Stoat

{{short description|Species of mammal}} {{About|the animal|the sewing stitch|Stoating|the open-source chat platform|Stoat (software)}}{{Redirect|Ermine}}{{speciesbox | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{harvnb |Reid|Helgen|Kranz|2016|p=e.T29674A45203335}}</ref> | image = Røyskatt (Mustela erminea erminea), Lista, Norway.jpg | image_caption = ''M. e. erminea'', Steinodden, Lista, Norway | genus = Mustela | species = erminea | authority = Linnaeus, 1758 | range_map = Stoat area.png | range_map_caption = Stoat range (includes ''M. richardsonii'' and ''M. haidarum'') {{leftlegend|green|native|outline=gray}} {{leftlegend|red|introduced|outline=gray}} }}

The '''stoat''' ('''''Mustela erminea'''''), also known as the '''Eurasian ermine''' or '''ermine''', is a species of mustelid native to Eurasia and the northern regions of North America. Because of its wide circumpolar distribution, it is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List.<ref name=iucn/> The name ermine ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɜːr|m|ɪ|n}}) is used especially in its pure white winter coat of the stoat or its fur.<ref name=SOED>{{harvnb|Shorter Oxford English Dictionary|2007|p=3804}}</ref> Ermine fur was used in the 15th century by Catholic monarchs, who sometimes used it as the mozzetta cape. It has long been used on the ceremonial robes of members of the United Kingdom House of Lords. It was also used in capes on images such as the Infant Jesus of Prague.

The stoat was introduced into New Zealand in the late 19th century to control rabbits. However, they have had a devastating effect on native bird populations; as such, the species was nominated as one of the world's top 100 "worst invaders".<ref>{{harvnb |Invasive Species Specialist Group}}</ref>

==Etymology== The root word for "stoat" is likely either the Dutch word {{lang|nl|stout}} ("bold")<ref name="c124" /> or the Gothic word {{lang|got|𐍃𐍄𐌰𐌿𐍄𐌰𐌽}} ({{lang|got-Latn|stautan}}, "to push").<ref name="j160">{{Harvnb|Johnston|1903|p=160}}</ref> According to John Guillim, in his ''Display of Heraldrie'', the word "ermine" is likely derived from Armenia, the nation where it was thought the species originated,<ref name="c124">{{Harvnb|Coues|1877|pp=124–125}}</ref> though other authors have linked it to the Norman French from the Teutonic {{lang|gem|harmin}} (Anglo-Saxon {{lang|ang|hearma}}). This seems to come from the Lithuanian word {{lang|lt|šarmu}}.<ref name="j160" /> In North America it is called a short-tailed weasel. A male stoat is called a ''dog'', ''hob'', or ''jack'', while a female is called a ''jill''. The collective noun for stoats is either ''gang'' or ''pack''.<ref name="h456">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=456}}</ref>

== Taxonomy == Formerly considered a single species with a very wide circumpolar range, a 2021 study split ''M. erminea'' into three species: ''M. erminea sensu stricto'' (Eurasia and Alaska), ''M. richardsonii'' (most of North America), and ''M. haidarum'' (several islands off the Pacific Northwest coast).<ref name="Colella_al2021">{{harvnb |Colella|Frederick|Talbot|Cook|2021|pp=747–762}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb |Fleming|Cook|2002|pp=795–807}}</ref><ref name="Mammal Diversity Database">{{harvnb |Mammal Diversity Database}}</ref>

===Subspecies=== {{As of|2021}}, 21 subspecies are recognized.<ref name="Colella_al2021" /> {{Clear}} {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;" |- style="background:#115a6c;" !Image !Subspecies !Common name !Description !Range !Synonyms |- | |''M. e. erminea'' Linnaeus, 1758 (Nominate subspecies) |Northern stoat |Small-to-medium-sized with a relatively short and broad facial region<ref name="s1010">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|p=1010}}</ref> |The Kola Peninsula, Scandinavia |''hyberna'' (Kerr, 1792) ''maculata'' (Billberg, 1827) |- |150 px |''M. e. aestiva'' Kerr, 1792 |Middle Russian stoat |Moderately sized with dark, tawny or chestnut summer fur<ref name="s1010" /> |European Russia (except for the Kola Peninsula), Central and Western Europe |''algiricus'' (Thomas, 1895) ''alpestris'' (Burg, 1920) ''giganteus'' (Burg, 1920) ''major'' (Nilsson, 1820) |- |150 px |''M. e. arctica'' Merriam, 1826 |Tundra stoat |Large, with a dark yellowish-brown summer coat, a deep yellow underbelly and a massive skull; it resembles the Eurasian stoat subspecies more closely than any other American stoat subspecies<ref name="m15">{{Harvnb|Merriam|1896|p=15}}</ref> |Alaska, northwestern Canada, and the Arctic Archipelago (except for Baffin Island) |''audax'' (Barrett-Hamilton, 1904) ''kadiacensis'' (Merriam, 1896) ''kadiacensis'' (Osgood, 1901) ''richardsonii'' (Bonaparte, 1838) |- | |''M. e. augustidens'' Brown, 1908 | | | | |- | |''M. e. ferghanae'' Thomas, 1895 |Fergana stoat |Small; very light, straw-brownish or greyish coat, which is short and soft. Light spots on the neck, sometimes forming a collar. It does not turn white in winter.<ref name="s1014">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|p=1014}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Kotia|Angmo|Bharti|Adhikari|Rawat|2011|pp=42–43}}</ref> |Tien Shan and Pamir-Alay mountains, Afghanistan, India, western Tibet and the adjacent parts of the Tien Shan in China |''shnitnikovi'' (Ognev, 1935) ''whiteheadi'' (Wroughton, 1908) |- |150 px |''M. e. hibernica'' Thomas and Barrett-Hamilton, 1895 |Irish stoat |Larger than ''aestiva'', but smaller than ''stabilis''. Distinguished by the irregular pattern on the dividing line between the dark and pale fur on the flanks, though 13.5% of Irish stoats exhibit the more typical straight dividing line.<ref name="h459">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=459}}</ref> They do not turn white in winter.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.irishexaminer.com/lifestyle/outdoors/arid-41215027.html|title=Anja Murray: If you manage to spot a stoat, let the first-ever Irish stoat survey know|first=Anja|last=Murray|date=August 30, 2023|website=Irish Examiner}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/environment/another-life-our-stoats-are-a-rare-link-to-an-ancient-ecosystem-1.1798815|title=Another Life: Our stoats are a rare link to an ancient ecosystem|first=Michael|last=Viney|newspaper=The Irish Times}}</ref> |Ireland and Isle of Man | |- | |''M. e. kadiacensis'' Merriam, 1896 |Kodiak stoat | |Kodiak Island | |- | |''M. e. kaneii'' Baird, 1857 |East Siberian stoat (known locally as Ezo stoat in Japan) |Moderately sized, it is smaller than ''M. e. tobolica'', with close similarities to ''M. e. arctica''. The summer coat is relatively light coloured, with varying intensities of browning-yellow tinges.<ref name="s1012" /> |Eastern Siberia and the Russian Far East including Kamchatka, except the Amur Oblast and Ussuriland, Transbaikalia and the Sayan Mountains. Also in Hokkaidō. |''baturini'' (Ognev, 1929) ''digna'' (Hall, 1944) ''kamtschatica'' (Dybowski, 1922) ''kanei'' (G. Allen, 1914) ''naumovi'' (Jurgenson, 1938) ''orientalis'' (Ognev, 1928) ''transbaikalica'' (Ognev, 1928) |- | |''M. e. karaginensis'' Jurgenson, 1936 |Karaginsky stoat |Very small, with a light chestnut-coloured summer coat<ref name="s1013">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|p=1013}}</ref> |Karaginsky Island, along the eastern coast of Kamchatka | |- | |''M. e. lymani'' Hollister, 1912 |Altai stoat |Moderately sized with less dense fur than ''M. e. tobolica''. The summer coat consists of weakly developed reddish-brown tones. The skull is similar to that of ''M. e. aestiva''.<ref name="s1012">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|p=1012}}</ref> |The mountains of southern Siberia eastwards to Baikal and the contiguous parts of Mongolia | |- | |''M. e. martinoi'' Ellerman and Morrison-Scott, 1951 | | | |''birulai'' (Martino and Martino, 1930) |- | |''M. e. minima'' Cavazza, 1912 |Swiss stoat | |Switzerland | |- | |''M. e. mongolica'' Ognev, 1928 |Gobi stoat | |The Govi-Altai Province | |- |150 px |''M. e. nippon'' Cabrera, 1913 |Japanese stoat | |northern Honshū | |- | | ''M. e. ognevi''

Jurgenson, 1932 | | | | |- | |''M. e. polaris'' Barrett-Hamilton, 1904 |Polar stoat | |Greenland | |- | |''M. e. ricinae'' Miller, 1907 |Hebrides stoat | |The Hebrides | |- | |''M. e. salva'' Hall, 1944 | | | | |- |150 px |''M. e. stabilis'' Barrett-Hamilton, 1904 |British stoat |Larger than mainland European stoats<ref name="h459" /> |Great Britain; introduced to New Zealand | |- | |''M. e. teberdina'' Korneev, 1941 |Caucasian stoat |Small, with a coffee to reddish-tawny summer coat<ref name="s1010" /> |The northern slope of the middle part of the main Caucasus range |''balkarica'' (Basiev, 1962) |- | |''M. e. tobolica'' Ognev, 1923 |Tobolsk stoat |Large; it is somewhat larger than ''aestiva'', with long and dense fur.<ref name="s1011">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|p=1011}}</ref> |Western Siberia, eastwards to the Yenisei and Altai Mountains and in Kazakhstan | |}

==Evolution== The stoat's direct ancestor was ''Mustela palerminea'', a common carnivore in central and eastern Europe during the Middle Pleistocene,<ref name="k101">{{Harvnb|Kurtén|1968|pp=101–102}}</ref> that spread to North America during the late Blancan or early Irvingtonian.<ref name="k150">{{Harvnb|Kurtén|1980|p=150}}</ref> The stoat is the product of a process that began 5–7 million years ago, when northern forests were replaced by open grassland, thus prompting an explosive evolution of small, burrowing rodents. The stoat's ancestors were larger than the current form, and underwent a reduction in size as they exploited the new food source. The stoat first arose in Eurasia, shortly after the long-tailed weasel, which is in a different genus (''Neogale''), arose as its mirror image in North America 2 million years ago. The stoat thrived during the Ice Age, as its small size and long body allowed it to easily operate beneath snow, as well as hunt in burrows. The stoat and the long-tailed weasel remained separated until 500,000 years ago, when falling sea levels exposed the Bering land bridge.<ref name="mac205">{{Harvnb|Macdonald|1992|p=205}}</ref>

Fossilised stoat remains have been recovered from Denisova Cave.<ref>{{harvnb|Puzachenko|Titov|Kosintsev|2021|pp=155–191}}</ref> Combined phylogenetic analyses indicate the stoat's closest living relatives are the American ermine (''M. richardsonii'') and Haida ermine (''M. haidarum''), the latter of which partially descends from ''M. erminea''.<ref name="Colella_al2021" /> It is basal to most other members of ''Mustela'', with only the yellow-bellied (''M. kathia''), Malayan (''M. katiah''), and back-striped (''M. strigidorsa'') weasels being more basal.<ref name="Law-2018">{{harvnb|Law|Slater|Mehta|2018|pp=127–144}}</ref> The mountain weasel (''Mustela altaica'') was formerly considered its closest relative although more recent analyses have found it to be significantly more derived. It was also previously thought to be allied with members of the genus ''Neogale'' such as the long-tailed weasel, but as those species have since been separated into a new genus, this is likely not the case.<ref name="h458">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=458}}</ref>

==Description== ===Build=== thumb|Stoat (left) and least weasel (right) pelts—note the stoat's larger size and black tail-tip thumb|Skull The stoat is similar to the least weasel in general proportions, manner of posture, and movement, though the tail is relatively longer, always exceeding a third of the body length,{{clarify|date=March 2023|reason=define what this means: including tail?}}<ref name="s997">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|p=997}}</ref> though it is shorter than that of the long-tailed weasel. The stoat has an elongated neck, the head being set exceptionally far in front of the shoulders. The trunk is nearly cylindrical, and does not bulge at the abdomen. The greatest circumference of body is little more than half its length.<ref name="c117">{{Harvnb|Coues|1877|pp=117–121}}</ref> The skull, although very similar to that of the least weasel, is relatively longer, with a narrower braincase. The projections of the skull and teeth are weakly developed, but stronger than those of the least weasel.<ref name="s999">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|p=999}}</ref> The eyes are round, black and protrude slightly. The whiskers are brown or white in colour, and very long. The ears are short, rounded and lie almost flattened against the skull. The claws are not retractable, and are large in proportion to the digits. Each foot has five toes. The male stoat has a curved baculum with a proximal knob that increases in weight as it ages.<ref name="h457"/> Fat is deposited primarily along the spine and kidneys, then on gut mesenteries, under the limbs and around the shoulders. The stoat has four pairs of nipples, though they are visible only in females.<ref name="h457">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=457}}</ref>

thumb|Skeleton The dimensions of the stoat are variable, but not as significantly as the least weasel's.<ref name="s1002"/> Unusual among the Carnivora, the size of stoats tends to decrease proportionally with latitude, in contradiction to Bergmann's rule.<ref name="k101"/> Sexual dimorphism in size is pronounced, with males being roughly 25% larger than females and 1.5–2.0 times their weight.<ref name="h459"/> On average, males measure {{cvt|187|–|325|mm}} in body length, while females measure {{cvt|170|–|270|mm}}. The tail measures {{cvt|75|–|120|mm}} in males and {{cvt|65|–|106|mm}} in females. In males, the hind foot measures {{cvt|40.0|–|48.2|mm}}, while in females it is {{cvt|37.0|–|47.6|mm}}. The height of the ear measures {{cvt|18.0|–|23.2|mm}} in males and {{cvt|14.0|–|23.3|mm}}. The skulls of males measure {{cvt|39.3|–|52.2|mm}} in length, while those of females measure {{cvt|35.7|–|45.8|mm}}. Males average {{cvt|258|g}} in weight, while females weigh less than {{cvt|180|g}}.<ref name="s1002">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|p=1002}}</ref>

The stoat has large anal scent glands measuring {{cvt|8.5|x|5|mm}} in males and smaller in females. Scent glands are also present on the cheeks, belly and flanks.<ref name="h457"/> Epidermal secretions, which are deposited during body rubbing, are chemically distinct from the products of the anal scent glands, which contain a higher proportion of volatile chemicals. When attacked or being aggressive, the stoat secretes the contents of its anal glands, giving rise to a strong, musky odour produced by several sulphuric compounds. The odour is distinct from that of least weasels.<ref name="h460"/>

===Fur=== alt=A stoat in winter fur|thumb|A stoat in winter fur The winter fur is very dense and silky, but quite closely lying and short, while the summer fur is rougher, shorter and sparse.<ref name="s997"/> In summer, the fur is sandy-brown on the back and head and a white below. The division between the dark back and the light belly is usually straight, though this trait is only present in 13.5% of Irish stoats. The stoat moults twice a year. In spring, the moult is slow, starting from the forehead, across the back, toward the belly. In autumn, the moult is quicker, progressing in the reverse direction. The moult, initiated by photoperiod, starts earlier in autumn and later in spring at higher latitudes. In the stoat's northern range, it adopts a completely white coat (save for the black tail-tip) during the winter period.<ref name="h457"/> Differences in the winter and summer coats are less apparent in southern forms of the species.<ref name="s998">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|p=998}}</ref> In the species' southern range, the coat remains brown, but is denser and sometimes paler than in summer.<ref name="h457"/>

==Distribution and habitat== The stoat has a circumboreal range throughout North America, Europe, and Asia. The stoat in Europe is found as far south as 41ºN in Portugal, and inhabits most islands with the exception of Iceland, Svalbard, the Mediterranean islands and some small North Atlantic islands. In Japan, it is present in central mountains (northern and central Japanese Alps) to northern part of Honshu (primarily above 1,200 m) and Hokkaido. Its vertical range is from sea level to {{cvt|3000|m}}.<ref name=iucn/> In North America, it is found throughout Alaska and western Yukon to most of Arctic Canada east to Greenland. Throughout the rest of North America, as well as parts of Nunavut, including Baffin Island and some islands in southeast Alaska, it is replaced by ''M. richardsonii''.<ref name=Colella_al2021/>

Stoats have been present in Orkney, north of Scotland, since 2010, where they are a predator of the Orkney vole<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.orkneyjar.com/archaeology/2013/09/04/revealed-the-orkney-voles-prehistoric-links-to-belgium/|title=Orkney vole is from Belgium|work=Orkneyjar |date=4 September 2013 |access-date=10 April 2016|archive-date=30 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160730022721/http://www.orkneyjar.com/archaeology/2013/09/04/revealed-the-orkney-voles-prehistoric-links-to-belgium/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.orkneyjar.com/archaeology/2006/11/30/academics-ponder-orkneys-fox-farming-past/|title=Orkney Fox in Neolithic era|work=Orkneyjar |date=30 November 2006 |access-date=10 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205013541/http://www.orkneyjar.com/archaeology/2006/11/30/academics-ponder-orkneys-fox-farming-past/|archive-date=5 February 2017}}</ref> and native bird populations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.snh.gov.uk/land-and-sea/managing-wildlife/orkney-stoats/|title=Orkney Stoats|access-date=10 April 2016|archive-date=21 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421212243/http://www.snh.gov.uk/land-and-sea/managing-wildlife/orkney-stoats/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2018, a stoat eradication plan, the Orkney Native Wildlife Project, was applied across the archipelago.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nature.scot/sites/default/files/2020-05/Orkney%20Native%20Wildlife%20Project%20-%20SEA%20consultation%20-%20SEA%20Environmental%20report.pdf |title=The Orkney Native Wildlife Project |access-date=2 February 2021 |archive-date=18 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818210934/https://www.nature.scot/sites/default/files/2020-05/Orkney%20Native%20Wildlife%20Project%20-%20SEA%20consultation%20-%20SEA%20Environmental%20report.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-north-east-orkney-shetland-45975295 |title=Orkney stoat eradication project awarded £6m |work=BBC News |date=25 October 2018 |access-date=2 February 2021 |archive-date=16 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210816103308/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-north-east-orkney-shetland-45975295 |url-status=live }}</ref> By 2024 the Orkney Native Wildlife Project had spent £7.9m trapping more than 6,300 stoats.<ref>{{cite news |title=Orkney project granted extra £4m to remove stoats |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c624zgp5314o |access-date=21 October 2025 |work=BBC News |date=14 August 2024}}</ref>

===Introduction to New Zealand=== {{main|Stoat in New Zealand}}

Stoats were introduced into New Zealand during the late 19th century to control rabbits and hares, but are now a major threat to native bird populations. The introduction of stoats was opposed by scientists in New Zealand and Britain, including the New Zealand ornithologist Walter Buller. The warnings were ignored and stoats began to be introduced from Britain in the 1880s, resulting in a noticeable decline in bird populations within six years.<ref>{{harvnb|King|1984}}{{page needed|date=June 2025}}</ref> Stoats are a serious threat to ground- and hole-nesting birds, since the latter have very few means of escaping predation. The highest rates of stoat predation occur after seasonal gluts in southern beechmast (beechnuts), which enable the reproduction of rodents on which stoats also feed, enabling stoats to increase their own numbers.<ref>{{harvnb|Purdey|King|Lawrence|2004|pp=205–225}}</ref> For instance, the endangered South Island takahē's wild population dropped by a third between 2006 and 2007, after a stoat plague triggered by the 2005–06 mast wiped out more than half the takahē in untrapped areas.<ref>{{harvnb|Stuff.co.nz|2008}}</ref>

==Behaviour and ecology== ===Reproduction and development=== thumb|Young stoat In the Northern Hemisphere, mating occurs in the April–July period. In spring, the male's testes are enlarged, a process accompanied by an increase of testosterone concentration in the plasma. Spermatogenesis occurs in December, and the males are fertile from May to August, after which the testes regress.<ref>{{harvnb|Gulamhusein|Tam|1974|pp=303–312}}</ref> Female stoats are usually only in heat for a brief period, which is triggered by changes in day length.<ref name="k215">{{Harvnb|King|Powell|2007|pp=215}}</ref> Copulation can last as long as 1 hour.<ref>{{harvnb|Amstislavsky|Ternovskaya|2000|pp=571–581}}</ref> Stoats are not monogamous, with litters often being of mixed paternity. Stoats undergo embryonic diapause, meaning that the embryo does not immediately implant in the uterus after fertilization, but rather lies dormant for a period of nine to ten months.<ref name="k209">{{Harvnb|King|Powell|2007|pp=209–210}}</ref> The gestation period is therefore variable but typically around 300 days, and after mating in the summer, the offspring will not be born until the following spring – adult female stoats spend almost all their lives either pregnant or in heat.<ref name="k215"/> Females can reabsorb embryos and in the event of a severe winter they may reabsorb their entire litter.<ref name="k255">{{Harvnb|King|Powell|2007|pp=255}}</ref> Males play no part in rearing the young, which are born blind, deaf, toothless and covered in fine white or pinkish down. The milk teeth erupt after three weeks, and solid food is eaten after four weeks. The eyes open after five to six weeks, with the black tail-tip appearing a week later. Lactation ends after 12 weeks. Prior to the age of five to seven weeks, kits have poor thermoregulation, so they huddle for warmth when the mother is absent. Males become sexually mature at 10–11 months, while females are sexually mature at the age of 2–3 weeks whilst still blind, deaf and hairless, and are usually mated with adult males before being weaned.<ref name="h464">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|pp=464–465}}</ref>

===Territorial and sheltering behaviour=== thumb|Stoat nesting in a hollow tree Stoat territoriality has a generally mustelid spacing pattern, with male territories encompassing smaller female territories, which they defend from other males. The size of the territory and the ranging behaviour of its occupants varies seasonally, depending on the abundance of food and mates. During the breeding season, the ranges of females remain unchanged, while males either become roamers, strayers or transients. Dominant older males have territories 50 times larger than those of younger, socially inferior males. Both sexes mark their territories with urine, feces and two types of scent marks; anal drags are meant to convey territorial occupancy, and body rubbing is associated with agonistic encounters.<ref name="h460">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|pp=460–461}}</ref>

The stoat does not dig its own burrows, instead using the burrows and nest chambers of the rodents it kills. The skins and underfur of rodent prey are used to line the nest chamber. The nest chamber is sometimes located in seemingly unsuitable places, such as among logs piled against the walls of houses. The stoat also inhabits old and rotting stumps, under tree roots, in heaps of brushwood, haystacks, in bog hummocks, in the cracks of vacant mud buildings, in rock piles, rock clefts, and even in magpie nests. Males and females typically live apart, but close to each other.<ref name="s1021">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1021–1022}}</ref> Each stoat has several dens dispersed within its range. A single den has several galleries, mainly within {{cvt|30|cm}} of the surface.<ref name="h461">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=461}}</ref>

===Diet=== As with the least weasel, mouse-like rodents predominate in the stoat's diet. It regularly preys on larger rodent and lagomorph species, and takes individuals far larger than itself. In Russia, its prey includes rodents and lagomorphs such as European water voles, common hamsters, pikas and others, which it overpowers in their burrows. Prey species of secondary importance include small birds, fish, and shrews and, more rarely, amphibians, lizards, and insects.<ref name="s1018">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|p=1018}}</ref> It also preys on lemmings.<ref>{{harvnb| American Association For The Advancement Of Science|2003}}</ref> In Great Britain, European rabbits are an important food source, with the frequency in which stoats prey on them having increased between the 1960s and mid 1990s since the end of the myxomatosis epidemic. Typically, male stoats prey on rabbits more frequently than females do, which depend to a greater extent on smaller rodent species. British stoats rarely kill shrews, rats, squirrels and water voles, though rats may be an important food source locally. In Ireland, shrews and rats are frequently eaten. In mainland Europe, water voles make up a large portion of the stoat's diet. Hares are sometimes taken, but are usually young specimens. In New Zealand, the stoat feeds principally on birds, including the rare kiwi, kaka, mohua, yellow-crowned parakeet, and New Zealand dotterel.<ref name="h463">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=463}}</ref> Cases are known of stoats preying on young muskrats. The stoat typically eats about {{cvt|50|g}} of food a day, which is equivalent to 25% of the animal's live weight.<ref name="s1020">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|p=1020}}</ref>

[[File:Stoat killing a rabbit.jpg|thumb|Stoat killing a European rabbit]] The stoat is an opportunistic predator that moves rapidly and checks every available burrow or crevice for food. Because of their larger size, male stoats are less successful than females in pursuing rodents far into tunnels. Stoats regularly climb trees to gain access to birds' nests, and are common raiders of nest boxes, particularly those of large species. The stoat reputedly mesmerises prey such as rabbits by a "dance" (sometimes called the weasel war dance), though this behaviour could be linked to ''Skrjabingylus'' infections.<ref name="h463"/> The stoat seeks to immobilize large prey such as rabbits with a bite to the spine at the back of the neck. The stoat may surplus kill when the opportunity arises; excess prey is usually cached and eaten later. Overweight stoats would be at a disadvantage when pursuing prey into their burrows.<ref name="v417">{{Harvnb|Verts|Carraway|1998|p=417}}</ref> Small prey typically die instantly from a bite to the back of the neck, while larger prey, such as rabbits, typically die of shock, as the stoat's canine teeth are too short to reach the spinal column or major arteries.<ref name="h463"/>

===Communication=== The stoat is a usually silent animal; however, it can produce a range of sounds similar to those of the least weasel. Kits produce a fine chirping noise. Adults trill excitedly before mating, and indicate submission through quiet trilling, whining and squealing. When nervous, the stoat hisses, and will intersperse this with sharp barks or shrieks and prolonged screeching when aggressive.<ref name="h460"/>

Aggressive behavior in stoats is categorized in these forms:<ref name="h460"/> * Noncontact approach, which is sometimes accompanied by a threat display and vocalization from the approached animal * Forward thrust, accompanied by a sharp shriek, which is usually done by stoats defending a nest or retreat site * Nest occupation, when a stoat appropriates the nesting site of a weaker individual * Kleptoparasitism, in which a dominant stoat appropriates the kill of a weaker one, usually after a fight.

Submissive stoats express their status by avoiding higher-ranking animals, fleeing from them or making whining or squealing sounds.<ref name="h460"/>

===Predators=== Larger mammalian predators such as red foxes (''Vulpes vulpes'') and sables (''Martes zibellina'') are known to prey on stoats.<ref name="s1025">{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|p=1025}}</ref> Additionally, a wide range of birds of prey can take stoats, from small northern hawk-owls (''Surnia ulula'') and short-eared owls (''Asio flammeus'') to various buzzards, kites, goshawks, and even Eurasian eagle-owls (''Bubo bubo'') and golden eagles (''Aquila chrysaetos'').<ref>{{harvnb|Korpimäki|Norrdahl|1989|pp=205–215}}</ref> Although not classified as birds of prey, grey herons (''Ardea cinerea'') are known to prey on stoats.<ref>{{harvnb|Sawara|Sakuyama|Demachi|1994|pp=61–71}}</ref>

===Diseases and parasites=== Tuberculosis has been recorded in stoats inhabiting the former Soviet Union and New Zealand. They are largely resistant to tularemia, but are reputed to suffer from canine distemper in captivity. Symptoms of mange have also been recorded.<ref name="h466">{{Harvnb|Harris|Yalden|2008|p=466}}</ref>

Stoats are vulnerable to ectoparasites associated with their prey and the nests of other animals on which they do not prey. The louse ''Trichodectes erminea'' is recorded in stoats living in Canada, Ireland and New Zealand. In continental Europe, 26 flea species are recorded to infest stoats, including ''Rhadinospylla pentacantha'', ''Megabothris rectangulatus'', ''Orchopeas howardi'', ''Spilopsyllus ciniculus'', ''Ctenophthalamus nobilis'', ''Dasypsyllus gallinulae'', ''Nosopsyllus fasciatus'', ''Leptospylla segnis'', ''Ceratophyllus gallinae'', ''Parapsyllus n. nestoris'', ''Amphipsylla kuznetzovi'' and ''Ctenopsyllus bidentatus''. Tick species known to infest stoats are ''Ixodes canisuga'', ''I. hexagonus'', ''I. ricinus'' and ''Haemaphysalis longicornis''. Louse species known to infest stoats include ''Mysidea picae'' and ''Polyplax spinulosa''. Mite species known to infest stoats include ''Neotrombicula autumnalis'', ''Demodex erminae'', ''Eulaelaps stabulans'', ''Gymnolaelaps annectans'', ''Hypoaspis nidicorva'', and ''Listrophorus mustelae''.<ref name="h466"/>

The nematode ''Skrjabingylus nasicola'' is particularly threatening to stoats, as it erodes the bones of the nasal sinuses and decreases fertility. Other nematode species known to infect stoats include ''Capillaria putorii'', ''Molineus patens'' and ''Strongyloides martes''. Cestode species known to infect stoats include ''Taenia tenuicollis'', ''Mesocestoides lineatus'' and rarely ''Acanthocephala''.<ref name="h466"/>

==In culture== [[File:Lady with an Ermine - Leonardo da Vinci (adjusted levels).jpg|thumb|Leonardo da Vinci's ''Lady with an Ermine'' (1489–1491), National Museum, Kraków]]

===Folklore and mythology=== In Irish mythology, stoats were viewed anthropomorphically as animals with families, which held rituals for their dead. They were also viewed as noxious animals prone to thieving, and their saliva was said to be able to poison a grown man. To encounter a stoat when setting out for a journey was considered bad luck, but one could avert this by greeting the stoat as a neighbour.<ref>{{harvnb|Monaghan|2004|p=426}}</ref> Stoats were also supposed to hold the souls of infants who died before baptism.<ref>{{harvnb|Daniels|Stevans|2003}}{{page needed|date=June 2025}}</ref>

In the folklore of the Komi people of the Urals, stoats are symbolic of beautiful and coveted young women.<ref>{{harvnb|Laakso|2005}}{{page needed|date=June 2025}}</ref>

One popular European legend had it that a white stoat would die before allowing its pure white coat to be besmirched. When it was being chased by hunters, it would supposedly turn around and give itself up to the hunters rather than risk soiling itself.<ref>{{harvnb|Sax|2001}}{{page needed|date=June 2025}}</ref>

===Milano Cortina 2026=== {{Main|Tina and Milo}}

Tina and Milo|thumb | right The stoat was the inspiration for the mascots "'''Tina and Milo'''" at the Milano Cortina Olympic and Paralympic winter games of 2026.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023|title=Milano-Cortina: dalla Calabria la mascotte delle Olimpiadi |url=https://www.ansa.it/lombardia/notizie/2023/03/01/milano-cortina-dalla-calabria-la-mascotte-delle-olimpiadi_45047494-c541-4735-a4a9-343d4f06cd67.html |access-date=7 February 2024|work=Agenzia ANSA |language=it}}</ref> Their names are derived from the names of the host cities of the games, Milan and Cortina d’Ampezzo.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2024 |last=Di Grazia|first=I. |title=Sanremo 2024, diretta seconda serata Incursione del signor Ruggero di Viva Rai2. I cantanti diventano presentatori. Giorgia co-conduttrice |access-date=7 February 2024 |work=Leggo|language=it |url=https://www.leggo.it/spettacoli/sanremo_2024_diretta_seconda_serata_oggi_7_2_2024-7921062.html }}</ref>

They are portrayed as sister and brother.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Di Grazia |first=Ida |date=7 February 2024 |title=Sanremo 2024, diretta seconda serata Incursione del signor Ruggero di Viva Rai2. I cantanti diventano presentatori. Giorgia co-conduttrice |url=https://www.leggo.it/spettacoli/sanremo_2024_diretta_seconda_serata_oggi_7_2_2024-7921062.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240207201839/https://www.leggo.it/spettacoli/sanremo_2024_diretta_seconda_serata_oggi_7_2_2024-7921062.html |archive-date=7 February 2024 |access-date=7 February 2024 |website=Leggo |language=it}}</ref><ref name="mascots">{{Cite web |title=The mascots of Milano Cortina 2026 |url=https://milanocortina2026.olympics.com/en/mascotte-2024/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240213130832/https://milanocortina2026.olympics.com/en/mascotte-2024/ |archive-date=13 February 2024 |access-date=9 February 2024 |website=Milano Cortina 2026 |publisher=IOC}}</ref><ref name=":mascots2">{{cite web |date=7 February 2024 |title=Milano Cortina 2026 unveils mascots Tina and Milo |url=https://olympics.com/en/news/milano-cortina-2026-mascots-unveiled-two-years-to-go-celebrations |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240729055510/https://olympics.com/en/news/milano-cortina-2026-mascots-unveiled-two-years-to-go-celebrations |archive-date=29 July 2024 |access-date=7 February 2024 |publisher=International Olympic Committee}}</ref>

Milo was the Paralympic mascot and is portrayed as having been born without a leg and learning to use his tail as a leg; it represents ingenuity, willpower and creativity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://milanocortina2026.olympics.com/en/mascotte-2024/ |title=The mascots of Milano Cortina 2026 |access-date=9 February 2024|work=Olympics}}</ref>

Tina was the Olympic mascot that symbolises art, music, and the transformative force of beauty.<ref name="mascots" />

===Fur use=== {{See also|Ermine (heraldry)}} [[File:William I of the Netherlands.jpg|thumb|Portrait of William I of the Netherlands wearing an ermine-trimmed cape, 1819]] Stoat skins are prized by the fur trade, especially in winter coat, and used to trim coats and stoles. The fur from the winter coat is referred to as ermine and is an ancient symbol of the Duchy of Brittany, forming its earliest flag. There is also a design called ermine inspired by the winter coat of the stoat and painted onto other furs, such as rabbit. In Europe these furs are a symbol of royalty and high status. The ceremonial robes of members of the United Kingdom peerage and the academic hoods of the universities of Oxford and Cambridge are traditionally trimmed with ermine.<ref name="lords">{{harvnb|BBC|1999}}</ref> In practice, rabbit or fake fur is now often used due to expense or animal rights concerns. Prelates of the Catholic Church still wear ecclesiastical garments featuring ermine (a sign of their status equal to that of the nobility). Cecilia Gallerani is depicted holding an ermine in her portrait, ''Lady with an Ermine'', by Leonardo da Vinci. Henry Peacham's ''Emblem 75'', which depicts an ermine being pursued by a hunter and two hounds, is entitled ''Cui candor morte redemptus'' ("Purity Bought with His Own Death"); Peacham goes on to preach that men and women should follow the example of the ermine and keep their minds and consciences as pure as the legendary ermine keeps its fur.<ref>{{harvnb|Gregg}}</ref>

Ermine in heraldry is a fur, a type of tincture, consisting of a white background with a pattern of black shapes representing the winter coat of the stoat. The linings of medieval coronation cloaks and some other garments, usually reserved for use by high-ranking peers and royalty, were made by sewing many ermine furs together to produce a luxurious white fur with patterns of hanging black-tipped tails. Due largely to the association of the ermine fur with the linings of coronation cloaks, crowns and peerage caps, the heraldic tincture of ermine was usually reserved to similar applications in heraldry (i.e., the linings of crowns and chapeaux and of the royal canopy).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Woodcock |first1=T. |last2=Robinson |first2=John Martin |year=1988 |title=The Oxford Guide to Heraldry |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-211658-4 |pages=88–89}}</ref> Ermine, both ''M. erminea'' and ''M. richardsonii'' were also valued by the Tlingit and other indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast. They could be attached to traditional regalia and cedar bark hats as status symbols, or they were also made into shirts.<ref>{{harvnb|Corbis Images}}</ref>

The stoat was a fundamental item in the fur trade of Russia until the 20th century. At times, no less than half the global catch came from within the borders of the former Soviet Union, containing the highest grades of stoat pelts. Stoat harvesting never became a specialty in any part of Russia, with most stoats being captured either in box-traps or jaw-traps, or with dogs. Dogs have typically been used to capture stoats incidentally near villages in Russia, and less often as part of pre-planned hunts. Guns were rarely used, as they could damage the pelt.<ref name=s1029>{{Harvnb|Heptner|Sludskii|2002|pp=1029–1030}}</ref>

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==External links== {{Commons category multi|Mustela erminea|Ermine (clothing)}} {{Wikispecies|Mustela erminea}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20081013032427/http://www.arkive.org/species/ARK/mammals/Mustela_erminea/ Erminea (''Mustela erminea'')] at ARKive * [http://www.funet.fi/pub/sci/bio/life/mammalia/carnivora/mustelidae/mustela/index.html#erminea ''Mustela erminea'' taxonomy] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140617054359/http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/threats-and-impacts/animal-pests/animal-pests-a-z/stoats/you-can-help/ Stoat control information] * [https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7875271.stm Stoat 'playing'(?) in snow] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100603192205/http://www.doc.govt.nz/publications/conservation/land-and-freshwater/offshore-islands/secretary-island-restoration-project/ Fiordland Islands NZ stoat eradication] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090906005439/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/species/Stoat BBC Wildlife finder including video footage and sound files] * [http://www.stevenround-birdphotography.com/Stoat.htm Stoat images] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120731152703/http://www.stevenround-birdphotography.com/Stoat.htm |date=2012-07-31 }} * [http://www.mnh.si.edu/mna/image_info.cfm?species_id=191 Smithsonian Institution—North American Mammals: ''Mustela erminea''] * [http://siwild.si.edu/content/animal-groups/other-carnivores/ermine.htm?species=149 Smithsonian Wild: ''Mustela erminea''] *[https://www.nationalgeographic.fr/animaux/attaques-animales-aussi-mignonne-agressive-lhermine-a-une-technique-de-chasse-improbable stoat in North Africa]

Category:Arctic land animals Category:Carnivorans of Asia Category:Carnivorans of Europe Category:Carnivorans of North America Category:Fur trade Category:Fauna of the Holarctic realm Category:Mammals described in 1758 Category:Animal taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Category:Weasels