{{Short description|Language family of Central and South America}} {{Other uses|Chibcha language (disambiguation)}} {{distinguish|Chicham languages}} {{Infobox language family | name = Chibchan | region = Mosquitia, Panama, and Colombia | familycolor = Chibchan | fam1 = Macro-Chibchan ? | ethnicity = | iso5 = cba | date = 2007 | speakers = 257,500 | ref = <ref name="Pache2018">{{cite dissertation|title=Contributions to Chibchan historical linguistics|last=Pache|first=Matthias J.|type=PhD dissertation|institution=Universiteit Leiden|location=Leiden, Netherlands|date=2018-12-05|url=https://hdl.handle.net/1887/67094|language=English|access-date=2025-04-23|url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|7}} | child1 = ''Pech'' | child2 = Isthmus | child3 = Votic | child4 = Magdalena | glotto = chib1249 | glottorefname = Chibchan | map = Chibcha lang.png | mapcaption = <div style="text-align: center">Distribution of the Chibcha languages</div> | family = One of the world's primary language families }}
The '''Chibchan languages''' (also known as '''Chibchano''') are a language family indigenous to the Isthmo-Colombian Area, a geo-cultural region extending from Mosquitia in eastern Central America to northern Colombia, and encompassing parts of Costa Rica and Panama. The name derives from the now-extinct ''Chibcha'' or ''Muisca'' language, once spoken on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense present day Colombia. Recent genetic and linguistic evidence now indicate that the original nucleus of Chibchan languages and peoples might not have been in Colombia, but along the south-eastern coast of Mosquitia, where the greatest diversity of Chibchan languages has been identified.<ref name="Pache2018" />
==External relations== A larger family called ''Macro-Chibchan'', which would contain the Misumalpan languages, Xinca, and Lenca, was found convincing by Kaufman (1990).<ref>{{cite book|last=Kaufman |first=Terrence |date=1990 |chapter=Language History in South America: What we know and how to know more |editor-first=Doris L. |editor-last=Payne |title= Amazonian Linguistics |pages=13–74 |location=Austin |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=0-292-70414-3}}</ref>
Based primarily on evidence from grammatical morphemes, Pache (2018, 2023) suggests a distant relationship with the Macro-Jê languages.<ref name="Pache2018"/><ref name="Pache 2023">{{cite journal |last=Pache |first=Matthias |title=Evidence For A Chibcha-Jê Connection |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=89 |issue=2 |date=2023 |issn=0020-7071 |doi=10.1086/723641 |pages=219–253}}</ref>
thumb|400x400px|A map showing approximately two dozen Chibchan languages in their approximate locations throughout Central America and northern South America
==Language contact== Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Andaki, Barbakoa, Choko, Duho, Paez, Sape, and Taruma language families due to contact.<ref name="Jolkesky-2016"/>
==Classification==
The Chibchan family was first formally recognized by Max Uhle in an 1890 publication in the journal of the International Congress of Americanists entitled ''Verwandtschaften und Wanderungen der Tschibtscha'' ("Kinships/relationships and migrations of the Chibcha".<ref name="uhl1890"> {{Cite book |title=Compte-rendu de la septième session tenue à Berlin en 1888 |chapter=Verwandtschaften und Wanderungen der Tschibtscha |editor-last=Congrès international des américanistes |publisher=W. H. Kühl |location=Berlin |year=1890 |pages=466–489 |language=De |url=http://archive.org/details/compterendudela09unkngoog |access-date=2026-01-17 }} </ref>
=== Loukotka (1968) === Below is a full list of Chibchan language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.<ref name="Loukotka">{{cite book |last=Loukotka |first=Čestmír |author-link=Čestmír Loukotka |url=https://archive.org/details/classificationof0007louk |title=Classification of South American Indian languages |publisher=UCLA Latin American Center |year=1968 |location=Los Angeles |url-access=registration}}</ref> Loukotka also included other language families, like Barbacoan, Kamëntšá (Camsá), and Paezan, which are no longer accepted as Chibchan.
{{collapse top|expand=yes|Chibchan language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968)}} ;Rama group *'''Rama''' – language spoken around Bluefields Lagoon and on the Rama River, Nicaragua. *'''Melchora''' – extinct language once spoken on the San Juan Melchoras River, Nicaragua. (Unattested.)
;Guatuso group *'''Guatuso''' – spoken on the Frío River, Costa Rica, now perhaps extinct. *'''Guetar''' / '''Brusela''' – extinct language once spoken on the Grande River, Costa Rica. *'''Suerre''' / '''Camachire''' / '''Chiuppa''' – extinct language once spoken on the Tortuguero River, Costa Rica. (Benzoni 1581, p. 214, only five words.) *'''Pocosi''' – extinct language once spoken on the Matina River and around the modern city of Puerto Limón, Costa Rica. (Unattested.) *'''Voto''' – extinct language once spoken at the mouth of the San Juan River, Costa Rica. (Unattested.) *'''Quepo''' – extinct language once spoken in Costa Rica on the Pacuare River. (W. Lehmann 1920, vol. 1, p. 238, only one single word.) *'''Corobisi''' / '''Corbesi''' / '''Cueresa''' / '''Rama de Rio Zapote''' – spoken by a few individuals in Costa Rica on the Zapote River. (Alvarez in Conzemius 1930, pp. 96–99.)
;Talamanca group *'''Terraba''' / '''Depso''' / '''Quequexque''' / '''Brurán''' – extinct language once spoken in Costa Rica on the Tenorio River. *'''Tirub''' / '''Rayado''' / '''Tiribi''' – extinct language spoken once in Costa Rica on the Virilla River. *'''Bribri''' / '''Lari''' – spoken on the Coca River and Tarire River, Costa Rica. *'''Estrella''' – Spanish name of an extinct language, the original name of which is unknown, once spoken on the Estrella River, Costa Rica. *'''Cabecar''' – language spoken on the Moy River, Costa Rica. *'''Chiripó''' – language spoken in Costa Rica on the Matina River and Chirripó River. *'''Viceyta''' / '''Abiseta''' / '''Cachi''' / '''Orosi''' / '''Tucurrique''' – extinct language once spoken on the Tarire River, Costa Rica. *'''Brunca''' / '''Boruca''' / '''Turucaca''' – extinct language of Costa Rica, spoken on the Grande River and in the Boruca region. *'''Coto''' / '''Cocto''' – extinct language once spoken between the sources of the Coto River and Grande River, Costa Rica. (Unattested.)
;Dorasque group *'''Chumulu''' – extinct language once spoken in El Potrero, Veraguas (Potrero de Vargas), Panama. *'''Gualaca''' – extinct language once spoken on the Chiriqui River, Panama. *'''Changuena''' – once spoken in Panama, on the Changuena River.
;Guaymi group *'''Muoi''' – extinct language once spoken in the Miranda Valley of Panama. *'''Move''' / '''Valiente''' – now spoken on the Guaymi River and in the Veragua Peninsula. *'''Norteño''' – dialect without an aboriginal name, spoken on the northern coast of Panama, now perhaps extinct. *'''Penonomeño''' – once spoken in the village of Penonomé. *'''Murire''' / '''Bucueta''' / '''Boncota''' / '''Bogota''' – spoken in the Serranía de Tabasara by a few families. *'''Sabanero''' / '''Savaneric''' / '''Valiente''' – extinct dialect without aboriginal name, once spoken on the plains south of the Serranía de Tabasara. *'''Pariza''' – extinct dialect spoken in the Conquest days on the Veragua Peninsula. (G. Espinosa 1864, p. 496, only one single word.)
;Cuna group *'''Coiba''' – extinct language once spoken on the Chagres River, Panama. (W. Lehmann 1920, vol. I, pp. 112–122; A. Santo Tomas 1908, pp. 124–128, only five words.) *'''Cuna''' / '''Bayano''' / '''Tule''' / '''Mandingo''' / '''San Blas''' / '''Karibe-Kuna''' / '''Yule''' – language spoken in eastern Panama, especially on the Bayano River, in San Blas and the small islands on the northern coast. *'''Cueva''' / '''Darien''' – extinct language Once spoken at the mouth of the Atrato River, Colombia. *'''Chochama''' – extinct language once spoken on the Suegro River, Panama. (Unattested.)
;Antioquia group *'''Guazuzú''' – once spoken in the Sierra de San Jerónimo, department of Antioquia, Colombia. (Unattested.) *'''Oromina''' / '''Zeremoe''' – extinct language once spoken south of the Gulf of Urabá, Antioquia, Colombia. (Unattested.) *'''Catio''' – once spoken in the region of Dabaiba, Colombia. (only a few words.) *'''Hevejico''' – once spoken in the Tonusco and Ebéjico Valleys. (Unattested.) *'''Abibe''' – once spoken in the Sierra de Abibe. (Unattested.) *'''Buritaca''' – once spoken at the sources of the Sucio River. (Unattested.) *'''Caramanta''' – once spoken around the city of Caramanta. *'''Cartama''' – once spoken around the modern city of Cartama. (Unattested.) *'''Pequi''' – once spoken in the Pequi region. (Unattested.) *'''Arma''' – once spoken on the Pueblanco River. (Unattested.) *'''Pozo''' – once spoken on the Pozo River and Pacova River. (Cieza de Leon 1881, p. 26, only one single word.) *'''Nutabé''' – once spoken in the San Andrés Valley. *'''Tahami''' – once spoken on the Magdalena River and Tora River. (Unattested.) *'''Yamesi''' – once spoken at the mouth of the Nechi River and on the Porce River. (Simon 1882–1892, vol. 5, p. 80, only one single word.) *'''Avurrá''' – once spoken in the Aburrá Valley. (Piedrahita (Fernandez de Piedrahita) 1688, cap. 2, f. 9, only one single word.) *'''Guamoco''' – once spoken around the modern city of Zaragoza, Antioquia. (Unattested.) *'''Anserma''' / '''Humbra''' / '''Umbra''' – once spoken on the Cauca River around the city of Anserma, Caldas. (J. Robledo 1865, pp. 389 and 392, only a few words.) *'''Amachi''' – once spoken in the San Bartolomé Valley. (Unattested.)
;Chibcha group *'''Chibcha''' / '''Muisca''' / '''Mosca''' – extinct language once spoken on the upper plateau of Bogotá and Tunja, department of Cundinamarca, Colombia. **'''Duit''' dialect – once spoken on the Tunja River and Tundama River. *'''Tunebo''' / '''Tame''' – language now spoken by many tribes living in the area east of the Chibcha tribe. Dialects: **'''Tegría''' – spoken on the Tegría River, department of Boyaca. (Rochereau 1926–1927, 1946–1950, 1959.) **'''Pedraza''' – spoken on the Pedraza River. **'''Boncota''' – spoken on the Boncota River. **'''Manare''' – spoken on the Manare River. **'''Sinsiga''' / '''Chita''' – spoken in the village of Chita, Boyacá and on the Chisca River. **'''Uncasica''' – spoken in the Sierra Librada. **'''Morcote''' – spoken on the Tocaría River and in the village of Morcote. (Unattested.) *'''Chitarero''' – extinct language once spoken around the modern city of Pamplona, department of Santander. (Unattested.) *'''Lache''' – extinct language once spoken on the Chicamocha River and in the Sierra de Chita, department of Boyacá. (Unattested.)
;Motilon group *'''Dobocubí''' / '''Motilon''' – spoken on the Tarra River and around the old mission of Atacarayo, department of Norte de Santander, Colombia. *'''Bartra''' / '''Cunaguasáya''' – spoken by a tribe on the Oro River, Rincón River, and Lora River in the Norte de Santander region. *'''Mape''' – spoken by a little known tribe on the Catatumbo River and Agua Blanca River in the Norte de Santander region and in the state of Zulia, Venezuela.
;Arhuaco (Arwako) group *'''Tairona''' / '''Teyuna''' – extinct language once spoken on the Frio River and on the Caribbean coast, department of Magdalena, Colombia, now a secret language of the priests in the Cagaba tribe. *'''Zyuimakane''' – extinct language once spoken on the Volador River in the same region. (Unattested.) *'''Bungá''' – extinct language once spoken on the Santa Clara River. (Unattested.) *'''Ulabangui''' – once spoken on the Negro River, in the Santa Clara River region. (Unattested.) *'''Cashingui''' – once spoken on the Palomino River. (Unattested.) *'''Masinga''' – once spoken on the Bonda River, in the Palomino River region. (Unattested.) *'''Bonda''' / '''Matuna''' – once spoken on the Bonda River and Santa María River. (Holmer 1953a, p. 313, only one single word; Preuss 1927, only a few toponyms.) *'''Cágaba''' / '''Köggaba''' / '''Kaugia''' / '''Koghi''' – language spoken in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in the villages of San Andrés, San Miguel, San José, Santa Rosa, and Pueblo Viejo. *'''Guamaca''' / '''Nábela''' / '''Sanha''' / '''Arsario''' – spoken in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta region in the villages of El Rosario, Potrerito, and Marocaso. *'''Bintucua''' / '''Ijca''' / '''Ika''' / '''Iku''' / '''Machaca''' / '''Vintukva''' – spoken in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta region in the village of San Sebastián (near Atanquez). *'''Atanque''' / '''Campanaque''' / '''Busintana''' / '''Buntigwa''' / '''Kallwama''' – spoken in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in the village of Atanquez. *'''Upar''' / '''Eurpari''' / '''Giriguana''' – extinct language once spoken on the César River. (Unattested.) *'''Cariachil''' – once spoken between the Molino River and Fonseca River. (Unattested.) *'''Ocanopán''' / '''Itoto''' – once spoken around Cerro Pintado. (Unattested.)
;Paya group *'''Paya''' / '''Poyuai''' / '''Seco''' – language spoken on the Guayape River and between the Patuca River and Sico River, Honduras. {{collapsebottom}}
=== Constenla === The Costa Rican linguist Adolfo Constenla Umaña proposes a typology of Chibchan languages in four branches. From north to south,{{tree list}} * '''Chibchan''' ** A *** Waimí (Guaymi) **** Guaymí (Ngäbere, Movere) – 170,000 speakers, vulnerable in Panama, endangered in Costa Rica **** Buglere (Bokotá) – 18,000 speakers, endangered *** {{extinct}}Borũca (Brunca) *** Talamanca **** Bribri (Talamanca), 7,000 speakers – vulnerable in Costa Rica, endangered in Panama **** Cabécar (Talamanca) – 8,800 speakers, vulnerable **** Teribe (Norteño) – 3,300 speakers, endangered ** B *** Pech (Paya) – 990 speakers, endangered *** {{extinct}}Dorasque *** Votic **** {{extinct}}Huetar (Güetar) **** Rama – 740 speakers, moribund **** Maléku (Guatuso) – 750 speakers, endangered **** {{extinct}}Corobicí – northwestern Costa Rica **** {{extinct}}Voto *** Guna–Colombian **** Guna (Dulegaya) – 60,600 speakers, vulnerable in Panama, endangered in Colombia **** Chibcha–Motilon ***** Barí (Motilón) – 5,000 speakers, vulnerable ***** Chibcha–Tunebo ****** {{extinct}}Muisca ****** {{extinct}}Duit ****** U'wa (Tunebo) – 2,550 speakers, endangered ****** {{extinct}}Guane – Colombia **** Arwako–Chimila ***** Chimila – 350 speakers, endangered ***** Arwako ****** Wiwa (Malayo, Guamaca) – 1,850 speakers, endangered ****** {{extinct}}Kankuamo ****** Arhuaco (Ikʉ) – 8,000 speakers, vulnerable ****** Kogi (Cogui) – 9,910 speakers, vulnerable {{tree list/end}}
Constenla initially classified the Huetar language as belonging to the Talamanca branch, however, in his last classification from 2008, he included it as a “probable affiliation” among the votic languages. Loukotka (1968), Quesada (1996) and Jolkesky (2016) have classified the Huetar as Votic as well.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Quesada Pacheco |first=Miguel Angel |title=Los Huetares: historia, lengua, etnografía y tradición oral |url = https://archive.org/details/loshuetareshisto00ques | year = 1996 | publisher = Editorial Tecnológica de Costa Rica | isbn = 978-9977-66-070-7}}</ref>
The extinct languages of Antioquia, Old Catío and Nutabe have been shown to be Chibchan (Adelaar & Muysken, 2004:49). The language of the Tairona is unattested, apart from a single word,{{Cn|date=June 2025}} but may well be one of the Arwako languages still spoken in the Santa Marta range. It is said to be used by the Kogi people as a shamanistic ritual language.<ref>{{Citation |last=Bradley |first=David |title=Atlas of the world's languages |date=2007 |editor-last=Asher |editor-first=R. E. |url=https://www.routledge.com/Atlas-of-the-Worlds-Languages/Asher-Moseley/p/book/9781315829845 |access-date=2024-12-17 |edition=2nd |place=London and New York |publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group |isbn=978-0-415-31074-1 |last2=Campbell |first2=Lyle |last3=Comrie |first3=Bernard |last4=Goddard |first4=Ives |last5=Golla |first5=Victor |last6=Irvine |first6=Arthur |last7=Kaufman |first7=Terrence |last8=Mackenzie |first8=J. Lachlan |last9=Mithun |first9=Marianne |editor2-last=Moseley |editor2-first=Christopher}}</ref> The Zenú {{a.k.a.}} Sinú language of northern Colombia is also sometimes included, as are the Malibu languages, though without any factual basis. Zenú is also sometimes linked with the Chocoan languages.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Moseley |first=Christopher |title=Atlas of the world's languages |last2=Asher |first2=Ronald E. |date=1994 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-01925-5 |location=London}}</ref>
Adolfo Constenla Umaña argues that Cueva, the extinct dominant language of Pre-Columbian Panama long assumed to be Chibchan based on a misinterpreted Guna vocabulary, was actually Chocoan, but there is little evidence.
The Cofán language (Kofán, Kofane, A'ingae) of Ecuador and Colombia has been erroneously included in Chibchan due to borrowed vocabulary. [[File:TayronaStatue-highlighted-.jpg|thumb|Monument to the Tairona people in Santa Marta]] On the basis of shared grammatical innovations, Pache (2023) argues that Pech is most closely related to the Arhuacic languages of northern Colombia, forming a Pech-Arhuacic subgroup.<ref name="Pache 2023 Pech">{{cite journal | last=Pache | first=Matthias | title=Pech and the Basic Internal Classification of Chibchan | journal=International Journal of American Linguistics | volume=89 | issue=1 | date=2023-01-01 | issn=0020-7071 | doi=10.1086/722240 | pages=81–103}}</ref>
===Jolkesky (2016)=== Internal classification by Jolkesky (2016):<ref name="Jolkesky-2016">Jolkesky, Marcelo Pinho De Valhery. 2016. ''[http://www.etnolinguistica.org/tese:jolkesky-2016-arqueoecolinguistica Estudo arqueo-ecolinguístico das terras tropicais sul-americanas] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418142223/http://www.etnolinguistica.org/tese:jolkesky-2016-arqueoecolinguistica |date=2021-04-18 }}''. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Brasília.</ref>
({{extinct}} = extinct)
{{tree list}} * '''Chibcha''' ** ''Pech'' ** '''Votic''' *** ''Maleku'' *** ''Rama'' *** {{extinct}}''Wetar'' ** '''Isthmus''' *** Boruka-Talamanca **** ''Boruka'' **** Talamanca ***** ''Teribe'' ***** Bribri-Kabekar ****** ''Bribri'' ****** ''Kabekar'' *** Doraske-Changena **** {{extinct}}''Changena'' **** {{extinct}}''Doraske'' *** Guaymi **** ''Buglere'' **** ''Ngäbe'' *** Kuna **** ''Kuna Paya-Pukuro'' **** ''Kuna San Blas'' ** '''Magdalena''' *** ''Barí'' *** ''Chimila'' *** {{extinct}}''Nutabe'' *** ''U'wa'' *** Muisca **** {{extinct}}''Guane'' **** ''Muisca'' *** Sierra de Santa Marta **** ''Kaggaba'' **** {{extinct}}''Tairona'' **** Wiwa-Ika ***** ''Ika'' ***** {{extinct}}''Kankuamo'' ***** ''Wiwa'' {{tree list/end}}
==Proto-language==<!---Proto-Chibchan redirects here---> {{Infobox proto-language | name = Proto-Chibchan | familycolor = chibchan | ancestor = | child1 = | target = Chibchan languages }}
Pache (2018) is the most recent reconstruction of Proto-Chibchan.<ref name="Pache2018"/> Other reconstructions include Holt (1986).<ref>Holt, Dennis. 1986. ''The Development of the Paya Sound-System''. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.</ref>
Below are Proto-Chibchan vowels according to Pache (2018).<ref name="Pache2018"/> The vowels in parentheses (*ĩ, *e, *o and *õ) appear to have been marginal in the proto-language. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! ! Front ! Central ! Back |- ! High |*i, *(ĩ) | |*u, *ũ |- ! Mid |*(e) | |*(o), *(õ) |- ! Low | |*a, *ã | |}
Below are Proto-Chibchan consonants as described by Pache (2018).<ref name="Pache2018"/> Notably, the proto-language lacked separate nasal stop phonemes and had one liquid consonant, *L, whose exact pronunciation is unknown. Pache speculates it could have been realized as one or more of the following: [ɾ, ɽ, ɺ, l, r]. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" ! colspan="2"| ! Labial ! Coronal ! Velar ! Labiovelar ! Glottal |- ! rowspan="2"| Stop ! {{small|plain}} |*p |*t |*k |*kʷ |*ʔ |- ! {{small|prenasal}} |*ᵐb |*ⁿd |*ᵑɡ |*ᵑɡʷ | |- ! colspan="2"| Affricate | |*ts | | | |- ! colspan="2"| Fricative | |*s | | |*h |- ! colspan="2"| Liquid | |*L | | | |} ===Constenla (1981)=== Proto-Chibchan reconstructions by Constenla (1981):<ref>Constenla Umaña, Adolfo (1981). ''Comparative Chibchan Phonology''. Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.</ref>
{{collapse top|Proto-Chibchan reconstructions by Constenla (1981)}} {| class="wikitable sortable" ! gloss !! Proto-Chibchan |- | arm, hand, shoulder || *ˈkuíkI, *ˈkuí- |- | ashes || *bur-, *buˈrṹ |- | at, in || *skA; *ki; *sə |- | at, in, towards || *ka |- | big (size or quantity) || *təˈĩ |- | bird || *dù |- | blood || *ApÍ |- | boat, craft || *huˈLù |- | body || *AˈpÀ |- | bone || *ˈkàrə |- | breasts || *kAʔ |- | breast || *ˈtsúʔ, *ˈtsúʔtsú |- | brother || *səˈkə |- | brother-in-law || *ˈuba; *ˈduáʔ |- | butterfly || *kuA-, *kuAʔ- |- | cedar (several trees of the ''Cedrela'' genus) || *uˈru |- | ceiba || *puLí, *puLíkI |- | child, young of an animal, egg || *əˈrə̀ |- | child, young of an animal || *ˈuÁʔ- |- | cloth || *ˈsuá- |- | cloud || *ˈbõ̀, *bo- |- | cockroach || *ˈsóx- |- | cocoa || *kə́ˈhùʔ |- | come || *ˈda-; *ˈdI- |- | cook || *ˈdu- |- | cotton || *suˈhí |- | cough, catarrh || *ˈtóʔ |- | crocodile || *ˈkú- |- | cultivated field || *ˈtÌ |- | curassow (''Crax rubra'') || *ˈdubÍ |- | deer || *ˈsur, *ˈsurĩ̀ |- | diminutive || *-ˈaːrə |- | dog || *ˈto |- | dove (common ground dove) || *ˈÚtu- |- | dry || *diˈsə- |- | dry season || *ˈduá- |- | eagle, hawk || *ˈpṹ |- | ear || *ˈkuhkə́, *ˈkuhkuə́ |- | eat, drink || *ˈga- |- | egg, sprout, suckling || *ˈpú |- | emerald toucanet || *dəˈkər̃ə́ |- | enter || *ˈdok- |- | excrement || *ˈgã́ |- | eye || *úb |- | face || *uˈbə́ |- | father || *ˈkáka |- | feline || *dəbə̃́; *kuLÁʔ |- | find || *ˈkũ |- | finger, hand || *ˈkU |- | firewood, fire, coal, live coal || *ˈgÌ |- | first person prefix || *də̃- |- | fish || *ˈuA; *dibÃ̀ |- | five || *sAkẽ́ |- | flesh || *gAtA |- | fly || *ˈkulu |- | foot || *sAˈkə̃ |- | four || *bəhˈke |- | fruit || *ubə́ |- | give birth || *ˈgU- |- | gnat (jején) || *buˈr̃ṹʔ |- | go || *ˈdA- |- | grease || *ˈkiə́ |- | grind || *ˈuʔ |- | grindstone, to sharpen || *ˈiáʔ |- | grow, widen || *təˈlə- |- | guan (bird) || *ˈkũ̀ |- | hand || *AtA; *guLÀ |- | head, hair || *ˈtsã̀ |- | house || *ˈhu |- | how many || *ˈbi |- | hunger || *bAˈLi |- | I || *ˈda |- | jocote (''Spondias purpurea''), jobo (''Spondias mombin'') || *bəˈrə́ʔ |- | kill || *ˈguə |- | know, see || *sũ |- | lake || *iAˈbÁ |- | laugh || *ˈhaĩ |- | laurel (''Cordia alliodora'') || *ˈBúʔ |- | leaf || *ˈkə́ |- | leg || *kəˈrə |- | liquid || *dí; *ˈli |- | lizard || *ulíʔ |- | louse || *ˈkṹ |- | maize || *ˈIBI |- | make || *gU |- | mayo (tree) || *bèk |- | monkey: howler monkey || *úriʔ |- | monkey: spider monkey || *dõ̀, *do- |- | monkey: white-faced monkey || *hòkI |- | moon, month || *siˈhíʔ |- | mother-in-law || *ˈgAkA |- | mouse || *ˈsuhkÌ |- | mouth || *ˈkahkə |- | mud || *ˈdÚ; *oˈr̃i |- | name || *ˈhaká |- | nape, neck || *duˈkurə |- | neck || *ˈgala |- | net || *kAˈlÁʔ |- | nose || *dəˈIkI |- | now || *ˈBə |- | old || *AˈkÍkI; *tAˈlá |- | one || *ˈé ? |- | otter || *doʔ |- | paca (''Agouti paca'') || *ˈkuri |- | peachpalm (''Bactris gasipaes'', ''Guilelma utilis'') || *ˈsúbaʔ |- | peccary (''Tayassu pecari spiradens'') || *siˈdĩ́ʔ |- | peel, undress || *ˈsu- |- | person || *ApÍ- |- | place, time, environment, land || *ˈká |- | plant || *ˈdi |- | poró tree, elequeme tree (synonyms) || *baˈlò |- | pot, vessel, jar || *ˈũ |- | pumpkin, squash || *Apì |- | rattle, maraca, colander, gourd cup (= object elaborated from a gourd) || *ˈtã́ |- | reed || *kəˈru |- | rotten || *ˈdṹ |- | sand || *ˈu; *ˈuBA |- | say || *ˈguA-; *ˈgI |- | sea || *dAgÌ |- | second person prefix || *bi- |- | see || *ˈguəkI |- | seek || *ˈdí |- | seed, plant || *ˈpkua |- | seize, hold || *kaLUh- |- | seven || *ˈkúh- |- | shark || *tAˈLì |- | shrimp || *ˈkUs |- | sing || *ˈtA |- | six || *ˈted |- | skin, bark || *hukə́ |- | sleep || *kAp- |- | small || *ˈ¢id |- | smell, odor || *hALÀ |- | snake || *tAkAbÌ |- | soil, earth, dirt, clay || *ˈtÁBA |- | son || *gAbÀ |- | spider || *óhk |- | squirrel || *kudã́ |- | star || *bÌ- |- | stick (a spear), insert, put in || *ˈtsã |- | stone || *ˈhákI |- | sun || *dì; *ˈka; *dui |- | sweet || *bəˈlóʔ |- | tail || *ˈduhkI |- | tapir || *dAĩ́ʔ |- | take || *ˈgúʔ |- | tear || *ˈubə́diə |- | that || *ˈhéʔ; *ˈse; *ˈkue; *ˈdiÀ |- | third person || *i-; *A |- | this || *ˈdi-; *ˈhíʔ |- | three || *ˈbai |- | tobacco || *ˈdu, *ˈduə̀ |- | tongue || *pkúʔ, *ˈpkuə́ |- | tooth || *ˈtu; *aˈkə |- | toucan sp. || *Biˈli |- | tray (made of wood, used to wash) || *kuˈLIʔ |- | transitive verb marker || *Bə- |- | tree || *ˈkàr; *kaˈri |- | tree, trunk of a tree, wood || *ˈkarə́ |- | tuber || *ˈtuʔ |- | turtle || *kuÌ; *uˈli |- | two || *ˈbU |- | uncle || *kəˈru |- | vulva || *ˈkÍ |- | water || *ˈdíʔ |- | we (inclusive) || *ˈsẽ́ʔ |- | weep || *ˈbo |- | what || *ˈhi |- | where || *biə |- | white || *buLu |- | wind || *ˈBur- |- | with || *uA; *tÁ |- | woodpecker || *soˈr̃o |- | woods, firewood || *ˈbUʔ |- | work || *hiBA |- | worm || *ˈgĩ́ |- | you (sg.) || *ˈbáʔ |- | yucca || *ˈik |} {{collapse bottom}}
Proto-Chibchan horticultural vocabulary (Constenla 2012):<ref>Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. 2012. Chibchan languages. In Lyle Campbell and Verónica Grondona (eds.), ''The Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide'', 391–440. Berlin: Mouton.</ref>
* *dihke 'to sow' * *te<sup>1</sup> 'cultivated clearing' * *ike 'manioc' * *tuʔ 'tuber, yam' (''Dioscorea'' spp.; ''Xanthosoma sagittifolium'') * *apì 'pumpkin, squash' * *e, *ebe 'maize' * *du, *dua<sup>1</sup> 'tobacco' * *tã<sup>1</sup> 'rattles from gourd' * *toka 'gourd cup'
===Pache (2018)=== Proto-Chibchan reconstructions by Pache (2018):<ref name="Pache2018"/>
{{collapse top|Proto-Chibchan reconstructions by Pache (2018)}} {| class="wikitable sortable" ! gloss !! Proto-Chibchan |- | all || *ᵐbaⁿd-; *pii-ⁿda |- | allative/dative || *ka |- | angry || *uⁿdu |- | arm, wing, shoulder || *kwik |- | armadillo || *ⁿduʔ |- | ashes || *ᵐbũⁿd(ũ) |- | aspect, imperfective || *-e |- | aspect, perfective || *-o |- | back || *ⁿda(kiⁿd) ~ *ta(kiⁿd); *ᵑga(ⁿda) |- | bad || *ᵑgwahⁿd; *saⁿd(a) |- | basket, mochila || *si |- | bat || *(ⁿdu-)ku(ⁿd) |- | to bathe, swim || *hauᵐb ~ *aᵐbuʔ |- | to be || *ⁿda(i) ~ *ta(i) |- | beam of light, heat || *ᵐbaʔ |- | beautiful || *ⁿdu |- | bee, honey || *La |- | bee, wasp || *ᵐbuⁿd(u) |- | to begin, start, first || *pahⁿd- |- | belly || *ita ~ *iⁿda ~ *iaⁿd |- | big || *ᵐbuⁿdi ~ *kuⁿdi ~ *kuiⁿd(i); *ᵐbu-ⁿda |- | bile, gall, bitter || *hakiʔ |- | bird, dove || *ⁿdu(ⁿd) |- | blood || *hapi ~ *apiʔ |- | to blow, fly || *kuʔ |- | body || *apa |- | bone, strong, hard || *kãⁿd- |- | bone, hard || *ⁿdaⁿdi ~ ⁿdaiⁿd- / saⁿdi ~ *saiⁿd- |- | breast, teat || *kãʔ; *ʦuʔ |- | breath, wind || *ᵐbuⁿd- |- | brother || *ⁿdaᵐba; *ⁿdaka / *saka |- | brother-in-law || *(ⁿd-)uᵐba |- | butterfly, hat || *kwahkwah |- | calabash || *ⁿdãᵐbã / *sãᵐbã; *taukaʔ |- | to catch, grasp || *ka |- | cedar || *uⁿdu |- | chicha || *ᵐba |- | chicken || *aʦa-kaⁿda |- | child || *ᵑgwaʔ |- | child, small || *ʦu |- | clay, mud || *(taBi-)ⁿda |- | cloud, fog || *ᵐba- |- | coal, hot coal || *kuⁿda |- | cold, cold substance || *ⁿdaᵐba- |- | cold || *ʦãĩh |- | to come || *ⁿda |- | comitative || *ⁿda ~ *ta; *uˈa; *ᵐba |- | to cook || *Li; *ⁿdu |- | cosmos (sky, day, time, space, earth, place) || *kaʔ(k) |- | creeping animal || *ⁿda(ⁿd) / *sa(ⁿd) |- | to dance || *kwi |- | dark || *tuⁿdi ~ *tuiⁿd |- | dative || *ia |- | diarrhea || *ᵑga-ⁿdi(a) |- | to do, make || *õ |- | dog || *tau |- | dove || *ⁿdu-ᵐba(ⁿd) |- | dry || *ⁿdiⁿda / *ⁿdisa; *puⁿd- |- | dust || *kaʔ(k)-puⁿd- |- | earth, floor, mud || *taB(a) |- | to eat || *kuⁿdi ~ *kuiⁿd |- | egg, offspring || *La |- | eight || *hap- |- | to enter || *ⁿdaʔ-u |- | excrement || *ᵑga |- | exterior || *ᵐbaⁿd(a) ~ *ᵐbat(a) |- | face || *ᵑgwa(k) |- | face, eye, fruit || *uᵐba |- | father || *ka(ka) |- | father, uncle, ancestor || *ⁿdũ(-i) |- | feather, wing, arm, hand || *ᵑgak |- | feline || *ⁿdaᵐba; *ku(ⁿd-) |- | field for cultivation || *tai |- | fireplace || *ᵑga-u (ka[k]) |- | firewood || *ᵑgi |- | fish || *ᵑgwa ~ *uᵑg |- | flea || *ᵐbak- |- | foot, root || *kihʦa ~ *kihsa |- | four || *ᵐbahka(i) |- | friend, other || *pai |- | full || *(hi-)iⁿda ~ *(hi-)ita |- | to go || *ᵐb-; *ⁿdaʔ ~ *taʔ |- | god, wind || *siᵐba |- | to grow || *kuH ~ *ᵐbuH |- | hair, head || *ʦa |- | hand || *haⁿd- ~ *hat- |- | hand, arm || *ᵑguⁿdaʔ |- | hand, finger || *kuuʔ |- | to hear || *kuh |- | heart, liver, center || *ᵐbihⁿda ~ *ᵐbihta; *taH(ᵐba) |- | to holler || *ᵐbau(ⁿd) ~ *kau(ⁿd) |- | house || *hu |- | how much, how many || *ᵐbi- |- | human being || *ᵐbaⁿdi ~ *ᵐbaiⁿd |- | hummingbird || *ᵐbiʦi ~ *ᵐbisi |- | hunger || *ᵐbaⁿdi |- | I || *ⁿdaH(ⁿd) |- | instrumental/locative || *ⁿdi |- | jealous || *ᵐbau(ⁿd) |- | to kill || *ᵑgua |- | to know || *ᵑgw- |- | lake, rain || [*ⁿdi-ɡwa] |- | to laugh || *haⁿd |- | leaf || *ka |- | lightning || *Guⁿdi ~ *GuiHⁿd |- | lip || *uk-ⁿda |- | liquid || *ⁿdiʔ-a |- | liver || *haiⁿd |- | locative || *ⁿda ~ *ta; *ki; *ʦika ~ *tsaik |- | to look for, look after || *ⁿdi |- | louse || *kũʔ |- | maize || *aiB ~ aBi |- | manioc || *i(k) |- | meat, flesh || *ᵑgaʔⁿda ~ *ᵑgaʔta; *sih |- | monkey || *huⁿdĩ ~ uⁿdĩʔ |- | moon || *siʔ |- | mosquito || *ʦuiⁿd |- | mother-in-law, daughter-in-law || *ᵑgak |- | mouth || *kah-ka |- | mouth, vagina || *ʦipi |- | name || *haka ~ *akaʔ |- | nape || *ⁿdu-kuⁿd(a) / *ⁿdu-kus(a) |- | neck || *ᵑgaⁿda |- | net || *kaⁿdaʔ |- | new || *(a-)ᵐbihⁿd- ~ *(a-)ᵐbiht- |- | night, dark || *ʦii |- | nine, ten || *uk(a) |- | nominalizer || *-ᵐba; *-ⁿd-; *-ka |- | nose || *ⁿdii(k) |- | (older) sibling, (older) sister || *ᵑgwi |- | only || *ᵐbii |- | open || *kah |- | pale || *siʔ-kwa |- | palm || *huka |- | path || *hi |- | to peel || *suʔ |- | possessed || *-i |- | post, pole || *ʦauⁿd ~ *tsuⁿda |- | pot || *hũ |- | prick, sting, point || *ⁿduk / *suk |- | pumpkin, squash || *apii(s) |- | to put || *eʔ |- | raptor || *pũʔ |- | rattle || *taʔ |- | raw || *tah(-ka) |- | red, yellow, ripe || *taʔBa |- | relational element || *ⁿd(i)-; *ʦ(i)- |- | rodent, large || *kuⁿdi ~ *kuiⁿd |- | rodent, small || *suh(-kui) |- | rope, string || *ki |- | round || *ᵐbiⁿd(i) |- | salt || *ⁿdaᵑg |- | sand || *uB(V)(-ta) |- | to scratch, rub || *ʦuH |- | to see || *su |- | seed || *ⁿduⁿd- |- | seed, fruit || *kwa |- | seven || *kuh |- | side || *suuⁿd |- | to sit (singular) || *ʦaʔ |- | six || *taiⁿd- |- | skin || *huka ~ *huBa ~ kuaʔ |- | to sleep || *kap- |- | small || *Buⁿd-; *ʦiⁿd(a) |- | smell || *Laʔ |- | snake || *takaᵐb- ~ *taᵐbak |- | soft || *ʦiⁿdi |- | son, child || *ᵑgaᵐba |- | to sow || *ⁿdihk- |- | spoon, ladle || *ʦuiⁿd ~ *ʦuⁿdi |- | to stand (singular) || *ⁿdu- |- | stick, bone, tree || *kaⁿd- ~ *kat- |- | stomach || *ⁿduaᵐbih |- | stone || *hak ~ *kaʔ |- | sun, day || *ⁿdi |- | sun, year || *ⁿdu- |- | to swallow, drink, eat || *-hu ~ *-uʔ |- | sweet potato || *Baiʔ |- | tail || *ᵐbaⁿd(a)-; *ⁿduh(k) |- | to take || *ᵑgu |- | to take out, pick up || *hapi ~ *apiʔ |- | tasty || *ᵐbaⁿd- |- | tear || *uᵐba ⁿdiʔa |- | that || *a |- | this || *hi ~ *iʔ |- | three || *ᵐbãʔ(ĩ) |- | throat || *ᵐbi-ⁿdaʔ |- | throat, hole || *kuHⁿdi ~ *kuiHⁿd ~ *BuHⁿdi |- | tobacco || *ⁿdua |- | tongue || *kuʔ(-Ba) |- | tooth (molar) || *haka |- | tooth || *ⁿduʔ |- | turkey, large galliform bird || *(ᵑg)uⁿd- |- | to turn around || *ᵐbuⁿd- ~ *kuⁿd- |- | turtle || *kwi |- | to twist || *ᵐbu |- | two || *ᵐbuuʔ |- | up, sky || *ᵐbii |- | urine || *huʦi ~ *huiʦ |- | valency-reducer || *a-; *aʔ-; *aⁿd- |- | to walk || *ⁿdai |- | to wash || *suh(k) |- | to watch || *ᵑguⁿda ~ *ᵑgwaⁿd |- | water, river || *ⁿdiʔ |- | to wear || *(ⁿd)iˈa |- | white, morning || *ᵐbuⁿd(u) |- | who, someone || *ⁿdi |- | wind || *ᵐbuⁿd-kaⁿd(a) |- | woman (adult) || *ᵐbuⁿdi ~ *ᵐbuiⁿd ~ *ᵑguⁿdi ~ *ᵑguiⁿd |- | woman (young) || *ᵐbus- |- | worm || *ᵑgi |- | wound, trace || *saⁿda |- | to wrap || *ᵐbaʔk |- | you || *ᵐbaʔ |- | young, sprout || *pu |} {{collapse bottom}}
== Vocabulary ==<!--languages sorted from close to Muisca territories to farthest away, refs added for Muisca, others from en: and es:wiki--> {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" ! scope="col" style="vertical-align:top" |{{Transliteration|chb|Muysc cubun}} ! scope="col" style="vertical-align:top" |Duit <small>Boyacá</small> ! scope="col" style="vertical-align:top" |Uwa <small>Boyacá</small> <small>N. de Santander</small> <small>Arauca</small> ! scope="col" style="vertical-align:top" |Barí <small>N. de Santander</small> ! scope="col" style="vertical-align:top" |Chimila <small>Cesar</small> <small>Magdalena</small> ! scope="col" style="vertical-align:top" |Kogui <small>S.N. de</small> <small>Santa Marta</small> ! scope="col" style="vertical-align:top" |Guna <small>Darién Gap</small> ! scope="col" style="vertical-align:top" |Guaymí <small>Panama</small> <small>Costa Rica</small> ! scope="col" style="vertical-align:top" |Boruca <small>Costa Rica</small> ! scope="col" style="vertical-align:top" |Maléku <small>Costa Rica</small> ! scope="col" style="vertical-align:top" |Rama <small>Nicaragua</small> ! scope="col" style="vertical-align:top" |English ! scope="col" style="vertical-align:top" |{{small|Notes}} |- | style="text-align:left" |{{Transliteration|chb|chie}} | style="text-align:center" |tia | style="text-align:center" |siʔ | style="text-align:center" |chibai | style="text-align:center" |má | style="text-align:center" |saka | style="text-align:center" |sö | style="text-align:center" |sö | style="text-align:center" |tebej | style="text-align:center" |tlijii | style="text-align:center" |tukan | style="text-align:center" |Moon | style="text-align:center" |{{small|<ref>{{in lang|es}} ''Diccionario muysca – español''. Gómez, Diego F. 2009–2017 [http://muysca.cubun.org/chie(2) Muysccubun: ''chie'']</ref><ref>Casimilas Rojas, 2005, p. 250</ref><ref>Reichel-Dolmatoff, 1947, p. 30</ref><ref>Quesada & Rojas, 1999, p. 93</ref>}} |- | style="text-align:left" |{{Transliteration|chb|ata}} | style="text-align:center" |atia | style="text-align:center" |úbistia | style="text-align:center" |intok | style="text-align:center" |ti-tasu/nyé | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" |kwati | style="text-align:center" |éˇxi | style="text-align:center" |dooka | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" |one | style="text-align:center" |<ref>{{in lang|es}} ''Diccionario muysca – español''. Gómez, Diego F. 2009–2017 [http://muysca.cubun.org/ata Muysccubun: ''ata'']</ref><ref>Reichel-Dolmatoff, 1947, p. 38</ref> |- | style="text-align:left" |{{Transliteration|chb|muysca}} | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" |dary | style="text-align:center" |tsá | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" |ngäbe | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" |ochápaká | style="text-align:center" |nkiikna | style="text-align:center" |person man people | style="text-align:center" |<ref>{{in lang|es}} ''Diccionario muysca – español''. Gómez, Diego F. 2009–2017 [http://muysca.cubun.org/muysca Muysccubun: ''muysca'']</ref><ref>Reichel-Dolmatoff, 1947, p. 25</ref> |- | style="text-align:left" |{{Transliteration|chb|aba}} | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" |eba | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" |á | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" |maize | style="text-align:center" |<ref>{{in lang|es}} ''Diccionario muysca – español''. Gómez, Diego F. 2009-2017 [http://muysca.cubun.org/aba Muysccubun: ''aba'']</ref><ref>Reichel-Dolmatoff, 1947, p. 37</ref> |- | style="text-align:left" |{{Transliteration|chb|pquyquy}} | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" |tò | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" |heart | style="text-align:center" |<ref>{{in lang|es}} ''Diccionario muysca – español''. Gómez, Diego F. 2009–2017 [http://muysca.cubun.org/pquyquy Muysccubun: ''pquyquy'']</ref> |- | style="text-align:left" |{{Transliteration|chb|bcasqua}} | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" |yút | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" |purkwe | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" |to die | style="text-align:center" |<ref>{{in lang|es}} ''Diccionario muysca – español''. Gómez, Diego F. 2009–2017 [http://muysca.cubun.org/bcasqua Muysccubun: ''bcasqua'']</ref><ref name="Reichel-Dolmatoff, 1947, p. 36">Reichel-Dolmatoff, 1947, p. 36</ref> |- | style="text-align:left" |{{Transliteration|chb|uê}} | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" |háta | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" |ju | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" |uu | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" |house | style="text-align:center" |<ref>{{in lang|es}} ''Diccionario muysca – español''. Gómez, Diego F. 2009–2017 [http://muysca.cubun.org/u%C3%AA Muysccubun: ''uê'']</ref><ref>Reichel-Dolmatoff, 1947, p. 31</ref> |- | style="text-align:left" |{{Transliteration|chb|cho}} | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" |mex | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" |morén | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" |good | style="text-align:center" |<ref>{{in lang|es}} ''Diccionario muysca – español''. Gómez, Diego F. 2009–2017 [http://muysca.cubun.org/cho Muysccubun: ''cho'']</ref><ref>Reichel-Dolmatoff, 1947, p. 18</ref> |- | style="text-align:left" |{{Transliteration|chb|zihita}} | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" |yén | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" |pek-pen | style="text-align:center" | | style="text-align:center" |frog | style="text-align:center" |<ref name="Reichel-Dolmatoff, 1947, p. 36" /><ref>{{in lang|es}} ''Diccionario muysca – español''. Gómez, Diego F. 2009–2017 [http://muysca.cubun.org/zihita Muysccubun: ''zihita'']</ref> |}
== References == {{reflist}}
==Bibliography== * Constenla Umaña, A. (1981). ''Comparative Chibchan Phonology''. (Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia). * Constenla Umaña, A. (1985). Las lenguas dorasque y changuena y sus relaciones genealógicas. ''Filologia y linguística'', 11.2:81–91. * Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. (1991). ''Las lenguas del Área Intermedia: Introducción a su estudio areal''. Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica, San José. * Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. (1995). Sobre el estudio diacrónico de las lenguas chibchenses y su contribución al conocimiento del pasado de sus hablantes. ''Boletín del Museo del Oro'' 38–39: 13–56. * ''Estudios de Lingüística Chibcha'', a journal of Chibchan linguistics, is published by the Universidad de Costa Rica. * Greenberg, Joseph H. (1987). ''Language in the Americas''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. * Headland, E. (1997). ''Diccionario bilingüe con una gramatica Uw Cuwa (Tunebo)''. Bogotá: Summer Institute of Linguistics. * Holt, Dennis (1986). ''The Development of the Paya Sound-System''. (Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Linguistics, University of California, Los Angeles). * Margery Peña, E. (1982). ''Diccionario español-bribri, bribri-español''. San José: Editorial Universidad de Costa Rica. * Margery Peña, E. (1989). ''Diccionario Cabécar-Español, Español-Cabécar''. Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica. * Pinart, A. L. (1890). ''Vocabulario Castellano-Dorasque: Dialectos Chumulu, Gualaca y Changuina''. (Petite Bibliothèque Américaine, 2). Paris: Ernest Leroux. * Pinart, A. L. (1892). ''Vocabulario Guaymie: Dialectos Move-Valiente Norteño y Guaymie Penonomeño''. (Petite Bibliothèque Américaine, 3). Paris: Ernest Leroux. * Pinart, A. L. (1897). ''Vocabulario Guaymie: Dialectos Murıre-Bukueta, Mouı y Sabanero''. (Petite Bibliothèque Américaine, 4). Paris: Ernest Leroux. * Quesada, J. Diego (2007). ''The Chibchan Languages''. Editorial Tecnológica de Costa Rica. {{ISBN|9977-66-186-3}}. * Quesada Pacheco, M. A.; Rojas Chaves, C. (1999). ''Diccionario boruca-español, español-boruca''. San José: Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica.
==External links== {{sister project |project=wiktionary |text=Wiktionary has a list of reconstructed forms at '''''Appendix:Proto-Chibchan reconstructions'''''}} * [http://repository.upenn.edu/dissertations/AAI8207943/ Comparative Chibchan phonology] — 1981 dissertation by Adolfo Constenla.
{{Chibchan languages}} {{Mesoamerican families}} {{language families}} {{North American languages}} {{South American languages}}
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Category:Chibchan languages Category:Language families Category:Indigenous languages of Central America Category:Indigenous languages of the South American Northeast Category:Macro-Chibchan languages