11 January 2024 |website=ec.europa.eu |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sabry |first=Fouad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PdmTEAAAQBAJ&dq=EU+member+states+imported+%E2%82%AC166+billion+of+clothes+in+2018;+51%25+came+from+outside+the+EU+(%E2%82%AC84+billion).&pg=PT81 |title=E-Textiles: Monitor personal health and detect early warning disease signs |date=31 August 2022 |publisher=One Billion Knowledgeable |language=en}}</ref> EU member states exported €116 billion of clothes in 2018, including 77% to other EU member states.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Where do our clothes come from? |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/-/EDN-20190422-1 |access-date=11 January 2024 |website=ec.europa.eu |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A closer look at clothes and footwear in the EU |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/-/edn-20180227-1 |access-date=11 January 2024 |website=ec.europa.eu |language=en-GB}}</ref>

According to the World Trade Organization (WTO) report, the value of global clothing exports in 2022 reached US$790.1 billion, up 10.6% from 2021. China is the world's largest clothing exporter, with exports valued at US$178.4 billion, accounting for 22.6% of the global market share. Next are Bangladesh (US$40.8 billion), Vietnam (US$39.8 billion), India (US$36.1 billion), and Turkey (US$29.7 billion).

In Vietnam, clothing exports continue to be one of the leading export sectors, contributing significantly to the export turnover and economic growth of the country.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ngành dệt may chuyển đổi để thích ứng |url=https://portal.mof.gov.vn/webcenter/portal/vclvcstc/pages_r/l/chi-tiet-tin?dDocName=MOFUCM260612 |access-date=11 January 2024 |website=portal.mof.gov.vn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=baochinhphu.vn |date=18 November 2022 |title=Sản phẩm dệt may Việt Nam đã xuất khẩu sang 66 quốc gia |url=https://baochinhphu.vn/san-pham-det-may-viet-nam-da-xuat-khau-sang-66-quoc-gia-102221118170635516.htm |access-date=11 January 2024 |website=baochinhphu.vn |language=vi}}</ref> According to the General Department of Customs of Vietnam, the value of Vietnam's clothing exports in 2022 reached US$39.8 billion, up 14.2% from 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 January 2022 |title=Bước tiến dài sau 15 năm gia nhập WTO |url=https://www.tinnhanhchungkhoan.vn/post-288809.html |access-date=11 January 2024 |website=Tin nhanh chứng khoán |language=vi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=11 January 2023 |title=Báo cáo Xuất nhập khẩu Việt Nam 2018 |url=https://trungtamwto.vn/file/18440/Bao%20cao%20Xuat%20nhap%20khau%20Viet%20Nam%202018.pdf |access-date=11 January 2023}}</ref> Of which, clothing exports to the United States reached US$18.8 billion,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mỹ tăng nhập khẩu quần áo và dày dép từ Việt Nam |url=https://taichinhdoanhnghiep.net.vn/my-tang-nhap-khau-quan-ao-va-day-dep-tu-viet-nam-d29900.html |access-date=11 January 2024 |website=taichinhdoanhnghiep.net.vn |language=vi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Công nghiệp hỗ trợ |url=https://vsi.gov.vn/vn/tin-cong-nghiep-ho-tro/xuat-khau-hang-det-may-cua-viet-nam-sang-thi-truong-bac-my-tang-manh-c1id2102.html |access-date=11 January 2024 |website=vsi.gov.vn |archive-date=11 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240111121153/https://vsi.gov.vn/vn/tin-cong-nghiep-ho-tro/xuat-khau-hang-det-may-cua-viet-nam-sang-thi-truong-bac-my-tang-manh-c1id2102.html }}</ref> accounting for 47.3% of the market share; exports to the EU reached US$9.8 billion, accounting for 24.6% of the market share.<ref>{{Cite web |last=VCCorp.vn |date=7 November 2023 |title=Kinh tế Việt Nam đang phục hồi mạnh mẽ, đây là loạt chỉ số chứng minh cho điều đó |url=https://cafef.vn/kinh-te-viet-nam-dang-phuc-hoi-manh-me-day-la-loat-chi-so-chung-minh-cho-dieu-do-188231107202529659.chn |access-date=11 January 2024 |website=cafef |language=vi}}</ref>

==See also== {{Portal|Clothing|Fashion}} {{div col|colwidth=22em}} * Children's clothing * Clothing fetish * Clothing laws by country * Cotton recycling * Global trade of secondhand clothing * Higg Index * List of individual dresses * Organic cotton * Reconstructed clothing * Right to clothing * Sustainable fashion * Textile recycling * Vintage clothing * Zero-waste fashion {{div col end}}

==References== {{Reflist}}

==Further reading== {{refbegin|30em}} * {{citation |year=2008 |author=Finnane, Antonia |title=Changing Clothes in China: Fashion, History, Nation |place=New York |publisher=Columbia University Press | isbn = 978-0-231-14350-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ju3N4VeiQ28C |access-date=8 September 2010}} ebook {{ISBN|978-0-231-51273-2}} * {{citation |year=2007 |author=Forsberg, Krister |author2=Mansdorf, S.Z |title=Quick Selection Guide to Chemical Protective Clothing |edition=5th |place=Hoboken, New Jersey |publisher=John Wiley & Sons | isbn = 978-0-470-14681-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UkA2MK9vXEIC |access-date=8 September 2010}} * {{citation |doi=10.2165/00007256-200333130-00001 |year=2003 |author=Gavin, Timothy P |title=Clothing and Thermoregulation During Exercise |journal=Sports Medicine |volume=33 |issue=13 |pages=941–947 |url=http://adisonline.com/sportsmedicine/Abstract/2003/33130/Clothing_and_Thermoregulation_During_Exercise.1.aspx |access-date=8 September 2010 |pmid=14606923 |s2cid=37755781 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707083519/http://adisonline.com/sportsmedicine/Abstract/2003/33130/Clothing_and_Thermoregulation_During_Exercise.1.aspx |archive-date=7 July 2011 |url-access=subscription }} * {{citation |year=1993 |author=Hollander, Anne L |title=Seeing Through Clothes |place=Berkeley|publisher=University of California Press | isbn = 0-520-08231-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CSItqzbG9nIC |access-date=8 September 2010}} * {{cite journal |last1=Montain |first1=S. J. |last2=Sawka |first2=M. N. |last3=Cadarette |first3=B. S. |last4=Quigley |first4=M. D. |last5=McKay |first5=J. M. |title=Physiological tolerance to uncompensable heat stress: effects of exercise intensity, protective clothing, and climate |journal=Journal of Applied Physiology |date=July 1994 |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=216–222 |doi=10.1152/jappl.1994.77.1.216 |pmid=7961236 }} * {{citation |year=2008 |author=Ross, Robert |title=Clothing, a Global History: or, The Imperialist's New Clothes |place=Cambridge, UK |publisher=Polity Press | isbn = 978-0-7456-3186-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e7LZe4b18ScC |access-date=8 September 2010}} Paperback {{ISBN|978-0-7456-3187-5}} * {{cite book |doi=10.1016/S1572-347X(05)80050-3 |chapter=The four 'Fs' of clothing comfort |title=Environmental Ergonomics - the Ergonomics of Human Comfort, Health and Performance in the Thermal Environment |series=Elsevier Ergonomics Book Series |date=2005 |last1=Goldman |first1=Ralph F. |volume=3 |pages=315–319 |isbn=978-0-08-044466-6 }} * {{cite book |last1=Yarborough |first1=Portia Dalecene |last2=Nelson |first2=Cherilyn N. |title=Performance of Protective Clothing: Global Needs and Emerging Markets: 8th Symposium |date=2005 |publisher=ASTM International |isbn=978-0-8031-3488-1 }} {{refend}}

==External links== {{Sister project links|clothing}}  * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080216110508/http://www.itaaonline.org/template.asp?intPageId=1 Official website] of the Textile and Apparel Association – scholarly publications (archived 16 February 2008)

Category:Clothing Category:Articles containing video clips