Cerrado languages

{{Infobox language family | name = Cerrado | region = Mato Grosso, Tocantins, Pará, Maranhão, formerly Piauí, Bahia, Minas Gerais, Goiás, Mato Grosso do Sul, São Paulo | familycolor = macro-je | fontcolor = white | fam1 = Macro-Jê | fam2 = Jê | child1 = Jê of Goyaz | child2 = Akuwẽ (Central Jê) | glotto = none | protoname = Proto-Cerrado }}

The '''Cerrado languages''' (also referred to as '''Amazonian Jê'''<ref name="Ribeiro-Voort">{{cite journal |last1=Ribeiro |first1=Eduardo Rivail |last2=Voort |first2=Hein van der |date=2010 |title=Nimuendajú was right: the inclusion of the Jabutí language family in the Macro-Jê stock |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=76 |issue=4 |pages=517–70 |doi=10.1086/658056 |url=http://etnolinguistica.wdfiles.com/local--files/artigo%3Aribeiro-voort-2010/ribeiro_voort_2010.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|549}}) are a branch of the Jê languages constituted by the Goyaz Jê languages and Akuwẽ (Central Jê).<ref name="Nikulin-Macro-Je">{{cite thesis|last=Nikulin |first=Andrey |date=2020 |url=http://etnolinguistica.wdfiles.com/local--files/tese%3Anikulin-2020/Nikulin_2020_Proto-Macro-Je.pdf |title=Proto-Macro-Jê: um estudo reconstrutivo |type=Ph.D. dissertation |location=Brasília |publisher=Universidade de Brasília}}</ref>{{rp|14–5}}

==Sound changes from Proto-Jê to Proto-Cerrado== The occurrence of the consonant */g/ in Proto-Cerrado (as in ''*/g/õt'' ‘to sleep’, ''*/g/õ'' ‘to give’, ''*/g/aj’'' ‘you’) is believed to be an innovation; it has been claimed to have been inserted in onsetless-stressed syllables.<ref name="Nikulin-Macro-Je" />{{rp|85}}

The Proto-Cerrado diphthongs ''*wa'' and ''*ja'' are believed to continue Proto-Jê monophthongs, which have been reconstructed as ''*ô'' and ''*ê₂''. Other vowels which have been claimed to have innovated in Proto-Cerrado are:<ref name="Nikulin-Macro-Je" />{{rp|88}} *''*ô'' (goes back to an unrounded vowel, reconstructed as Proto-Jê ''*ə̂₁''); *''*u'' (a merger of earlier ''*u₁'' and ''*u₂'', distinguished in the Southern Jê languages as ''o'' and ''u'', respectively); *''*ũ'' (a merger of earlier ''*ũ₁'' and ''*ũ₂'', distinguished as ''ũ'' and ''ỹ'' in Kaingang and as ''ũ'' and ''õ'' in Laklãnõ); *''*ə̃'' (a merger of earlier ''*ə̃'' and ''*ỹ'', distinguished as ''ỹ'' and ''ĩ'' in Kaingang and as ''õ'' and ''ẽ'' in Laklãnõ); *all vowels in the Proto-Jê unstressed syllables of the shape ''*pV-'' were neutralized in the Cerrado languages: Proto-Cerrado ''*pᵊ-'' (> Proto-Goyaz Jê ''*py-/*pu-'', Proto-Akuwẽ ''*pi-'').

==Sound changes from Proto-Cerrado to the daughter languages== ===Onsets=== The simple onset inventory of Proto-Cerrado is */p m w t n ɾ c ɲ j k ŋ g/, and the only complex onsets are */pɾ mɾ kɾ ŋɾ/.<ref name="Nikulin-2017"/>{{rp|158–63}}

Their reflexes in the daughter branches are shown below.<ref name="Nikulin-Macro-Je" />

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! colspan="2" | Proto-Cerrado ! colspan="2" | Proto-Goyaz Jê ! colspan="4" | Proto-Akuwẽ |- ! oral nucleus ! nasal nucleus ! oral nucleus ! nasal nucleus ! oral nucleus (Proto-Cerrado non-high vowel) ! oral nucleus (Proto-Cerrado high vowel) ! before a diphthong ! nasal nucleus |- | colspan="2" | '''*p''' */p/ | colspan="2" | '''*p''' */p/ | rowspan="2" | '''*p''' */p/ | rowspan="2" | '''*b''' */b/ | rowspan="4" | N/A | rowspan="2" | '''*m''' */b/ |- | '''*mb''' */m/ | '''*m''' */m/ | '''*mb''' */m/ | '''*m''' */m/ |- | colspan="2" | '''*pr''' */pɾ/ | colspan="2" | '''*pr''' */pɾ/ | rowspan="2" | '''*pr''' */pɾ/ | rowspan="2" | N/A | '''*mr''' */bɾ/ |- | '''*mbr''' */mɾ/ | '''*mr''' */mɾ/ | '''*mbr''' */mɾ/ | '''*mr''' */mɾ/ | N/A |- | colspan="2" | '''*w''' */w/ | colspan="2" | '''*b''' */b/ | colspan="4" | '''*w''' */w/ |- | colspan="2" | '''*t''' */t/ | colspan="2" | '''*t''' */t/ | rowspan="2" | '''*t''' */t/ | '''*d''' */d/ | '''*∅''' | rowspan="2" | '''*n''' */d/ |- | '''*nd''' */n/ | '''*n''' */n/ | '''*nd''' */n/ | '''*n''' */n/ | colspan="2" | N/A |- | colspan="2" | '''*r''' */ɾ/ | colspan="2" | '''*r''' */ɾ/ | colspan="2" | '''*r''' */ɾ/ | '''*∅''' | '''*r''' */ɾ/ |- | colspan="2" | '''*c''' */c/ | colspan="2" | '''*c''' */c/ | rowspan="2" | '''*c''' */c/ | '''*ĵ''' */ɟ/, '''*h''' */h/ (before ''*i'') | '''*∅''' | '''*c''' */c/ |- | '''*nĵ''' */ɲ/ | N/A | '''*nĵ''' */ɲ/ | N/A | colspan="3" | N/A |- | '''*j''' */j/ | '''*ñ''' */j/ | '''*ĵ''' (stressed)/'''*j''' (unstressed) */ĵ/ | '''*ñ''' */ĵ/ | colspan="2" | '''*ĵ''' */ĵ/, '''*c''' */c/ (before ''*i'') | '''*k''' */k/ | '''*ñ''' */ĵ/ |- | colspan="2" | '''*k''' */k/ | colspan="2" | '''*k''' */k/ | rowspan="2" | '''*k''' */k/ (unstressed ''*ka-'' > '''*wa-''') | rowspan="4" | '''*h''' */h/ | rowspan="4" | '''*∅''' | '''*k''' */k/ |- | '''*ŋg''' */ŋ/ | '''*ŋ''' */ŋ/ | '''*ŋg''' */ŋ/ | '''*ŋ''' */ŋ/ | N/A |- | colspan="2" | '''*kr''' */kɾ/ | colspan="2" | '''*kr''' */kɾ/ | rowspan="2" | '''*kr''' */kɾ/ | '''*kr''' */kɾ/ |- | '''*ŋgr''' */ŋɾ/ | '''*ŋr''' */ŋɾ/ | '''*ŋgr''' */ŋɾ/ | '''*ŋr''' */ŋɾ/ | N/A |- | colspan="2" | '''*g''' */g/ | '''*g''' */g/ | '''*ŋ''' */g/ | '''*g''' */g/ | colspan="3" | N/A |}

===Nuclei=== The inventory of the Proto-Cerrado monophthongs is reconstructed as follows.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! colspan="3" |oral ! rowspan="5" | ! colspan="3" |nasal |- |''*i'' */i/ |*''y'' */ɨ/ |*''u'' */u/ |*''ĩ'' */ĩ/ |''*ỹ'' */ɨ̃/ | |- |*''ê'' */e/ |*''ə̂'' */ɘ/ |*''ô'' */o/ | | | |- |*''e'' */ɛ/ |*''ə'' */ɜ/ |*''o'' */ɔ/ |*''ẽ'' */ɛ̃/ |*''ə̃'' */ɜ̃/ |*''õ'' */ɔ̃/ |- | |*''a'' */a/ | | | | |}

In addition, two diphthongs can be reconstructed, */wa/ and */ja/.

The following table shows the usual reflexes of the Proto-Cerrado nuclei in Proto-Goyaz Jê and in Proto-Akuwẽ. The latter group shows a chain vowel shift known as the ''Akuwẽ/Central Jê vowel shift''.<ref name="Oliveira-thesis">{{cite thesis|last=Oliveira |first=Christiane Cunha de |date=February 2014 |url=http://etnolinguistica.wdfiles.com/local--files/tese%3Aoliveira-2005/oliveira_2005.pdf |title=The Language of the Apinajé People of Central Brazil |type=Ph.D. dissertation |location=Eugene, OR |publisher=University of Oregon}}</ref>{{rp|61}}<ref name="Nikulin-2017">{{cite journal |last1=Nikulin |first1=Andrey |title=A phonological reconstruction of Proto-Cerrado (Jê family) |journal=Journal of Language Relationship |date=2017 |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=147–180 |doi=10.31826/jlr-2018-153-404|doi-access=free }}</ref>{{rp|164}}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" ! Proto-Cerrado !! Proto-Goyaz Jê !! Proto-Akuwẽ |- ! *a */a/ | *a */a/, *ã */ã/ (before ''*-m’'') || *a */a/ |- ! *ə */ɜ/ | *ə */ɜ/ | rowspan="2" | *e */ɛ/, *ê */e/ (before a dental coda) |- ! *ə̂ */ɘ/ | *ə̂ */ɘ/ |- ! *y */ɨ/ | *y */ɨ/, *ə */ɜ/ (after a velar onset), *ỹ */ɨ̃/ (before ''*-m’'') || *ə */ə/ |- ! *o */ɔ/ | *o */ɔ/ || *o */ɔ/ |- ! *ô */o/ | *ô */o/ | rowspan="2" | *u */u/ |- ! *u */u/ | *u */u/, *ũ */ũ/ (before ''*-m’'') |- ! *wa */wa/ | *wa */wa/, *û */ua/, *wə̂ */wɘ/ (in closed syllables) || *wa */wa/ |- ! *e */ɛ/ | *e */ɛ/ || *ê */e/ |- ! *ê */e/ | *ê */e/ | rowspan="2" | *i */i/ |- ! *i */i/ | *i */i/ |- ! *ja */ja/ | *jê */je/, *î */ia/ || *ĵa */ɟa/ |- ! *ə̃ */ɜ̃/ | *ə̃ */ɜ̃/ | rowspan="2" | *ə̃ */ə̃/ |- ! *ỹ */ɨ̃/ | *ỹ */ɨ̃/ |- ! *õ */ɔ̃/ | *õ */ɔ̃/ || *õ */ɔ̃/ |- ! *ẽ */ɛ̃/ | *ẽ */ɛ̃/ || *ẽ */ɛ̃/ |- ! *ĩ */ĩ/ | *ĩ */ĩ/ || *ĩ */ĩ/ |}

===Codas=== {{Empty section|date=August 2020|section= }}

==References== {{Reflist}}

Category:Jê languages Category:Languages of Brazil