European rabbit

{{Short description|Species of mammal}} {{Hatnote|This article is primarily concerned with the wild animal. For detailed information on domesticated varieties, see Domestic rabbit.}} {{Featured article}} {{Use Oxford spelling|date=February 2025}} {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}} {{Speciesbox | name = European rabbit | fossil_range = Chibanian–Recent<ref name="Lopez-Martinez1" /> ~{{fossil range|0.6|0}}{{period fossil range|Quaternary|0.6|0}} | image = Oryctolagus cuniculus - euqirneto - 419737670 (cropped).jpeg | image_caption = ''O. c. cuniculus'' in Burgos, Spain | image_alt = Brown rabbit with raised ears sitting in dry grass | image2 = Oryctolagus cuniculus.011 - A Coruña (cropped 2).jpg | image2_alt = Brown rabbit sitting in dry grass | image2_caption = ''O. c. algirus'' in A Coruña, Galicia, Spain thumb|The calls of a pet rabbit | status = NT | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name="Hackländer-2025">{{Harvnb|Hackländer|2025}}</ref> | genus = Oryctolagus | species = cuniculus<ref name=MSW3>{{Harvnb|Hoffmann|Smith|2005|pages=205–206}}</ref> | authority = (Linnaeus, 1758) | range_map = World-Oryctolagus-Pattern-Legend.svg | range_map_alt = A map of the world showing the regions where the European rabbit is native and non-native | range_map_caption = Range map:<div style="text-align:left;">{{legend striped|white|#e41a1c|Native (IUCN, 2019)|up=yes}}{{legend striped|black|#4daf4a|Introduced (IUCN, 2008)}}</div> | synonyms = {{Collapsible list| *''Lepus cuniculus'' Linnaeus, 1758 *''Cuniculus campestris'' F. A. A. Meyer, 1790 *''Lepus saccatus'' Kerr, 1792 *''Lepus sericeus'' Kerr, 1792 *''Lepus Angorensis'' W. Turton, 1802 *''Lepus magellanicus'' Lesson, 1826 *''Cuniculus varius'' S.D.W., 1836 *''Lepus vernicularis'' W. Thompson, 1837 *''Cuniculus dasypus'' Gloger, 1841 *''Lepus Vermicula'' J. E. Gray, 1843 *''Lepus domesticus'' P. Gervais, 1850 *''Cuniculus domesticus'' A. T. de Rochebrune, 1883 *''Lepus huxleyi'' Haeckel, 1874 *''Lepus nigripes'' A. D. Bartlett, 1857 *''Cuniculus algirus'' Loche, 1858 *''Cuniculus fodiens'' J. E. Gray, 1867 *''Cuniculus kreyenbergi'' Honigmann, 1913}} | synonyms_ref = <ref name="MDD">{{harvnb|Mammal Diversity Database|2025}}</ref> }} The '''European rabbit''' ('''''Oryctolagus cuniculus''''') or '''coney'''<ref name="OED-1">{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{*}} {{harvnb|Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable|2006}}|{{*}} {{harvnb|Oxford English Dictionary|2024}}}}</ref> is a species of rabbit native to the Iberian Peninsula and southwestern France. It has been introduced to hundreds of locations around the world. Wild and domesticated European rabbits around the world can vary widely in size, shape, and colour. The average adult European rabbit is smaller than the European hare, though size and weight vary with habitat and diet.

European rabbits prefer grassland habitats and are herbivorous, mainly feeding on grasses and leaves, though they may supplement their diet with berries, tree bark, and field crops such as maize. They are prey to a variety of predators, including birds of prey, weasels, cats, and canids. The European rabbit's main defence against predators is to run and hide, using vegetation and its own burrows for cover. It is well known for digging networks of burrows, called warrens, where it spends most of its time when not feeding. The European rabbit lives in social groups centred around territorial females. European rabbits in an established social group will rarely stray far from their warren, with female rabbits leaving the warren mainly to establish nests where they will raise their young. Unlike hares, rabbits are born blind and helpless, requiring maternal care until they leave the nest.

The European rabbit has been hunted since the Paleolithic period, and raised as a food source since at least the first century BCE. It has also had major agricultural and biological impacts as an invasive species. It is the only domesticated species of rabbit, and all known breeds of domestic rabbit are its descendants. It has often been introduced to exotic locations as a food source or for sport hunting. It has been introduced to at least 800 islands and every continent except Antarctica, often with devastating effects on local biodiversity due to a lack of predators. However, the species is listed as near threatened by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, as it has faced population decline in its native range due to overhunting, habitat destruction, and diseases such as myxomatosis and rabbit haemorrhagic disease. This decline has directly led to negative impacts on populations of the Iberian lynx and Spanish imperial eagle, predators that rely on the rabbit as food.

== Evolution ==

=== Taxonomy ===

Originally assigned to the genus ''Lepus'' by Swedish biologist Carl Linnaeus in 1758,<ref name="Linnaeus-1758">{{Harvnb|Linné|Salvius|1758|page=58}}</ref> the European rabbit was placed in the newly created genus ''Oryctolagus'' in 1874 by Swedish zoologist Wilhelm Lilljeborg.<ref name="h203" /> This generic name derives from {{lang|grc|ὀρυκτός}} ({{lang|grc-latn|oryktos}}, 'burrowing') and {{lang|grc|λαγώς}} ({{lang|grc-latn|lagōs}}, 'hare').<ref>{{Harvnb|Savory|1962|page=33}}</ref><ref name=Lillijeborg>{{Harvnb|Lilljeborg|1874|p=417}}</ref> Its species name, {{lang|la|cuniculus}}, stems from the Low Latin root word {{lang|la|cunicularia}}, the feminine form of the adjective {{lang|la|cunicularius}}.<ref name="BallesterEtym" /><ref name="b177"/> The European rabbit had several characteristics that distinguished it from the known hares:<ref name="h203" /> it had unique burrowing habits, blind and helpless (altricial) young, and a narrow nasal opening.<ref name=Lillijeborg /> It is superficially similar to the North American cottontails (''Sylvilagus'') in that they are both altricial, have white flesh, and display little sexual dimorphism. However, they differ in skull characteristics, and cottontails do not construct their own burrows as the European rabbit does.<ref name="b173">{{Harvnb|Barrett-Hamilton|Hinton|Wilson|1910|p=173}}</ref> Molecular studies confirm the resemblance is due to convergent evolution,<ref name="h201">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=201}}</ref> and that the European rabbit's closest relatives are the riverine rabbit (''Bunolagus monticularis''), the hispid hare (''Caprolagus hispidus''), and the Amami rabbit (''Pentalagus furnessi'').<ref>{{Harvnb|Lacher|Murphy|Rogan|Smith|2016}}</ref> The European rabbit gene ''{{visible anchor|IGKC1}}'', responsible for the principal immunoglobulin light chain,<ref name="van der Loo et al">{{Harvnb|van der Loo|Mougel|Bouton|Sanchez|1999}}</ref> shows high amino acid divergence between domesticated types and ferals derived from them. This divergence can be as high as 40%,<ref name="Pinheiro-et-al-2015" /> and indicates high genetic diversity of populations surviving over evolutionary time scales.<ref name="van der Loo et al" />

The following cladogram, based on analysis of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA done by Matthee and colleagues in 2004 and clarifications from Abrantes and colleagues in 2011, encompasses the known genera of rabbits and hares:<ref name="Pereira2019">{{Harvnb|de Sousa-Pereira|Abrantes|Baldauf|Esteves|2019}}</ref> {{clade |1={{clade |1=''Nesolagus'' (striped rabbits) alt=Drawing of striped rabbit|60 px |2={{clade |1=''Poelagus'' (Bunyoro rabbit) |2=''Pronolagus'' (red rock hares) alt=Grey rabbit with black tail|50 px }} }} |2={{clade |1=''Romerolagus'' (volcano rabbit) alt=Black and white drawing of a small-eared rabbit|50 px |2={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Sylvilagus'' (cottontails) alt=Drawing of a brown rabbit|50 px |2=''Brachylagus'' (pygmy rabbit) alt=Brown rabbit|50 px }} |2={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1=''Bunolagus'' (riverine rabbit) alt=Grey rabbit|60 px |2='''''Oryctolagus''''' (European rabbit) alt=Drawing of a brown rabbit|60 px }} |2=''Caprolagus'' (hispid hare) alt=Grey rabbit|50 px }} |2=''Pentalagus'' (Amami rabbit) alt=Black rabbit|50 px }} }} }} |2=''Lepus'' (hares) alt=Drawing of a brown hare|60 px }} }} }}

===Subspecies===

{{As of|2025}} there are two recognized subspecies of the European rabbit: ''O. c. cuniculus'' and ''O. c. algirus''.<ref name="biogeogFrancisco">{{harvnb|Díaz-Ruiz|Vaquerizas|Márquez|Delibes-Mateos|2022}}</ref><ref name="Vaquerizas et al" /> These subspecies are also referred to as the common rabbit and the Iberian rabbit, respectively.<ref name="Wozencraft 2005">{{Harvnb|Wozencraft|2005}}</ref> The common rabbit has a native range encompassing parts of southern France and north-east Spain, while the Iberian rabbit occurs in the south-west part of the Iberian Peninsula (Spain, Portugal and Andorra).<ref name="Delibes289" /> Both subspecies have been introduced to regions beyond their native range, though the common rabbit is much more widespread. While the common rabbit has been introduced to every continent besides Antarctica and several hundred islands, the Iberian rabbit is only known as non-native on a few islands: the Azores, Madeira, Canary,<ref name="Fontanesi-2021" /> and Balearic Islands; Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily.<ref name="HMW2016 Account" />

The two accepted subspecies of European rabbit differ enough such that they have been proposed for separation into distinct species.<ref name="López">{{Harvnb|López|Mora|2026|p=2}}</ref> Compared to the common rabbit, the Iberian rabbit is smaller and has more pronounced reverse sexual dimorphism.<ref name="BiomFerreira" /> It is also affected by different parasites. The Iberian rabbit has a notably high diversity of nucleotides compared to other rabbits.<ref name="López" />

Historically, the number and names of the European rabbit's subspecies have changed. Their original descriptions were often differentiated only in body size or patterns in fur colour. Little to no reference was given for a subspecies' geographic range or variations in size or appearance. Writing in the ''Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society'' in 1996, Colin Sharples and colleagues noted that "[t]here has been no comprehensive account of the taxonomic status of the European rabbit since Miller's (1912) catalogue of European mammals".<ref name="Sharples-1996">{{Harvnb|Sharples|Fa|Bell|1996}}</ref> The referenced Gerrit Smith Miller Jr., an American naturalist, described two subspecies of European rabbit in 1912: the nominate subspecies ''O. c. cuniculus'', and the Mediterranean rabbit ''O. c. huxleyi''. He noted that the 19th-century species ''Lepus vernicularis'' and ''Lepus vermicula'' were ''nomina nuda'' (having no proper description) and should be considered synonyms of the common rabbit. ''Cuniculus fodiens'' was also made a synonym of the common rabbit in this work. Of the Mediterranean rabbit, Miller wrote that it was smaller than ''O. c. cuniculus'' and appeared to have a "more grey and finely grizzled" colour.<ref>{{Harvnb|Miller|1912|pp=490–495}}</ref>{{efn|This subspecies would later be made a synonym of ''O. c. algirus''.{{refn|name="Bose-2014"}}}} In 1951, Ellerman and Morrisson-Scott provided a list of six subspecies; there they wrote that the species ''Cuniculus kreyenbergi'' was a synonym of ''O. c. cuniculus''. This was based on a 1938 account by American zoologist Glover Morrill Allen that presumed it to be a non-native population of the European rabbit in China.<ref name="Ellerman-1966">{{Harvnb|Ellerman|Morrisson-Scott|1966|p=443}}</ref> A profile of the species by John A. Gibb in 1990 followed Miller and again recognized only ''O. c. cuniculus'' and ''O. c. huxleyi''. Sharples found in 1996 that there were two distinct lineages of mitochondrial DNA in Europe, but did not recommend which subspecies should be recognized going forward, if any.<ref name="Sharples-1996" /> By 2005, six subspecies were recognized in the third edition of ''Mammal Species of the World'':<ref name="Wozencraft 2005"/> {{Columns-list| *'''Common rabbit''' ''O. c. cuniculus'' (Linnaeus, 1758) *'''Iberian rabbit''' ''O. c. algirus'' (Loche, 1858) *'''Mediterranean rabbit''' ''O. c. huxleyi'' Haeckel, 1874 *'''Cretan rabbit''' ''O. c. cnossius'' Bate, 1906 *'''Camargue rabbit''' ''O. c. brachyotus'' Trouessart, 1917 *'''African rabbit''' ''O. c. habetensis'' Cabrera, 1923 }}

This organization was similar to that put forth by Ellerman and Morrisson-Scott in 1951. The earlier account differed in that the Cretan rabbit was considered a synonym of the Mediterranean rabbit, and ''O. c. oreas''—thought to be a subspecies endemic to Morocco—was an accepted name.<ref name=Ellerman-1966 /> This taxonomy was challenged by genetic studies undertaken in 2008, which indicated only two extant subspecies: ''O. c. cuniculus'' and ''O. c. algirus''.<ref name="NFerrand1">{{Harvnb|Ferrand|2008}}</ref> These remain the two recognized subspecies of European rabbit, as of 2025.<ref name="biogeogFrancisco"/><ref name="Vaquerizas et al">{{Harvnb|Vaquerizas|Fa|Delibes-Mateos|Castro|2025}}</ref> The two lineages are thought to have diverged during the Quaternary glaciation 2 million years ago (Mya).<ref name="BiomFerreira">{{Harvnb|Ferreira|Castro|Piorno|Barrio|2015}}</ref> Most populations in regions where the European rabbit is not native are considered to belong to ''O. c. cuniculus''. This includes ''O. c. brachyotus'', ''O. c. cnossius'', and ''O. c. habetensis''.<ref name="Hackländer-2025"/>

{| class="wikitable collapsed" width=99% font=90% |- style="background: #115a6c" !Subspecies !Trinomial authority !Skull !Image !Description !Range !Synonyms |---- |'''Common rabbit''' ''O. c. cuniculus'' (Nominate subspecies) |(Linnaeus, 1758) |60 px|alt=Dorsal view of the common rabbit subspecies' skull |alt=Grey rabbit|100 px |Longer ears and hind feet, greater body mass overall, less pronounced reverse sexual dimorphism compared to ''O. c. algirus''.<ref name="BiomFerreira" />

Domesticated.<ref name="Delibes289">{{Harvnb|Delibes-Mateos|Rödel|Rouco|Alves|2023|pp=28–29}}</ref> |Native to northeastern Iberia and southern France.<ref name="Delibes289"/>  Introduced to Crete,<ref name="HMW2016 Account" /> northern Morocco, northern Algeria,<ref name=Sen2024 /> the British Isles, Central, Southern and Eastern Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Chile, Africa, and several Atlantic and Pacific islands.<ref name="Fontanesi-2021" /> |''brachyotus'' (Trouessart, 1917)

''cnossius'' (Bate, 1906)

''fodiens'' (Gray, 1867)

''habetensis'' (Cabrera, 1923)

''kreyenbergi'' (Honigmann, 1913)

''vermicula'' (Gray, 1843)

''vernicularis'' (Thompson, 1837) |---- |'''Iberian rabbit''' ''O. c. algirus'' |(Loche, 1858)<ref>{{Harvnb|Loche|1858}}</ref> |60 px|alt=Dorsal view of the Iberian rabbit subspecies' skull |alt=Brown rabbit|100 px |Smaller and with more pronounced reverse sexual dimorphism compared to ''O. c. cuniculus''.<ref name="BiomFerreira" /> Notably high diversity of nucleotides compared to other rabbits. Affected by different parasites compared to ''O. c. cuniculus''.<ref name="López" /> | Native to Portugal and southern Spain.<ref name="Delibes289"/> Introduced to the Azores, Madeira, and Canary Islands;<ref name="Fontanesi-2021" /> the Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily.<ref name="HMW2016 Account" /> |''huxleyi''<ref name="Bose-2014">{{Harvnb|Bose|2014}}</ref> (Haeckel, 1874) |}

=== Fossil record === The oldest known fossils of the currently living European rabbit species, ''Oryctolagus cuniculus'', date to 0.6 million years ago in the Middle Pleistocene age in southern Spain. The first fossils belonging to the genus ''Oryctolagus'' were found in Granada and date to 6 Mya during the Miocene epoch.<ref name="Delibes289" /> Species such as ''O. laynensis'', a presumed ancestor of ''O. cuniculus'', and ''O. lacosti'' were recorded from 3.5 Mya up until the appearance of ''O. cuniculus''. This species, ''O. cuniculus'', was the only member of its genus to survive to the Late Pleistocene, whereupon it spread from the Iberian Peninsula to the Mediterranean and northern Europe.<ref name="Lopez-Martinez1">{{Harvnb|Lopez-Martinez|2008}}</ref> Fossils of the European rabbit are also known in the Maghreb from this period, though they were likely introduced to the region by humans.<ref name="Sen2024">{{Harvnb|Sen |Geraads| Pickford| Vacant|2024}}</ref> During the Last Glacial Maximum, a period lasting roughly from 26.5 to 19 thousand years ago, much of Europe was covered in permafrost, and conditions were cold and dry.<ref>{{Harvnb|Stadelmaier |Ludwig |Bertran |Antoine|2021}}</ref> Glaciers were at their greatest extent from 20 to 18 thousand years ago.<ref>{{Harvnb|Taberlet|Fumagalli|Wust-Saucy|Cosson|1998}}</ref> Rabbit populations during this period were largely confined to the Iberian Peninsula and southern France, where they remained in two distinct, isolated refugia. They dispersed away from these refugia into central Spain in after glaciers retreated,<ref>{{harvnb|Branco|Monnerot|Ferrand|Templeton|2002}}</ref> in the Early Holocene epoch roughly 11.5 thousand years ago.<ref name=Delibes289/>

==Description== {{multiple image | perrow = | image1 = Wild black Oryctologus cuniculus.jpg | alt1 = A black-furred rabbit sitting in the grass | caption1 = Melanistic rabbits are more common where ground predators are lacking, such as on islands or in large enclosures.<ref name="h204-5"/> | image2 = Oryctolagus cuniculus 01 MWNH 395.jpg | caption2 = The skull of the European rabbit displays a significant facial tilt of roughly 45° forward relative to the base of the skull at rest, which supports its means of locomotion being mainly jumping or hopping (saltorial) rather than running (cursorial).<ref>{{Harvnb|Kraatz|Sherratt|2016}}</ref> | alt2 = European rabbit skull in profile view | direction = horizontal | total_width = 400 | align = right }} Adult European rabbits typically range from {{convert|36 to 38|cm|in|abbr=off}} in length and weigh {{convert|1.5 to 3|kg|lb|abbr=off}}.<ref name="López-2026-a" /> The tail is {{Convert|6.5 to 7|cm|in|abbr=on}} long, and the hind foot measures {{convert|8 to 8.9|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length. The ears are {{convert|7 to 8|cm|in|abbr=on}} long.<ref name="López-2026-a" /> The European rabbit is smaller than the European hare and mountain hare, has proportionately shorter legs and lacks black ear tips.<ref name="h202">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=202}}</ref>

Size and weight vary according to food and habitat quality. Rabbits living on light soil with nothing but grass to feed on are noticeably smaller than specimens living on highly cultivated farmlands with plenty of roots and clover. Pure European rabbits weighing {{convert|5|lb|kg|order=flip|abbr=on}} and upwards are uncommon, but are occasionally reported. One large specimen, caught in February 1890 in Lichfield, England, was weighed at {{convert|6|lb|2|oz|kg|order=flip|abbr=on}}.<ref name="hart13">{{Harvnb|Harting|Shand|1898|pp=13–15}}</ref> Within its native range of the Iberian peninsula, the European rabbit is generally smaller than in regions it has been introduced to, weighing from {{Convert|0.9 to 1.4|kg|abbr=on}}.<ref name="López-2026-a">{{Harvard citation no brackets|López|Mora|2026|pp=3–6}}</ref> Unlike the brown hare, the male European rabbit is more heavily built than the female.<ref name="b201">{{Harvnb|Barrett-Hamilton|Hinton|Wilson|1910|pp=199–201}}</ref> The penis is located posterior to the scrotum<ref name="Feldhamer et al">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Feldhamer|Drickamer|Vessey|Merritt|2015|pp=217, 398}}</ref> and lacks a baculum (the penis bone, present in many mammals, but not in rabbits<ref name="Feldhamer et al" />) and true glans.<ref name="h203">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=203}}</ref> The testicles, which are located in scrotal sacs to each side of the penis, can be retracted into the abdomen when food is scarce or when sexually inactive. Rudimentary nipples are also present in male rabbits.<ref name="Varga62">{{Harvnb|Varga|2013|p=62}}</ref>

The fur of the European rabbit is made up of soft down hair covered by stiff guard hairs,<ref name="Varga62" /> and is generally greyish-brown, though this is subject to much variation. The guard hairs are banded brown and black, or grey, while the nape of the neck and scrotum are reddish. The chest patch is brown, while the rest of the underparts are white or grey. A white star shape is often present on kittens' foreheads, but rarely occurs in adults. The whiskers are long and black, and the feet are fully furred and buff-coloured.<ref name="h203"/> The tail has a white underside, which becomes prominent when escaping danger. This may act as a signal for other rabbits to run.<ref name="hart13"/><ref name="Huang" />

Moulting occurs once a year, beginning in March on the face and spreading over the back. The underfur is completely replaced by October–November.<ref name="h203"/> The European rabbit exhibits great variation in colour, from white and light sandy to dark grey and completely black. Such variation depends largely on the amount of guard hairs relative to regular pelage. Melanistic rabbits are not uncommon in mainland Europe, though albinos are rare.<ref name="h204-5">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|pp=204–205}}</ref>

The skeleton and musculature of the European rabbit, like other rabbits and hares, are suited to survival by rapid escape from predators. Compared to other mammals of similar size, the European rabbit's skeleton is fragile and light, making up 8% of the rabbit's body weight on average. For comparison, the skeleton of a domestic cat makes up 13% of its weight. Most of the muscular development in the rabbit is focused in the lumbar (abdominal) region and the limbs, particularly in the thighs.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Venâncio|da Conceição Fontes|Simões|2024|p=24}}</ref> The rabbit's hind limbs are an exaggerated feature, being much longer and capable of producing more force than the forelimbs.<ref name="Aag">{{harvnb|Lumpkin|Seidensticker|2011}}</ref> Underuse of the rabbit's muscles leads to osteoporosis via bone rarefaction.<ref name="rarefaction">{{Harvnb|Geiser|Trueta|1958}}</ref>

==Life history and behaviour== [[File:20150202Hockenheim6.jpg|thumb|Entrances to a warren|alt=A photo of several holes in the ground. There is moss on the ground.]]

===Social and territorial behaviour=== The European rabbit lives in burrows known as warrens that contain social groups consisting of one to five adult males, known as bucks, and one to eight adult females, known as does.<ref name="Delibes">{{Harvnb|Delibes-Mateos|Rödel|Rouco|Alves|2023|pp=37–45}}</ref> These warrens often form around a dominant male and several subordinate females and males,<ref name="DiVincenti-2016">{{Harvnb|DiVincenti|Rehrig|2016}}</ref> and they benefit the population by providing a location safe from predators to raise young.<ref name="Delibes" /> Breeding groups of rabbits may extend to include two or more nearby warrens if beneficial to the population.<ref>{{Harvnb|Daly|1981}}</ref> European rabbits are territorial,<ref name= "Dudzinski 1977">{{Harvnb|Dudziński|Mykytowycz|Gambale|1977}}</ref> and even within a warren will defend their territory against neighbouring social groups.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Delibes-Mateos|Rödel|Rouco|Alves|2023|pp=42–45}}</ref> Females tend to be more territorial than males.<ref name= "Vastrade" >{{Harvnb|Vastrade|1987}}</ref> Rabbit territories are marked with dung hills, known as latrines.<ref name="Lagomorphs2018" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Mykytowycz|Dudziński|1972}}</ref>

The size of the species' home range varies according to habitat, food, shelter, cover from predators, and breeding sites, though it is generally small, encompassing about {{Convert|4|ha|1|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Caravaggi">{{Harvnb|Caravaggi|2022}}</ref> Male ranges tend to be larger than those of females, though this can vary depending on environmental factors. Female home ranges have been observed to be larger than those of males when rabbit density is low and high-quality food is abundant. The European rabbit rarely strays far from its burrow; when feeding on cultivated fields, it typically only moves {{convert|25|m|ft|abbr=on|sigfig=1}} away from its burrow, and rarely {{convert|50|m|ft|abbr=on}}. It may, however, move as far as {{convert|500|m|ft|abbr=on}} after an abrupt change in environment, such as a harvest. This behaviour may be an antipredator adaptation, as rabbits in areas where predators are under rigorous control may move three times further from their burrows than those in areas without predator management.<ref name="h206-207">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|pp=206–207}}</ref>

The European rabbit is a gregarious animal, which lives in stable social groups centred around females and sharing access to one or more burrow systems. Social structures tend to be looser in areas where burrow construction is relatively easy. Dominance hierarchies exist in parallel for both bucks and does. Among bucks, status is determined through access to does, with dominant bucks siring the majority of the colony's offspring. The dominant does have priority access to the best nesting sites, with competition over such sites often leading to serious injury or death;<ref name="h206-207" /> they have been observed fighting as hard or harder than bucks when vying for resources, including good nesting sites.<ref name="DiVincenti-2016" /> Subordinate does, particularly in large colonies, typically resort to using single-entrance breeding spots far from the main warren,<ref name="h206-207"/> or may abandon the warren entirely,<ref name="Lagomorphs2018" /> thus making themselves vulnerable to fox or badger predation.<ref name="h206-207"/>

===Reproduction and development=== [[File:The Rabbit (1898) 'Maternal instinct'.png|thumb|''Maternal Instinct'' ({{circa}} 1898), illustrated by G. E. Lodge|alt=An illustration of a rabbit carrying its young by the scruff of its neck. The illustration is titled "Maternal Instinct".]] In the European rabbit's mating system, dominant bucks exhibit polygyny,<ref name=Devillard-2008>{{Harvnb|Devillard|Aubineau |Berger |Léonard |Roobrouck |Marchandeau |2008}}</ref> whereas lower-status individuals (both bucks and does) often form monogamous breeding relationships; monogamous relationships are also common among groups of rabbits with lower density of females.<ref name="Roberts-1987">{{Harvnb|Roberts|1987}}</ref> Rabbits signal their readiness to copulate by marking other animals and inanimate objects with an odoriferous substance secreted through a chin gland, in a process known as "chinning".<ref>{{Harvnb|González-Mariscal|Albonetti|Cuamatzi|Beyer|1997}}</ref> Though male European rabbits may sometimes be amicable with one another, fierce fights can erupt among bucks during the breeding season,<ref name="l97">{{Harvnb|Lockley|1976|p=97}}</ref> which typically starts in autumn and continues through to spring. Occasionally, the mating season will extend into the summer.<ref name="Nowak1730">{{Harvnb|Nowak|1999|p=1730}}</ref>

A succession of 4 to 5 litters are produced annually,<ref name="Caravaggi" /> but in overpopulated areas, pregnant does may lose all their embryos through intrauterine resorption. Each litter usually produces three to seven kittens.<ref name="h207-209">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|pp=207–209}}</ref> Shortly before giving birth, the doe constructs a separate burrow known as a "stop" or "stab", generally in an open field away from the main warren. These breeding burrows are typically a few feet long and are lined with grass and moss, as well as fur plucked from the doe's belly. The breeding burrow protects the kittens from adult bucks and predators,<ref name="b214">{{Harvnb|Barrett-Hamilton|Hinton|Wilson|1910|p=214}}</ref> and the nest lining protects them from hypothermia.<ref name=garcia-2024>{{Harvnb|Garcia-Garcia |Jordán-Rodriguez |Lorenzo |Rebollar|2024|p=245}}</ref>

The gestation period of the European rabbit is 30 days,<ref name="b210">{{Harvnb|Barrett-Hamilton|Hinton|Wilson|1910|pp=210–212}}</ref><ref name="Caravaggi" /> with the sex ratio of male to female kittens tending to be 1:1.<ref name="h207-209"/> Kittens born to the dominant buck and doe—which enjoy better nesting and feeding grounds—tend to grow larger and stronger and become more dominant than those born to subordinate rabbits.<ref name="l100">{{Harvnb|Lockley|1976|p=100}}</ref> Not uncommonly, European rabbits mate again immediately after giving birth, with some specimens having been observed to nurse previous young while pregnant.<ref name="b210"/> Female European rabbits may become pregnant at three months of age, but do not reach their full reproductive ability until they are two years old, after which they remain able to reproduce for four more years.<ref name="Nowak1730" /> Bucks reach sexual maturity at four months of age.<ref name="h207-209" />

Female European rabbits nurse their kittens once a night, for only a few minutes. After suckling is complete, the doe seals the entrance to the stop with soil and vegetation. In its native Iberian and southern French range, European rabbit young have a growth rate of {{convert|5|g|oz|abbr=on}} per day, though such kittens in non-native ranges may grow {{convert|10|g|oz|abbr=on}} per day. Weight at birth is {{convert|30|-|35|g|oz|abbr=on}} and increases to {{convert|150|-|200|g|oz|abbr=on}} by 21–25 days, during the weaning period.<ref name="h207-209"/> European rabbit kittens are born blind, deaf, and nearly naked.<ref name="b210"/> They are predisposed to seek out chemical signals produced by the lactating female to obtain the milk needed to survive, in particular the pheromone known as 2-methyl-2-butenal.<ref name="Schaal">{{Harvnb|Schaal|Moncomble|Langlois|2023}}</ref> The rabbits' ears do not gain the power of motion until 10 days of age. The eyes open 11 days after birth.<ref name="Nowak1730" /> At 15 days, the rabbits start eating hay and other food in the nest besides milk,<ref name="Schaal" /> and by 18 days, the kittens begin to leave the burrow.<ref name="h207-209"/> Young rabbits that are approaching sexual maturity but have not left the nest are often forcibly removed by dominant males.<ref name="Lagomorphs2018" />

===Burrowing behaviour=== The European rabbit's burrows occur mostly on slopes and banks, where drainage is more efficient. The burrow entrances are typically {{convert|10-50|cm|in|0|abbr=on}} in diameter,<ref name="h202"/> and are easily recognizable by the bare earth at their mouths. Vegetation growth is prevented by the constant passing and repassing of the resident rabbits. Large burrows are complex excavations which may descend to depths of several feet. They are not constructed on any specified plan, and appear to be enlarged or improved as a result of activity over several generations. Kittens sleep in chambers lined with grass and fur, while adults sleep on the bare earth, likely to escape dampness. Warmth is secured by huddling.<ref name="b202" />

Digging is done by pulling the soil backwards with the fore feet and throwing it between the hind legs, which scatter the material with kicking motions. While most burrows are dug from the outside, some warrens feature holes dug from the inside, which act as emergency exits when escaping from predators below ground. These holes usually descend perpendicularly to {{convert|1-1.2|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, and their mouths lack the bare earth characteristic of burrow entrances.<ref name="b202">{{Harvnb|Barrett-Hamilton|Hinton|Wilson|1910|pp=202–205}}</ref> Although both sexes dig, does do so more skilfully and for longer periods.<ref name="l58">{{Harvnb|Lockley|1976|p=58}}</ref>

===Communication=== The European rabbit is a relatively quiet animal, though it has at least two vocalizations. The best-known is a high treble scream or squeal.<ref name="l23">{{Harvnb|Lockley|1976|p=23}}</ref> This distress call has been likened to the cry of a piglet,<ref name="b227">{{Harvnb|Barrett-Hamilton|Hinton|Wilson|1910|p=227}}</ref> and is uttered when in extreme distress, such as being caught by a predator or trap.<ref name="l23"/> During the spring, bucks express contentment by emitting grunting sounds when approaching other rabbits. These grunts are similar to shrill hiccups, and are emitted with the mouth closed. Aggression is expressed with a low growl.<ref name="b227"/> Besides screaming or growling, European rabbits are known to honk, purr, and hiss. Young rabbits are far more vocal than adults; their vocalizations are thought to be indicators that they are ready to start suckling.<ref name="Stansbury et al">{{Harvnb|Stansbury|Ballou|Erbe|Leon-Lopez|2025}}</ref>

Non-verbal communication occurs within social groups of rabbits, particularly within warrens, via chinning or scent marking of objects and other rabbits by dominant group members.<ref name="Lagomorphs2018" /> Rabbits may groom themselves using secretions from their glands or with substances such as saliva or urine to signal their sexual or reproductive status.<ref name="Schaal" /> Glands in the groin region appear to be particularly important for individual identification, as rabbits will use these secretions to identify other rabbits as unfamiliar.<ref>{{Harvnb|Goodrich|Mykytowycz|1972}}</ref> Both rabbits and hares are known to thump the ground with their feet to communicate the presence of threats, such as predators, or when they are stressed. A stressed rabbit may also grind its teeth, but the role of this behaviour in communication is unclear.<ref name="Stansbury et al" />

==Ecology== ===Habitat=== [[File:Parque nacional de Doñana 14.jpg|thumb|Grasslands in Doñana National Park, southern Spain, a favourable habitat for European rabbits to develop their warrens<ref>{{Harvnb|Thompson|King|1994|pp=32–34|loc=[https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198576112.003.0003 The rabbit in continental Europe]}}</ref>|alt=Grassy landscape with one tree]] The European rabbit's ideal habitat consists of short grasslands with secure refuge (such as burrows, boulders, hedgerows, scrub, and woodland) near feeding areas. The size and distribution of its burrow systems depend on the type of soil present. In areas with loose soil, it selects sites with supporting structures, such as tree roots or shrubs, to prevent burrow collapse. Warrens tend to be larger and to have more interconnected tunnels in areas with chalk than those in sand. In large coniferous plantations, the species only occurs on peripheral areas and along fire breaks and rides.<ref name="h206">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=206}}</ref> In the rabbit's native range, it is strongly associated with Mediterranean shrubland. The European rabbit's grazing habits tend to promote its ideal open habitat via the dispersion of seeds and trimming of vegetation.<ref name="Lagomorphs2018" /> In regions where the European rabbit is not native, the species is highly adaptive, preferring areas that have high amounts of vegetation and cover for escaping from predators. Rabbits can be found inhabiting steppes, forests, savannahs, and rocky outcrops in Argentina and south and central Chile, despite these not being preferred habitats.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|López|Mora|2026|p=|pp=9–10}}</ref>

===Diet=== The European rabbit eats a wide variety of herbage, especially grasses. It favours young leaves and shoots from nutritious species, particularly fescues.<ref name=Bakker2005 /> In cultivated areas, the rabbit's diet expands to various crops, including sugar beet, hay, and cereals.<ref name=Weyman2025>{{Harvnb|Weyman|Kragten|Nopper|Garcia|2025}}</ref> Winter wheat is preferred over maize and dicotyledons. The European rabbit generally grazes variably around its warren, creating a gradient of low vegetation and nutritional content closer to the burrow, where grazing is most intense, to high vegetation and available nutrition further away, where the rabbit is more exposed to predators and uses more energy to escape.<ref name=Bakker2005>{{Harvnb|Bakker|Reiffers|Olff|Gleichman|2005}}</ref> The diet of a rabbit population is generally influenced by the available vegetation and competition from other herbivores;<ref>{{Harvnb|Delibes-Mateos|Rödel|Rouco|Alves|2023|p=42}}</ref> in areas with little competition, rabbits have been found to prefer endemic plant species over non-endemics.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cubas |Irl |Villafuerte|Bello-Rodríguez|2019}}</ref> Hungry rabbits in winter may resort to eating bark on shrubs and young trees.<ref name="b225">{{Harvnb|Barrett-Hamilton|Hinton|Wilson|1910|p=225}}</ref> Tree bark, seeds, and roots are examples of food items that the rabbit will forage in times of little food.<ref name=Weyman2025 /> Captive European rabbits in small breeding operations may be fed with freshly foraged vegetation, though most large-scale breeders provide rabbits with standardized feed in pellet form, formulated to provide a balance of fibre, starch and protein.<ref>{{Harvnb| Pinheiro|Gidenne|2024|pp=201–202}}</ref> Depending on the body's fat and protein reserves, a rabbit can survive without food in winter for about 2 to 8 days.<ref name="h207">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=207}}</ref>

The European rabbit produces and ingests caecotropes, soft, mucus-covered pellets produced in the gastrointestinal tract.<ref name="h207"/> When food is first eaten, the rabbit is not able to completely break down the fibre and obtain the maximum amount of nutrition. In the region posterior to the colon in the hindgut, partially digested food is formed into soft pellets (caecotropes) filled with protein-rich bacteria, which pass to the rectum in glossy clusters. The rabbit swallows them whole, without breaking the enveloping membrane.<ref name="l104">{{Harvnb|Lockley|1976|pp=104–105}}</ref> Swallowed caecotropes are then fermented in the stomach before passing into the small intestine for nutrients to be absorbed; the indigestible matter is excreted as hard pellets at night. This behaviour is known as refection or caecotrophy, and is performed by all rabbits, hares, and pikas.<ref>{{Harvnb|Southern|1942}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Carabaño |Piquer |Menoyo |Badiola|2020|pp=8–12}}</ref>

===Predators=== [[File:Iberian Lynx cub carrying an Europian rabbit.jpg|thumb|left|The Iberian lynx is a specialist predator of the European rabbit.<ref name="Lagomorphs2018" />|alt=A rabbit being carried in the mouth of an Iberian lynx, a black-spotted orange wildcat]] The European rabbit is prey to many different predatory species. Foxes, dingoes, wolves, lynxes, wolverines, and dogs kill both adult and young rabbits by stalking and surprising them in the open, but relatively few rabbits are caught this way, as they can quickly rush back to cover with a burst of speed.<ref name="l139">{{Harvnb|Lockley|1976|pp=139–142}}</ref> Both foxes and badgers will dig out kittens from shallow burrows; badgers are too slow to catch adult rabbits. Both wild and domestic cats can stalk and leap upon rabbits, particularly young specimens leaving their burrows for the first time.<ref name="l139"/> Wildcats take rabbits according to availability; in eastern Scotland, where rabbits are abundant, they can make up over 90% of the wildcats' diet.<ref name="h204">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=204}}</ref> Most domestic cats are incapable of killing healthy, full-grown adults, but will take weak and diseased ones. Does can be fiercely protective of their kittens, having been observed to chase away large cats and mustelids, including ferrets, stoats, and weasels. However, rabbits typically run from mustelids, and may fear them innately. Cases are known of rabbits becoming paralysed with fear and dying when pursued by stoats or weasels, even when rescued unharmed.<ref name="l139"/> The European rabbit makes up 85% of the polecat's diet, and its availability is important to the success of breeding female mink.<ref name="h204"/> Brown rats are known to prey upon young rabbits;<ref>{{Harvnb|Imber|Harrison|Harrison|2000}}</ref> they will reside in rabbit burrows during the summer and attack them in groups.<ref name="hart39">{{Harvnb|Harting|Shand|1898|p=39}}</ref><ref name="b212">{{Harvnb|Barrett-Hamilton|Hinton|Wilson|1910|p=212}}</ref>

Although many birds of prey are capable of killing rabbits, few are strong enough to carry them. Large species, such as golden and sea eagles, may carry rabbits back to their nests, while small eagles, buzzards, and harriers struggle to do so. Hawks and owls typically only carry off very small kittens.<ref name="l139"/> Due to its decline in the Iberian Peninsula, the Iberian lynx and Spanish imperial eagle, specialist predators of the European rabbit,<ref name="Lagomorphs2018">{{Harvnb|Delibes-Mateos|Villafuerte|Cooke|Alves|2018}}</ref> have faced downturns in population.<ref name="Fordham2013">{{Harvnb|Fordham|Akçakaya|Brook|Rodríguez|2013}}</ref><ref name="González">{{Harvnb|González|2016}}</ref> Ladder snakes will prey on juveniles.<ref name="Pleguezuelos">{{Harvnb|Pleguezuelos|Fernández-Cardenete|Honrubia|Feriche|Villafranca|2007}}</ref><ref name="García-Roa">{{Harvnb|García-Roa|2020}}</ref>

In efforts to escape predators, the European rabbit will make use of its tail's white underside while fleeing to send signals to predators and other rabbits through tail flagging, a pursuit-deterrence signal. Right before fleeing, the display of a white tail warns a rabbit's relatives of potential danger. During escape, the tail display may serve two functions: one, as an honest signal, it indicates to a predator that the rabbit would be costly to catch; two, it may help to confuse the predator.<ref name="Huang">{{Harvnb|Huang|Sparke|Caro|2025}}</ref>

===Diseases, parasites and immunity=== [[File:Rabbit with Myxomatosis on Flat Holm island, Wales. September 2013.jpg|thumb|A rabbit displaying signs of myxomatosis|alt=A rabbit with swollen eye and inflammation around the head and ears]] The European rabbit is the only species to be fatally affected by myxomatosis. The most lethal strain has a five-day incubation period, after which the eyelids swell and the inflammation quickly spreads to the base of the ears, the forehead, and nose. At the same time, the anal and genital areas also swell. During the last stages of the disease, the swellings discharge a fluid rich in viral material. Death usually follows on day 11 or 12.<ref name="l116">{{Harvnb|Lockley|1976|p=116}}</ref> The primary carrier of myxomatosis varies based on location; in North America and Australia, it is carried by multiple species of mosquitoes,<ref name="Regnery-1972">{{Harvnb|Regnery|Miller|1972}}</ref><ref name="Kerr-2013">{{Harvnb|Kerr|Donnelly|2013}}</ref><ref name="Cooke-2023">{{Harvnb|Cooke|Taggart|Patel|2023}}</ref> while in Britain its primary carrier is the rabbit flea (''Spilopsyllus cuniculi'').<ref name="Ross-1989">{{Harvnb|Ross|Tittensor|Fox|Sanders|1989}}</ref>

Rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD) is an extremely contagious disease caused by the rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) that is largely specific to the European rabbit.<ref name="Gleeson">{{Harvnb|Gleeson|Petritz|2020}}</ref> It causes lesions of acute necrotizing hepatitis, disseminated intravascular coagulation, and haemorrhaging, mainly in the lungs.<ref name="h209-210"/> Susceptible specimens have a fatality rate of 70 to 95%.<ref name="Angulo et al">{{Harvnb|Angulo|Bárcena|Cooke|Soriguer|2025}}</ref> A variant of RHDV known as RHDV2 emerged in France in 2010.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bárcena|Guerra|Angulo|González|2015}}</ref> This strain is known to cause fatal infections in rabbits vaccinated against RHDV,<ref name="Gleeson" /> and has since spread from France to other parts of Europe, Africa, and North America. The strain notably affects species besides the European rabbit, with fatal infections recorded in individual hares (''Lepus''), red rock hares (''Pronolagus''), riverine rabbits (''Bunolagus''), and cottontail rabbits (''Sylvilagus'').<ref name="Angulo et al" />

The European rabbit has unique adaptations in its innate immune system due to a mutation in its ''CCR5'' gene, which plays a part in inflammation and immune response. This mutation is derived from a gene conversion event in the related ''CCR2'' gene; these adaptations are shared with rabbits in the genera ''Bunolagus'' and ''Pentalagus'', which suggests a common ancestor that obtained this trait roughly 8 million years ago.<ref name="Pinheiro-et-al-2015" /> Additionally, the European rabbit's adaptive immune system has significantly diverged from other tetrapods in the manner in which it employs immunoglobulin light chains.<ref name="immunoglobulin-light-chains">{{Unbulleted list citebundle|{{*}} {{harvnb|Weber|Peng|Rader|2017}}|{{*}} {{Harvnb|Mage|Lanning|Knight|2006}}|{{*}} {{Harvnb|Conrath|Wernery|Muyldermans|Nguyen|2003}}|{{*}} {{Harvnb|Davis|1985}}}}</ref><ref name="Pinheiro-et-al-2015">{{Harvnb|Pinheiro|Neves|Lemos de Matos|Abrantes|2015}}</ref> In one case, a unique additional disulfide bond was discovered between Cys 80 in Vκ and Cys 171 in Cκ, which has been suggested as serving to stabilize rabbit antibodies.<ref name="immunoglobulin-light-chains" /><ref name="Pinheiro-et-al-2015" />

==Etymology== [[File:Chaucer Conyes.png|thumb|left|alt=The handwritten word "conyes"|"Coneys" (written as ''conyes'') in Chaucer's ''Parlement of Foules'', from the Bodleian Library]] Because of its origin outside of the British Isles, the species does not have a native name in English, with the usual terms ''coney'' and ''rabbit'' being foreign loanwords. The root word is the Walloon {{lang|wa|rabett}}, which was once commonly used in Liège. {{lang|wa|Rabett}} itself is derived from the Middle Dutch {{lang|dum|robbe}}, referring to a rabbit, with the addition of the suffix ''-ett''. In the early 20th century, recorded pronunciations of ''rabbit'' included "rabbidge", "rabbert" (North Devon) and "rappit" (Cheshire and Lancashire). More archaic spellings include ''rabbette'' (15th–16th centuries), ''rabet'' (15th–17th centuries), ''rabbet'' (16th-18th centuries), ''rabatte'' (16th century), ''rabytt'' (17th century) and ''rabit'' (18th century).<ref name="b177">{{Harvnb|Barrett-Hamilton|Hinton|Wilson|1910|pp=177–179}}</ref>

The term ''coney'' or ''cony'' predates ''rabbit'',<ref>{{Harvnb|Merriam-Webster|2026}}</ref> and first occurred during the 12th century to refer to the animal's pelt.<ref>{{Harvnb|Merriam-Webster|2024}}</ref> Later, ''coney'' referred to the adult animal, while ''rabbit'' referred to the young. The root of ''coney'' is the Old French {{lang|fro|connil}} or {{lang|fro|counil}},{{sfn|CNRTL|2012|loc=[https://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/connil connil]}} of which the Norman was {{lang|nrf|conin}}, plural {{lang|nrf|coniz}} or {{lang|nrf|conis}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Anglo-Norman Dictionary|2024|loc=[https://anglo-norman.net/entry/conin conin]}}</ref> ''Connil'' comes from the Latin {{lang|la|cuniculus}}.{{sfn|CNRTL|2012|loc=[https://www.cnrtl.fr/etymologie/connil connil]}} Its forerunner is the Greek {{lang|el|κόνικλος}} ({{lang|el-latn|kóniklos}}), which first appeared around 204 BCE, as written in the ''Histories'' by Greek historian Polybius, though its origin is unclear: Aelian, who lived during the third century, linked the word to Celtiberian and later authors relate it to its Basque name ''unchi''. The Roman scholars Varro and Pliny, who wrote in the first centuries BCE and CE respectively, connected it to ''cuneus'', which refers to a 'wedge', thus making reference to the animal's digging ability. Both authors were apparently unaware of the word's non-Latin origin;<ref name="b177"/> the majority of Roman grammarians derived etymologies using only Greek and Latin.<ref>{{harvnb|Lee|1914}}</ref> Some ambiguity also exists as rabbits and hares were referred to with the same words.<ref name="Campbell 2014">{{Harvnb|Campbell|2014|p=172}}</ref> At the time, hares were a much more important food source than were rabbits.<ref name="Hatcher">{{Harvnb|Hatcher|Battey|2011|p=312}}</ref> Later study of the etymology of {{lang|la|cuniculus}} has attested to its origin as a diminutive or adjectival form of the root word for 'dog' ({{lang|xce|cun–}}) in Celtiberian.<ref name="BallesterEtym">{{Harvnb|Ballester|Quinn|2002}}</ref> The young of the rabbit are referred to as ''kittens'' in modern texts.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lockley|1976|p=131}}</ref> A male rabbit is called a ''buck'', as are male goats and deer, derived from the Old English {{Lang|ang|bucca}} or ''{{Lang|ang|bucc}}'', meaning "he-goat" or "male deer", respectively.<ref>{{Harvnb|Dictionary.com|2023}}</ref> A female is called a ''doe'', derived from the Old English {{Lang|ang|dā}}, a word related to {{Lang|ang|dēon}}, meaning "to suck".<ref>{{Harvnb|Collins English Dictionary}}</ref>

The species' dwelling place is termed a warren or coney-garth. 'Warren' comes from the Old English {{lang|ang|wareine}}, itself derived from the Old French {{lang|fro|warenne}}, {{lang|fro|varenne}}, or {{lang|fro|garenne}}. The root word is the Low Latin {{lang|la|warenna}}, which originally signified a preserve in general, only to be later used to refer specifically to an enclosure set apart for rabbits and hares.<ref name="hart51">{{Harvnb|Harting|Shand|1898|pp=51–52}}</ref> "Coney-garth" derives from the Middle English {{lang|enm|conygerthe}}, which may be a compound of ''connynge'' + ''erthe'' ('coney'+'earth'). The term stems from the Old French {{lang|fro|conniniere}} or {{lang|fro|coninyere}}, and later {{lang|fro|conilliere}}.<ref name="b177"/>

==Human relationships with rabbits==

=== Origins === [[File: Oryctolagus cuniculus Finnish National Opera.jpg|thumb|Two rabbits on the steps of the Finnish National Opera in Helsinki|alt=Two rabbits grazing on plants on top of large stone steps]] Research in the late 20th century has shown that all European rabbits carry common genetic markers and descend from one of two maternal lines. These lines originated roughly 2{{Spaces}}million years ago on the Iberian Peninsula and in southern France.<ref>{{Harvnb|Monnerot|Vigne|Biju-Duval|Casane|1994}}</ref> Humans began hunting rabbits and hares and in the Paleolithic period; these and other animals became more prominent in the human diet roughly 20,000{{Spaces}}years ago.<ref name=":0">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Smil|2013|pp=40-44}}</ref> Rabbits were unfavourable prey to early humans due to their evasiveness and low fat-to-protein ratio, which could lead to protein toxicity (sometimes termed "rabbit starvation"). Despite these factors, during the Upper Paleolithic, rabbits, hares, and pikas made up most of the small animal prey hunted by humans throughout the Mediterranean and the Iberian Peninsula.<ref>{{Harvnb|Petracci|Soglia|Leroy|2018}}</ref> Rabbits were used for more than just their meat by early humans; archaeological studies have found that their bones were used in needles and tubular ornaments,<ref>{{Harvnb|Blasco |Rosell |Fernández Peris |Arsuaga|2013}}</ref> and their fur was likely used as well.<ref>{{Harvnb|Évora|2013}}</ref>

=== In culture === {{Further|Rabbit#In culture}} [[File:Hadrian, denarius, 134-138 AD, RIC II 305 (reverse).jpg|thumb|left|alt=Reverse of silver coin showing "Hispania" and a reclining person with a rabbit at their feet|Obverse side of a denarius struck CE 134–138 during the reign of Hadrian. The personification of Hispania is seen with a rabbit at its feet.]] European rabbits are seen both in contemporary and historical art as well as in folklore. Rabbits were associated with the Iberian peninsula when it was under Roman rule as the provinces of Hispania;<ref name=":2">{{Harvnb|Rogers|Arthur|Soriguer|1994|pp=27-29}}</ref> several coins produced during the reign of Roman emperor Hadrian featured rabbits alongside the personification of Hispania.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fox|2007|p=3}}</ref> Rabbit warrens were described as undermining the ramparts of Tarraco by Pliny the Elder, who recommended a method of hunting rabbits with ferrets.<ref name=":2" /> The use of ferrets to hunt rabbits was still used in the 16th century, as described by English poet George Gascoigne.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gascoigne|1611|pp=178-179}}</ref> The English cleric Edward Topsell wrote on the European rabbit in his 1607 work ''The History of Four-footed Beasts'', describing the species and its prevalence throughout England, as well as common beliefs about it, such as its uses in medicine: its brain was described as an effective antidote against poison, and the residue from a mixture of powdered rabbit and wine was thought to cure a sore throat.<ref>{{Harvnb|Topsell|Gessner|Moffett|Rowland|1658|pp=86-88}}</ref><!--

The popular euphemism of "the rabbit died", indicating that someone was pregnant, originates with the domestic rabbit, as rabbits were one of several animals that played a part in the diagnosis of human pregnancy in the mid-20th century. The injection of a pregnant woman's urine into a female rabbit would cause the rabbit to ovulate due to the presence of the hormone human chorionic gonadotropin; this hormone is not present in non-pregnant humans. Ovulation was often confirmed by killing the rabbit to allow for its ovaries to be examined. As a result, in the described "rabbit test", the rabbit usually died regardless of the result; the widespread use of the phrase comes from use of the test in television, where it was always associated with positive results and the death of a rabbit.<ref name="Lumpkin">{{harvnb|Lumpkin|Seidensticker|2011|p=149}}</ref>-->

===Domestication=== {{main|Domestic rabbit}}

[[File:Rabbit - French Lop breed 2.jpg|thumb|A domestic French Lop rabbit|alt=A brown rabbit sitting on tiled floor with its ears lying flat along the sides of its head]] The European rabbit is the only rabbit species to be widely domesticated,<ref name="Schneider">{{Harvnb|Schneider|2006}}</ref> for meat, fur, wool,<ref name="prodintro">{{Harvnb|Lukefahr|McNitt|Cheeke|Patton|2022|loc=[http://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/10.1079/9781789249811.0000 Introduction] |pages=1–12}}</ref> or as a pet.<ref name="Lagomorphs2018"/> It was first widely kept in ancient Rome from the first century BCE, where Pliny the Elder described the use of rabbit hutches, along with enclosures called ''leporaria.''<ref name="Irving-PeaseFrantz2018">{{Harvnb|Irving-Pease|Frantz|Sykes|Callou|2018}}</ref> These enclosures may have been intended more for hares rather than rabbits, however, as hares were a much more important food source—they were larger and provided more meat—and words for rabbits and hares at the time of ancient Rome referred to both species.<ref name="Hatcher" /><ref name="Campbell 2014" /> In the present day, the European hare is still kept in captivity in some parts of Europe, though it faces stress, disease, and reproductive issues.<ref name="Lumpkin">{{harvnb|Lumpkin|Seidensticker|2011|p=149}}</ref> The European rabbit has been refined into a wide variety of breeds during and since the emergence of animal fancy in the 19th century.<ref name="Whitman">{{harvnb|Whitman|2004|pp=1-3, 37-42}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Amato|2015}}</ref> Several breeds are widely used in research; the European rabbit is one of the first mammals to have its whole genome sequenced, and it has been important in the field of immune system research.<ref>{{Harvnb|López|Mora|2026|pp=8–9}}</ref>

Selective breeding has been used since ancient times to produce rabbits with different characteristics, and while domestic rabbits are typically larger than wild rabbits,<ref>{{Harvnb|López|Mora|2026|pp=3–6}}</ref> the various breeds of domestic rabbit exist in a range of sizes from "dwarf" to "giant".<ref name="DAD-IS 2017">{{Harvnb|DAD-IS|2017}}</ref> All rabbit breeds, from Netherland Dwarf to Flemish Giant, are descendants of the European rabbit.<ref name="DAD-IS 2017" /> They have as much colour variation among themselves as other livestock and pet animals.<ref>{{Harvnb|Zigo|Pyskatý|Ondrašovičová|Zigová|2020}}</ref>

=== As pets ===

European rabbits have been kept as pets since the 1800s starting in the Victorian era,<ref name="Irving-PeaseFrantz2018" /> and Beatrix Potter wrote on the house rabbit in the 1900s. However, the public perception of the rabbit remained as that of a children's pet until the publication of Marinell Harriman's ''House Rabbit Handbook'' in 1985, after which their popularity grew significantly.<ref>{{harvnb|Davis|2003|p=84}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|DeMello|2010}}</ref> The rabbit is the third most popular pet in the United Kingdom,<ref>{{Harvnb|Lowbridge|2024}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|The People's Dispensary for Sick Animals|2025}}</ref> and a 2024 survey found roughly 900,000 households with a pet rabbit in the United States.<ref>{{Harvnb|American Veterinary Medical Association|2024}}</ref> Adoptions in the United States increase significantly during Easter, though many rabbits adopted during this time are neglected, given to animal shelters, or abandoned.<ref>{{Harvnb|ABC7 News|2009}}</ref>

In some urban areas, infestations of feral European rabbits descended from pets have become a problem. Helsinki, for example, is host to a notably persistent population of the species that originated from domestic rabbits released in the 1980s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Reunanen|Jormakka|Mäkitaipale|2026}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Kauppinen|Isomursu|Pekkarinen|Nylund|2025}}</ref> Major infestations can have massive impacts on agriculture and biodiversity, and have been difficult to control through physical and biological means, such as that in Australia.<ref name="Crawford-1969" /><ref name="NSWOEH" /> Several attempts at extirpation, on the islands of Isola delle Femmine and Macquarie Island, have been successful.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lillo|Di Dio|Lo Valvo|2023}}</ref><ref name="Marchant-2023">{{Harvnb|Marchant|Kefford|Houghton|Wasley|2023}}</ref>

=== Use for meat and fur === {{multiple image | perrow = | image1 = Fluffy white bunny rabbit.jpg | alt1 = A white rabbit with lots of fur on its body and ears | caption1 = An Angora rabbit, bred for its fur | image2 = Coniglio olive pinoli.jpg | caption2 = ''Coniglio alla ligure'', an Italian rabbit-based dish | alt2 = | direction = horizontal | total_width = 400 | align = right }}

The European rabbit has been hunted in its native range since at least the Last Glacial Maximum roughly 20,000{{Spaces}}years ago,<ref>{{Harvnb|Seuru|Perez|Burke|2023}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> and it continues to be a game animal.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bender|2003}}</ref><ref name="Swenson 2020">{{harvnb|Swenson|2020}}</ref> Much of the world's supply of rabbit meat comes from domestic rabbits.<ref name="Lebas">{{Harvnb|Lebas|Coudert|de Rochambeau|Thébault|1997}}</ref> Over {{Convert|4000000|t|lb}} of rabbit meat was produced globally in 2024.<ref>{{Harvnb|FAOSTAT|2024}}</ref> Historically, rabbit was a popular food source in the United Kingdom for the poorer classes. Among wild rabbits, those native to Spain were reputed to have the highest meat quality, followed by those in the Ardennes. As rabbits hold very little fat, they were hardly ever roasted, being instead boiled, fried, or stewed.<ref name="hart222">{{Harvnb|Harting|Shand|1898|pp=222–248}}</ref>

William Marshall calculated in the 18th century that the value of the rabbit's skin in proportion to its carcass was greater than that of the sheep and ox.<ref name="b188">{{Harvnb|Barrett-Hamilton|Hinton|Wilson|1910|p=188}}</ref> In the early 20th century, the pelt of the rabbit was seen as heavier and more durable than the hare's.<ref name="petersen">{{Harvnb|Petersen|1914}}</ref> Its fur was primarily used for felting or hats, and was also dyed or clipped, or sold as imitations of more valuable furbearers, such as fur seal.<ref name="b191">{{Harvnb|Barrett-Hamilton|Hinton|Wilson|1910|p=191}}</ref> Development of rabbit breeds in the 21st century have caused meat and fur rabbits to become further separated. Some breeds of rabbit are bred for their fur, and others for their meat. Fur length varies depending on the breed.<ref name=":1">{{Harvard citation no brackets|Venâncio|da Conceição Fontes|Simões|2024|p=21}}</ref> Large Angora rabbit breeds are raised for their long, soft fur,<ref name="rabprobreeds">{{Harvnb|Lukefahr|McNitt|Cheeke|Patton|2022|loc=[http://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/10.1079/9781789249811.0003 Rabbit Breeds]|pages=23–28}}</ref> which is often spun into yarn.<ref>{{Harvnb|Lukefahr|McNitt|Cheeke|Patton|2022|loc=[http://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/10.1079/9781789249811.0022 Angora Wool Production]|pages=292–302}}</ref> The Rex rabbit is raised for its smooth, velvet-like coat,<ref name="rabprobreeds" /> with the hairs of its fur only measuring about {{Cvt|12|mm}} long.<ref name=":1" /> There is no standard method for the tanning of rabbit skins. Skins are often used in gloves, footwear, linings and other garments, while yarn is used to make items such as blankets, hats, and thermal underwear. Compared to meat production, few statistics on rabbit fur and fiber production are known, though in 2014 France reported 70{{Spaces}}million rabbit skins produced.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|Nasr|Taha|2024|pp=356-372}}</ref>

===As an introduced species=== The European rabbit has been introduced into several environments, often with harmful results to vegetation and local wildlife, making it an invasive species. The first known mention of the rabbit as an invasive species was made in regard to the introduction of the rabbit to the Balearic Islands after the Roman conquest of the first century BCE. According to both Strabo and Pliny the Elder, the multiplying rabbits caused famines by destroying crop yields and even collapsed trees and houses with their burrowing. The inhabitants petitioned Augustus for help, who sent troops to curb the rabbit population with the help of ferrets. This was possibly the first ever documented instance of an invasive species.<ref name="López Seoane-1861">{{Harvnb|López Seoane|1861|pages=347–348}}</ref><ref name="Blázquez-1975">{{Harvnb|Blázquez|1975|p=13}}</ref> The deliberate introduction of rabbits across Europe was common from the Middle Ages onwards, as the right to hunt or keep rabbits was used by monasteries, Norman dukes, and kings as a reward for services or to develop political allies. Rabbits were spread further as colonial powers developed across Europe, such as in the case of the Azores and Canary Islands, which were important strategic locations for Spanish and Portuguese ships on their way to the Americas.<ref name="Cooke2018Intro">{{Harvnb|Cooke|Flux|Bonino|2018}}</ref>

[[File:Okunojima-rabbit.JPG|thumb|right|Feral domestic rabbits (''O. c. domesticus'') on the island of Ōkunoshima. The European rabbit was introduced and established a self-sustaining population in 1971 after a group of school children released 8 rabbits on the island.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ocheltree|2011}}</ref><ref name="Thomas2021">{{Harvnb|Thomas|2021}}</ref>|alt=Three rabbits being fed by hand]] Other locations where the European rabbit was introduced include Great Britain;<ref name="Thompson64">{{Harvnb|Thompson|King|1994|pp=64–107|loc=[https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198576112.003.0004 The rabbit in Britain]}}</ref> two of the Hawaiian Islands (Laysan Island and Lisianski Island);<ref name="Rauzon108">{{Harvnb|Rauzon|2001|pages=108–115}}</ref> Oceania's Macquarie Island;<ref name="Marchant-2023" /> the island Ōkunoshima in Japan;<ref name="Thomas2021" /> Washington's Smith Island and San Juan Island (starting around 1900 and later spreading to the other San Juan Islands);<ref>{{Harvnb|Couch|1929}}</ref> several islands off the coast of Southern Africa (including Robben Island);<ref>{{Harvnb|Cooper|Brooke|1982}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Villiers|Mecenero|Sherley|Heinze|2010}}</ref> Australia<ref name="Invasion2022">{{Harvnb|Alves|Carneiro|Day|Welch|2022}}</ref> and New Zealand.<ref name="OHara-2006" /> In addition, the European rabbit has spread to at least 800 individual islands or island groups.<ref name=islands>{{Harvnb|Flux|Fullagar|1992}}</ref><ref name="Fontanesi-2021">{{Harvnb|Fontanesi|Utzeri|Ribani|2021}}</ref>

====In the British Isles==== The European rabbit is widespread in Great Britain, Ireland, and most other islands, except for Isles of Scilly, Rùm, Tiree, and some small Scottish islands, such as Gunna, Sanday, and most of the Treshnish Isles.<ref name="h205">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|pp=205–206}}</ref> One prominent theory is that the rabbit was first brought to Britain by the Normans after the 1066 conquest of England, as no pre-Norman British artistic or literary references to the animal are known.<ref name="b184" /> However, physical remains of rabbits have been found dating from the Roman conquest of Britain in the first century CE, indicating that Romans did introduce rabbits to the island, though likely not in great numbers.<ref name="Hatcher" /> The rabbit was nonetheless scarce or absent throughout most of England following the Norman conquest, as warrens are not mentioned in the Domesday Book or any other 11th–century documents. Rabbits became well known, but not necessarily accepted members of British fauna between the 12th and 13th centuries. Evidence of their presence is found in a number of bones from the midden of Rayleigh Castle, which was occupied from the 11th–13th centuries. The first references to rabbits in Ireland occur roughly at the same time as English ones, thus indicating Norman introduction. They had become plentiful, probably at a local level, by the 13th century, as indicated by an inquisition of Lundy Island made in 1274 describing how 2,000 rabbits were caught annually. Subsequent allusions in official documents became more frequent, with the species later becoming an important food item at feasts.<ref name="b184">{{Harvnb|Barrett-Hamilton|Hinton|Wilson|1910|pp=184–189}}</ref>

Truly wild populations increased slowly, primarily in the coastal areas and lowland heaths of Breckland and Norfolk. There were notable population increases after 1750, when changes in agricultural practices created favourable habitats, and increasing interest in game management resulted in intensive predator control campaigns.<ref name="h206"/> Although now common in the Scottish lowlands, the species was little known in Scotland before the 19th century. Until then, it was confined to portions of the Edinburgh district at least as far back as the 16th century, certain islands and the coastal sand dunes of the Scottish mainland. Although unknown in Caithness in 1743, the species became well established there by 1793.<ref name="b184"/>

The infectious disease myxomatosis entered Britain from France in 1953, and reached Ireland by 1954,<ref name="h209-210">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|pp=209–210}}</ref> prompting the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds to set up "mercy squads" meant to euthanize myxomatous rabbits.<ref name="l115">{{Harvnb|Lockley|1976|p=115}}</ref> Major myxomatosis outbreaks still occur in Britain, peaking twice annually: in spring and especially in late summer or autumn, though immunity has reduced the mortality rate from 99% to 5–33%.<ref name="h209-210"/>

Between 1996 and 2018, rabbit numbers fell by 88% in the east Midlands of England, 83% in Scotland, and 64% across the whole of the UK. Efforts have been made in these regions to encourage the preservation and development of safe rabbit habitats, as some arable pastures depend on rabbits' grazing habits to remain healthy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Harris|Massimino|Balmer|Eaton|2020|pp=28-31}}</ref>

====In Australia and New Zealand==== {{Main|Rabbits in Australia}}

[[File:Rabbit fence Cobar October 1905.jpg|thumb|alt=A fence with no vegetation on one side and a man being drawn through high vegetation on the other side on a cart|A rabbit-proof fence in Cobar, New South Wales. This photo was taken in 1905, when new fencing projects were spurred on by the devastating effects of rabbits on agriculture and ecology.<ref name="State Barrier Fence" />]] Though rabbits were first introduced to Australia in 1788 with the arrival of the First Fleet,<ref name="NSWOEH">{{Harvnb|NSW Office of Environment & Heritage|2015}}</ref> the most significant population explosion occurred later on in the 19th century. Twenty-four European rabbits were introduced to Australia in 1859 by estate owner Thomas Austin in Victoria.<ref name="Invasion2022" /> These rabbits were introduced both for hunting purposes and to provide a sense of familiarity for colonists, allowing for the pastimes of sport shooting, coursing, and falconry. Rabbits were also introduced to New Zealand as a substitute for foxes in horseback hunting.<ref name="Cooke2018Intro" /> Their descendants multiplied and spread throughout the country and caused severe agricultural damage and widespread ecological changes that contributed to the decline of native Australian species such as the greater bilby (''Macrotis lagotis'') and the southern pig-footed bandicoot (''Chaeropus ecaudatus'').<ref name="AgVic">{{Harvnb|Agriculture Victoria|2024}}</ref>

Between 1901 and 1907, Australia built an immense "rabbit-proof fence" to halt the westward expansion of the infestation.<ref name="State Barrier Fence">{{Harvnb|The State Barrier Fence of Western Australia, Centenary 1901–2001}}</ref> The European rabbit, however, can not only jump very high, but also burrow underground,<ref name="Schneider" /> and this fence failed to protect from rabbit infestation;<ref name="Rolls-1969">{{Harvnb|Rolls|1969}}</ref> despite this, further fencing projects were undertaken that also failed to control the spread of rabbits in Australia.<ref name="Crawford-1969">{{Harvnb|Crawford|1969}}</ref>

During the 1950s, the intentional introduction of the Myxoma virus, which causes myxomatosis, provided some relief in Australia,<ref name="Kerr-2017">{{Harvnb|Kerr|Cattadori|Rogers|Fitch|2017}}</ref> but not in New Zealand, where the insect vectors necessary for the spread of the disease were not present.<ref>{{Harvnb|Gumbrell|1986}}</ref> Myxomatosis can also infect pet rabbits. Today's remaining feral rabbits in Australia are largely immune to myxomatosis. A strain of a second deadly rabbit virus, rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV), was imported to Australia in 1991 as a biological control agent and was released accidentally in 1995, killing millions of rabbits.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mahar|Read|Gu|Urakova|Mourant|Piper|Haboury|Holmes|Strive|Hall|2018}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Strive|2008}}</ref> The virus has been developed further to address changes in environment and population, with a Korean variant referred to as K5 being released throughout Australia in 2017.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cox|Ramsey|Sawyers|Campbell|Matthews|Elsworth|2019}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Adams|2017}}</ref> RHDV was also introduced—illegally—in New Zealand with less success due to improper timing.<ref name="OHara-2006">{{Harvnb|O'Hara|2006}}</ref>

====In South America==== The exact date on which the European rabbit was introduced into Chile is unknown, though the first references to it occur during the mid-18th century. By the 19th century, several authors referred to the presence of both rabbits and rabbit hutches in central Chile. The importation and breeding of rabbits was encouraged by the state, as rabbits were seen as cheap sources of food for peasants. Whether or not their escape into the wild was intentional is unknown, but warnings over the dangers of feral rabbits were raised during the early 20th century and the species had propagated dramatically by the late 1920s in central Chile, Tierra del Fuego, and the Juan Fernández Islands. In the 1930s, the state sought to tackle the rabbit problem by banning fox hunting, though it was later discovered that indigenous South American foxes rarely preyed on rabbits, preferring native species. In modern times, the European rabbit problem has not been resolved definitively, though a deliberate outbreak of myxomatosis in Tierra del Fuego successfully reduced local rabbit populations. The species remains a problem in central Chile and on Juan Fernández, despite years-long hunting projects.<ref>{{Harvnb|Camus|Castro|Jaksic|2008}}</ref>

European rabbits cause ecological damage in Chile by uprooting vegetation with long regeneration cycles and overgrazing across large areas, reducing biodiversity. Rabbit burrows directly increase the risk of erosion. Where rabbits cannot burrow, such as along the Chilean coast, they use the nests of other animals, which has led to nesting failures in seabirds. Because burrowing is tied to the rabbit's reproduction, destroying burrows has been one of a few effective means of population control. Since its introduction into Chile, the European rabbit has spread into Argentina and Uruguay. In other Central and South American countries, there are no reported feral populations. Cuniculture is widespread, but there is a lack of standardized information or statistics across countries.<ref>{{Harvard citation no brackets|López|Mora|2026|pp=17–21}}</ref>

====In Ukraine==== The two accounts over the introduction of rabbits in Ukraine are conflicting. One holds that the species was brought there in the early 20th century by the Austrian nobleman, Graf Malokhovsky, who released them on his estate near the Khadzhibey Estuary, while another holds that rabbits were first brought to Kherson from Switzerland in 1894 or 1895 by landowner Pinkovsky.<ref name="o242">{{Harvnb|Ognev|1962|p=242}}</ref> Since the 1980s, many populations of rabbits in the country have since declined or become extinct.<ref>{{Harvnb|Zagorodniuk|2023}}</ref> Early populations introduced to the outskirts of Odesa were reported to have spread to a range spanning {{convert|300|km}} in diameter by 1923, and by the peak of the rabbits' populations in 1980, they were reported as living among abandoned tenements and caves across the Odesa, Ternopil, Kherson and Crimea regions.<ref>{{Harvnb|Zagorodniuk|2023|pp=141–142}}</ref> Around this period, the total population of rabbits in Ukraine was estimated at 15 to 20 thousand individuals. Epidemics of myxomatosis starting in 1981 caused the gradual extinction of many colonies across the country; while other diseases such as tularemia or rabbit haemorrhagic disease may be responsible for some deaths, diagnoses almost always pointed to myxomatosis. Strains of the myxoma virus engineered in France to control populations in western Europe may have been responsible, having been transmitted east by ticks and fleas. State reports in 2016 indicated that only 100 to 300 rabbits were left in the country.<ref>{{Harvnb|Zagorodniuk|2023|pp=143–144}}</ref>

===Conservation status=== {{anchor|Status|reason=This subsection's name was changed from "Status" to "Conservation status" on 29 March 2018}} Though the European rabbit thrives in many of the locations where it was introduced, within its native range in Iberia, populations are dwindling. In 2005, the Portuguese Institute for Nature Conservation and Forests classified ''O. cuniculus'' in Portugal as "near threatened",<ref name="ICNF Red Book">{{Harvnb|ICNF|2005}}</ref> while in 2006, Spanish authorities (SECEM) reclassified it in Spain as "vulnerable".<ref>{{Harvnb|SECEM|2006}}</ref> In 2018, the International Union for Conservation of Nature reclassified ''O. cuniculus'' in Spain, Portugal, and France as "endangered", due to the extent of recent declines. The IUCN assessment of the species considers only those populations within its natural distribution,<ref name="HMW2016 Account">{{Harvnb|Schai-Braun|Hackländer|2016|pages=126–127}}</ref> and as such it was considered endangered in their 2019 evaluation. It was noted as being both an important game species and an agricultural pest, and continuation of population management and monitoring plans were recommended. Hundreds of thousands of European rabbits have been released in Spain and France as part of reintroduction efforts, though these were not particularly successful in increasing rabbit populations. Remediation of abandoned land that had been overtaken by forest and scrubland was also recommended, as these encroachments contributed to habitat fragmentation and loss in regions where the rabbit was once abundant.<ref name="Hackländer-2025"/> The species was later reassessed by the IUCN within its European range in a 2025 publication; based on new information on subspecies population trends, a classification of "near threatened" was given. Within their native ranges, stable and positive population trends were noted for the common rabbit (''O. c. cuniculus''), while negative trends continued for the Iberian rabbit (''O. c. algirus''); future separate assessments have been suggested for the two subspecies.<ref name="Hackländer-2025">{{Harvnb|Hackländer|2025}}</ref>

== See also == * Cuniculture, on the practice of breeding and raising domesticated European rabbits * List of breeds of the domesticated European rabbit

== Notes == {{notelist}}

== References ==

=== Bibliography ===

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== External links == {{wiktionary}} {{commons}} * View the [http://www.ensembl.org/Oryctolagus_cuniculus/Info/Index/ rabbit genome] in Ensembl * {{UCSC genomes|oryCun2}}

Category:Oryctolagus Category:Mammals described in 1758 Category:Fauna of the Iberian Peninsula Category:Mammals of Europe Category:Animal taxa named by Carl Linnaeus