{{Short description|Northern Jê language of Brazil}} {{Use mdy dates|date=September 2020}} {{Infobox language | name = Tapayúna | nativename = {{lang|mis|Kajkwakhrattxi kawẽrẽ}} | pronunciation = {{IPA|[kajkʰwakʰʀ̥atˈtʃi kaˈw̃ẽɾẽ]}} | states = Brazil | region = Mato Grosso | ethnicity = Tapayúna (Kajkwakhrattxi) | speakers = <30 | date = 2021 | ref = <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Huff |first=Teela |last2=Lapierre |first2=Myriam |date=2021-03-20 |title=The typologically rare approximant inventory of Kajkwakhrattxi: A series of natural sound changes |url=https://journals.linguisticsociety.org/proceedings/index.php/PLSA/article/view/5024 |journal=Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=855 |doi=10.3765/plsa.v6i1.5024 |issn=2473-8689|doi-access=free }}</ref> | familycolor = macro-je | fontcolor = white | fam1 = Macro-Jê | fam2 = Jê | fam3 = Cerrado | fam4 = Northern Jê | fam5 = Trans-Tocantins | fam6 = Trans-Araguaia | fam7 = Tapajós (Suyá)–Tapayuna | map = Mapa aldeias Tapayuna.png | mapcaption = Villages where Tapayuna is spoken. | iso3 = none | glotto = beic1238 | glottorefname = Beiço de Pau | altname = Kajkwakhrattxi }}
'''Tapayúna''' ('''Kajkwakhrattxi''' or '''Kajkwakhratxi''',<ref name="Camargo-thesis">{{cite thesis|last=Camargo|first=Nayara da Silva |date=2015 |url=http://etnolinguistica.wdfiles.com/local--files/tese%3Acamargo-2015/Camargo_2015_Tapayuna.pdf |title=Tapayuna (Jê): aspectos morfossintáticos, históricos e sociolinguísticos |type=PhD dissertation |location=Campinas |publisher=Universidade Estadual de Campinas}}</ref> 'big trunk of the sky'<ref>{{Cite web |title=Kajkwakhrattxi (Tapayuna): linguistic documentation of numeral systems and other aspects of grammar {{!}} Endangered Languages Archive |url=https://www.elararchive.org/dk0728/ |access-date=2025-06-01 |website=www.elararchive.org}}</ref> also spelt ''Tapajúna'', Tapayúna: ''Kajkwakhrattxi kawẽrẽ'' {{IPA|[kajkʰwakʰʀ̥atˈtʃi kaˈw̃ẽɾẽ]}}) is a Northern Jê language (Jê, Macro-Jê) spoken in Mato Grosso, Brazil by the Tapayúna (Kajkwakhrattxi) people.
The Tapayuna historically lived on the Arinos River, in the Tapajós basin, between Juruena and Aripuanã.<ref name="Camargo-thesis"/>{{rp|34–5}} They were decimated in mid-20th century as a result of numerous conflicts with Brazilian settlers, rubber tappers, and ranchers; it is estimated that their population declined 90% until reaching 41 individuals in 1969,<ref name="Camargo-thesis"/>{{rp|36–40}}<ref name="ISA">{{cite web |url=https://pib.socioambiental.org/pt/Povo:Tapayuna |title=Tapayuna |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=July 26, 2018 |website=Povos indígenas no Brasil |publisher=Instituto Socioambiental |access-date=August 2, 2020}}</ref><ref name="Nikulin-Macro-Je">{{cite thesis|last=Nikulin |first=Andrey |date=2020 |url=http://etnolinguistica.wdfiles.com/local--files/tese%3Anikulin-2020/Nikulin_2020_Proto-Macro-Je.pdf |title=Proto-Macro-Jê: um estudo reconstrutivo |type=PhD dissertation |location=Brasília |publisher=Universidade de Brasília}}</ref>{{rp|9}} which has been characterized as an ethnocide.<ref name="Camargo-thesis"/>{{rp|37–38}} The surviving Tapayúna were then transferred to Xingu Indigenous Park at some point between 1969 and 1970, resulting in 10 more deaths.<ref name="ISA"/> At first, they stayed with the Kĩsêdjê, speakers of a closely related language.<ref name="Camargo-thesis"/>{{rp|41–2}} Later, many Tapayúna moved to Terra Indígena Capoto-Jarina, where they went on to live with the Mẽtyktire subgroup of the Kayapó people, speakers of another Northern Jê language, Mẽbêngôkre.<ref name="Camargo-thesis"/>{{rp|42–3}} It is assumed that the Tapayúna language has been influenced both by Kĩsêdjê and Mẽbêngôkre.<ref name="Camargo-thesis"/>{{rp|51–5}} In 2010, 97 speakers have been reported in the Kawêrêtxikô village (Capoto-Jarina). In contrast, only a few elders speak the language in the Ngôsôkô village (Wawi), where the Kĩsêdjê are the ethnic majority. The number of speakers in the Ngôjhwêrê village (Wawi) is unknown.<ref name="ISA"/>
Tapayúna is closely related to Kĩsêdjê;<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rodrigues |first1=Cíntia Karla Coelho |date=2011 |title=Comparando as consoantes das línguas Tapajúna e Suyá |journal=Alfa: Revista de Linguística |volume=55 |issue=2 |doi=10.1590/S1981-57942011000200011 |pages=601–11|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Santos-thesis">{{cite thesis |type=PhD dissertation |last=Santos |first=Ludoviko Carnasciali dos |date=1997 |title=Descrição de aspectos morfossintáticos da língua Suyá (Kĩsêdjê), família Jê |url=https://repositorio.ufsc.br/xmlui/bitstream/handle/123456789/77195/144769.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |location=Florianópolis |publisher=Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina}}</ref> together, they form the Tapajós branch of Northern Jê.<ref name="Nikulin-Macro-Je"/>{{rp|7}} The common past on the Tapajós River, shared by the Tapayúna and the Kĩsêdjê, is still part of their oral history.<ref name="Nikulin-Macro-Je"/>{{rp|9}} Phonological differences between the languages include the reflexes of Proto-Northern Jê ''*m/*mb'', ''*mr/*mbr'', ''*c'' (in onsets), ''*ñ'' (in codas), and ''*b'' (in stressed syllables). In Tapayúna, these consonants are reflected as ''w'' ([w̃]), ''nr'' ([ɾ̃]), ''t'' ([t̪]), ''j'' ([j]), and ''w'' ([w]), respectively, whereas Kĩsêdjê has ''m/mb'', ''mr/mbr'', ''s'', ''n'', and ''p'' in the same words.<ref name="Nikulin-Macro-Je"/>{{rp|85, 91}}
==Phonology== Tapayúna innovated with respect to Proto-Tapajós via the following sound changes: *merger of ''*t̪ʰ'' and ''*t̪'' as ''t'' /t̪ʰ/;<ref name="Nikulin-Salanova-2019">{{cite journal |last1=Nikulin |first1=Andrey |last2=Salanova |first2=Andrés Pablo |title=Northern Jê Verb Morphology and the Reconstruction of Finiteness Alternations |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |date=October 2019 |volume=85 |issue=4 |pages=533–567 |doi=10.1086/704565}}</ref>{{rp|560}} *''*p'' > ''w'' /w/;<ref name="Nikulin-Salanova-2019"/>{{rp|560}} *''*m(b)'', ''*m(b)r'' > ''w'' /w̃/, ''nr'' /ɾ̃/;<ref name="Nikulin-Macro-Je"/>{{rp|85}} *''*kʰj'', ''*mbj'' > ''x'' /tʃ/, ''j'' /j/;<ref name="Nikulin-Macro-Je"/>{{rp|85}} *''*-m'', ''*-n'', ''-ñ'' > /-p/, /-t/, /-j/.<ref name="Nikulin-Macro-Je"/>{{rp|91}}
=== Consonants === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! rowspan="2" | ! rowspan="2" |Labial ! colspan="2" |Alveolar ! rowspan="2" |Retroflex ! rowspan="2" |Palatal ! colspan="2" |Velar ! colspan="2" |Glottal |- !<small>plain</small> !<small>labial</small> !<small>plain</small> !<small>labial</small> !<small>plain</small> !<small>labial</small> |- !Nasal |{{IPAlink|m}} |{{IPAlink|n}} | | |{{IPAlink|ɲ}} |{{IPAlink|ŋ}} | | | |- !Plosive | |{{IPAlink|t}} |{{IPAlink|tʷ}} |{{IPAlink|ʈ}} |{{IPAlink|tʃ}} |{{IPAlink|k}} |{{IPAlink|kʷ}} | | |- !Fricative | | | | | | | |{{IPAlink|h}} |{{IPAlink|hʷ}} |- !Rhotic | |{{IPAlink|ɾ}} | | | | | | | |- !Sonorant |{{IPAlink|w}} |({{IPAlink|l}}) | | |{{IPAlink|j}} | | | | |}
* /k/ and /t/ are realized as [kʰ] and [tʰ] respectively when before /h/ or in stressed syllable-medial position before back vowels. * /k/ is also voiced to [ɡ] when in unstressed syllable-medial position between vowels. * Nasals /m, n, ŋ/ become prenasalized stops [ᵐb, ⁿd, ᵑɡ] when in syllable-onset position. * /ɾ/ can have an allophone [ɽ] when following /ŋ/, [ʀ] when in a branched syllable-onset after a voiced sound, [ʀ̥] when in a branched syllable-onset after /k/, and as [l] when in an initial and medial syllable onset. * /j/ is realized as an affricate [dʒ] when in an initial and medial syllable-onset, with a prenasalized [ᶮdʒ] in free variation. * /w, ɾ, j/ are nasalized [w̃, ɾ̃, j̃] when in nasal positions.{{Clarify|date=March 2026|reason=what is a "nasal position"?}} ===Vowels=== The vowel inventory of Tapayuna is shown below (the orthographic representation is given in italics; the characters in slashes stand for the IPA values of each vowel).<ref name="Camargo-thesis"/>{{rp|64}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! rowspan="2" | ! colspan="3" |Oral ! colspan="3" |Nasal |- !Front !Central !Back !Front !Central !Back |- !Close |''i'' {{IPAslink|i}} |''y'' {{IPAslink|ɨ}} |''u'' {{IPAslink|u}} |''ĩ'' {{IPAslink|ĩ}} |''ỹ'' {{IPAslink|ɨ̃}} |''ũ'' {{IPAslink|ũ}} |- !Close-mid |''ê'' {{IPAslink|e}} |''â'' {{IPAslink|ə}} |''ô'' {{IPAslink|o}} |''ẽ'' {{IPAslink|ẽ}} | |''õ'' {{IPAslink|õ}} |- !Open-mid |''e'' {{IPAslink|ɛ}} |''à'' {{IPAslink|ʌ}} |''o'' {{IPAslink|ɔ}} | |''ã'' {{IPAslink|ɐ̃}} | |- !Open | |''a'' {{IPAslink|a}} | | | | |}
====Echo vowels==== In Tapayúna, an echo vowel is inserted in words whose underlying form ends in a consonant.<ref name="Camargo-diss">{{cite thesis|last=Camargo|first=Nayara da Silva |date=2010 |url=http://etnolinguistica.wdfiles.com/local--files/tese%3Acamargo-2010/camargo_2010_tapayuna.pdf |title=Língua Tapayúna: aspectos sociolingüísticos e uma análise fonológica preliminar |type=MA thesis |location=Campinas |publisher=Universidade Estadual de Campinas}}</ref>{{rp|100}} The epenthesized vowels are unstressed, as in ''rowo'' [ˈɾɔwɔ] ‘jaguar’, ''tàgà'' [ˈtʌgʌ] ‘bird’, ''khôgô'' [ˈkʰogo] ‘wind’. ==Morphology== ===Inflectional morphology=== ====Finiteness==== As in all other Northern Jê languages, verbs inflect for finiteness and thus have a basic opposition between a ''finite'' form (also ''Short Form'' and ''main form''<ref name="Camargo-thesis"/>{{rp|123}}) and a ''nonfinite form'' (also ''Long Form''<ref name="Camargo-thesis"/>{{rp|123}}). Finite forms are used in matrix clauses only, whereas nonfinite forms are used in all types of subordinate clauses as well as in some matrix clauses (including negated, future, and progressive clauses<ref name="Camargo-thesis"/>{{rp|123}}). Nonfinite forms are most often formed via suffixation and/or prefix substitution. Some verbs (including all descriptives with the exception of ''katho'' ‘to leave’, whose nonfinite form is ''katho'''ro''''') lack an overt finiteness distinction.
The available nonfinite suffixes are ''/-ɾ/'' (the most common option, found in many transitive and intransitive verbs), ''/-j/'' (found in transitive verbs and in some intransitives whose stem ends in the vowel ''/a/''), as well as ''/-k/'' and ''/-p/'' (found in a handful of intransitive verbs which take a nominative subject when finite), as shown in the table below.<ref name="Camargo-thesis"/><ref name="Nikulin-Macro-Je"/>{{rp|Appendix D}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Nonfinite suffixes in Tapayúna |- ! finite !! nonfinite !! gloss |- | colspan="3" | suffix ''/-ɾ/'' (''/-j/'' after ''/a/'') |- | ''wõ'' || ''wõ'''rõ''''' || to go ''(plural)'' |- | ''wĩ'' || ''wĩ'''rĩ''''' || to kill ''(singular)'' |- | ''rê'' || ''rê'''rê''''' || to swim |- | ''wy'' || ''wy'''ry''''' || to take ''(singular)'' |- | ''twâ'' || ''twâ'''râ''''' || to bathe |- | ''nghre'' || ''nge'''re''''' || to dance |- | ''khrẽ'' || ''khẽ'''rẽ''''' || to eat ''(singular)'' |- | ''khu'' || ''khu'''ru''''' || to eat ''(plural)'' |- | ''ikhwâ'' || ''khwâ'''râ''''' || to defecate |- | ''ithu'' || ''thu'''ru''''' || to urinate |- | ''awi'' || ''tàwi'''ri''''' || to go up |- | colspan="3" | suffix ''/-j/'' |- | ''wê'' || ''wê'''j''''' || to scratch |- | ''wa'' || ''wa'''j''''' || to hear, to understand |- | ''kawa'' || ''kawa'''j''''' || to extract ''(singular)'' |- | ''nta'' || ''nta'''j''''' || to bite |- | ''wu'' || ''wu'''j''''' || to see |- | ''jarẽ'' || ''jarẽ'''j''''' || to say |- | ''wẽ'' || ''wẽ'''j''''' || to throw ''(singular)'' |- | ''kahõ'' || ''kahõ'''j''''' || to wash |- | ''kuhwê'' || ''kuhwê'''j''''' || to sweep |- | ''ru'' || ''ru'''j''''' || to spill |- | colspan="3" | suffix ''/-p/'' |- | ''thẽ'' || ''thẽ'''w''''' || to go ''(singular)'' |- | ''ikhõ'' || ''khõ'''w''''' || to drink |- | ''ta'' || ''tã'''w''''' || to be, to stand ''(singular)'' |- | colspan="3" | suffix ''/-k/'' |- | ''thy'' || ''thy'''k''''' || to die |}
In Proto-Northern Jê, several verbs derived their finite forms by means of leniting the stem-final consonant (''*-t'', ''*-c'', ''*-k'' → ''*-r'', ''*-j'', ''*-r'').<ref name="Nikulin-Salanova-2019"/>{{rp|544}} In Tapayúna, at least two verbs retain this pattern, though the relation between the finite and nonfinite forms has been obfuscated by a series of regular sound changes, including ''*-ôj'' > ''-wâj'' (''-âj'' after a labial), ''*-c'' > ''-t''.<ref name="Camargo-thesis"/>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Nonfinite suffixes in Tapayúna |- ! finite !! nonfinite !! gloss !! Proto-Northern Jê finite !! Proto-Northern Jê nonfinite |- | ''ngõrõ'' || ''nhõn'' || to sleep || ''*ŋõr'' || ''*ñõt'' |- | ''wâj'' || ''wôt'' || to arrive || ''*bôj'' || ''*bôc'' |}
====The erstwhile palatalizing prefix==== In Proto-Northern Jê, a small set of verbs formed their nonfinite forms by employing one of the aforementioned processes '''and''' a morphophonological process whereby the onset of the stressed syllable became palatal, and the nucleus of the stressed syllable was raised (if possible); this has been attributed to the influence of an underlying palatalizing nonfinite prefix. In Tapayúna, at least two verbs still follow the archaic pattern.<ref name="Nikulin-Salanova-2019"/>
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! finite !! nonfinite !! gloss |- | ''ka'' || '''''tà'''rà'' || to roast |- | '''''ngõ'''rõ'' || '''''nhõ'''n'' || to sleep |}
====Prefix substitution or loss==== In addition to the aforementioned processes, the finiteness inflection may involve prefix substitution or loss. For example, the valency-reducing prefixes are ''a(j)-'' (anticausative) and ''a-'' (antipassive) in finite verb forms, but ''wi-'' and ''tá-/tu-'', respectively, in the nonfinite forms.<ref name="Nikulin-Salanova-2019"/>{{rp|541, 544}} In addition, some verbs which denote physiological activities or movement have a prefix (''i-'' and ''a-'', respectively) in their finite forms but not in the nonfinite form. Some examples are given below.<ref name="Nikulin-Macro-Je"/>{{rp|Appendix D}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! finite !! nonfinite !! gloss |- | colspan="3" | anticausatives |- | '''''aj'''khẽ'' || '''''wi'''khẽj'' || to have fun |- | colspan="3" | antipassives |- | '''''a'''wi'' || '''''tà'''wiri'' || to go up |- | colspan="3" | physiological verbs |- | '''''i'''khõ'' || ''khõw'' || to drink |- | '''''i'''khwâ'' || ''khwârâ'' || to defecate |- | '''''i'''thu'' || ''thur'' || to urinate |- | colspan="3" | movement verbs |- | '''''a'''tá'' || ''tárá'' || to enter ''(singular)'' |}
====Nominal number==== Nouns which denote human beings may receive the plural suffix ''-jê'',<ref name="Camargo-thesis"/>{{rp|70, 87}} as in ''wẽwyjê'' ‘men’ (← ''wẽwy'') ‘man’.
===Derivational morphology=== ====Productive affixes==== Tapayúna makes use of the diminutive suffixes ''-tĩ'' and ''-re'', as well as of the augmentative suffix ''-txi''.<ref name="Camargo-thesis"/>{{rp|69,79–81}} Examples include: ''tara'''tĩ''''' ‘its small wing’ or ''tara'''tĩre''''' ‘its tiny wing’ (← ''tara'' ‘its wing’, an inflected form of ''jara'' ‘wing’), ''hry'''tĩ''''' ‘small, narrow path’ or ''hry'''tĩre''''' ‘a very narrow path’ (← ''hry'' ‘path’), ''thêtxi'' ‘tick’ (← ''thê''), ''wĩtxi'' ‘alligator’ (← ''wĩ'').
Nominalizations which denote instruments and places are formed by means of attaching the suffix ''-tà'' to the nonfinite form of a verb: ''kahõ'' ‘to sweep’ → ''kahõ'''j''''' ‘to sweep ''(nonfinite)''’ → ''kahõj'''tà''''' ‘broom’; ''wẽ'' ‘people’ + ''khrĩ'' ‘to sit ''(plural, finite = nonfinite)''’ → ''wẽkhrĩ'''tà''''' ‘seat’.<ref name="Camargo-thesis"/>{{rp|81}}
Agent nominalizations are formed by means of attaching the suffix ''-kanê'' to the nonfinite form of a verb: ''hwitô'' ‘leaf; paper’ + ''tôk'' ‘to paint; to write’ → ''hwĩtôtôk'''kanê''''' ‘teacher’.<ref name="Camargo-thesis"/>{{rp|82}}
==Lexicon== ===Predicate number=== Tapayúna commonly employs different lexemes for the so called singular and plural predicates (see Northern Jê languages#Verbal number for more information about the semantic counterparts of this distinction in the Northern Jê languages).<ref name="Camargo-thesis"/>{{rp|127–31}}
{| class="wikitable" |+ Verbal number in Tapayúna |- ! singular !! plural !! gloss |- | ''kura'' || ''thithik'' || to hit |- | ''wĩ'' || ''hwa'' || to kill |- | ''tẽ'' || ''wõ'' || to go |}
==References== {{Reflist}}
==External links== * Lapierre, Myriam. 2018. ''[https://cla.berkeley.edu/list.php?collid=11196 Kajkwakhrattxi Field Materials]''. Survey of California and Other Indian Languages. {{doi|10.7297/X2RF5SH0}}
{{Languages of Brazil}} {{Macro-Jê languages}}
Category:Jê languages Category:Languages of Brazil