Trobairitz

{{short description|Occitan female troubadours of the 12th and 13th centuries}} {{italic title}} thumb|A medieval depiction of Comtessa de Diá {{Listen|filename=A Chantar2.ogg|title=A chantar m'er|description=The only existing song by a ''trobairitz'' which survives with music, by Comtessa de Diá.}} The '''''trobairitz''''' ({{IPA|oc|tɾuβajˈɾits}}) were Occitan female troubadours of the 12th and 13th centuries, active from around 1170 to approximately 1260.{{sfn|Schulman|2002|p=111}} ''Trobairitz'' is both singular and plural.<ref>{{harvnb|Poe|2002|p=210}}: "TROBAIRITZ is the same in the singular and plural of all cases."</ref>

The word ''trobairitz'' is first attested in the 13th-century romance ''Flamenca''.<ref>The Occitan scholar Pierre Bec incorrectly believed it to be a hapax legomena.</ref> It comes from the Provençal word ''trobar'', the literal meaning of which is "to find", and the technical meaning of which is "to compose".<ref>{{harvnb|Bruckner|1995|p=xi}}: "The French phrase "bien trouvé" ("well found") still denotes an apt expression"</ref> The word ''trobairitz'' is used very rarely in medieval Occitan, as it does not occur in lyrical poetry, grammatical treatises or in the biographies (''vidas'') of the ''trobairitz'' or troubadours.{{sfn|Paden|1989}} It does occur in the treatise ''Doctrina d'acort'' by Terramagnino da Pisa, written between 1282 and 1296. He uses it as an example of a word the plural and singular of which are the same.<ref>{{harvnb|Poe|2002|p=207}}: "which are correctly used only with flexional endings in all numbers ... ''trobayritz''" (''sol per us de parladura en totz los nombres ... trobayritz'')."</ref>

''Trobairitz'' composed, wrote verses, and performed for the Occitan noble courts. They are exceptional in musical history as the first known female composers of Western secular music; all earlier known female composers wrote sacred music.{{sfn|Paden|1995}} The ''trobairitz'' were part of courtly society, as opposed to their lower class counterparts the ''joglaressas''.{{sfn|Bruckner|1992}} Although troubadours sometimes came from humble origins—Bernart de Ventadorn might have been the son of a castle's baker—the ''trobairitz'' were usually nobly born. The most important ''trobairitz'' were Alamanda de Castelnau, Azalais de Porcairagues, Maria de Ventadorn, Tibors de Sarenom, Castelloza, Garsenda de Proença, Gormonda de Monpeslier, and the Comtessa de Diá.

==Sources of information== There are very few extant sources of information on the individual ''trobairitz''. Almost all information which exists about them come from their ''vidas'' (biographies) and ''razós'' (contextual explanations of the songs), the brief descriptions that were assembled in song collections called ''chansonniers''. The ''vidas'' are notoriously unreliable, since they frequently consisted of little more than romanticized extrapolations from the poems of the ''trobairitz'' themselves.{{sfn|Stevens|Butterfield|Karp|2001}} The names of about twenty female poets from the 12th and 13th centuries survive, with an estimated thirty-two works attributed to the ''trobairitz.''{{sfn|Paden|1995}}{{sfn|Dronke|1984|p=97}} There are about 5 percent as many ''trobairitz'' as there are troubadours, and the number of surviving compositions by ''trobairitz'' amounts to around 1 percent of those we have by the troubadours.{{sfn|Paden|1995}} The earliest surviving lyric written by a ''trobairitz'' is that of ''Bels dous amics'', written by Tibors around 1150.{{sfn|Earnshaw|1988}} Only one survives with musical notation intact, "A chantar" by Comtessa de Diá (see below). Some works which are anonymous in the sources are ascribed by certain modern editors to women, as are some works which are attributed to men in the manuscripts. For comparison, of the 460 male troubadours, about 2600 of their poems survive. Of these, about one in 10 survive with musical notation intact.{{sfn|Stevens|Butterfield|Karp|2001}}Only two trobairitz have left us with more than one song apiece.{{sfn|Dronke|1984|p=97}} Those two women are Comtessa de Dia, who leaves us with four cansos, and Castelloza, with three cansos and a fourth that is anonymous.{{sfn|Paden|1995}}

The early chansonniers did not separate the works of the male troubadours from those of the ''trobairitz''. It was only in later Italian and Catalan chansonniers that the works of the ''trobairitz'' were found in different sections than those of their male counterparts.{{sfn|Bruckner|1995|p=xxxiii}}

==Position in medieval society== {{Multiple image | direction = vertical | align = right | image1 = A chantar (Beatriz de Dia).png | width = | alt1 = Score of "A chantar" by Comtessa de Dia. | caption1 = "A chantar" by Comtessa de Dia. }} Throughout the 13th century, women of the court were expected to be able to sing, play instruments, and write ''jocs partis'', or partimen (a debate or dialogue in the form of a poem). The cultivation of these womanly skills may have led to the writings of the ''trobairitz''.{{sfn|Tick|2001}}

The ''trobairitz'' may also have arisen due to the power women held in southern France during the 12th and 13th centuries. Women had far more control over land ownership, and Occitan society was far more accepting of women than were most other societies of the time. During the Crusades many men were away, which left women with more administrative responsibility, and thus, power. Nevertheless, this society was not "feminist", nor was ''fin' amor'', which exalted women while at the same time circumscribing many aspects of their lives and behavior.{{sfn|Bruckner|1992}}

There is difficulty in labeling the ''trobairitz'' as either amateurs or professionals. The distinction between these two roles was complicated in the medieval era, since professionals were generally lower class, and amateurs had as much time as professionals to devote to their craft. ''Joglaresse'' were lower class, professional composers far less respected than the ''trobairitz''.{{sfn|Bruckner|1992}}

Both troubadours and ''trobairitz'' wrote of ''fin' amors'', or courtly love. Women were generally the subject of the writings of troubadours, however: "No other group of poets give women so exalted a definition within so tightly circumscribed a context of female suppression."{{sfn|Stevens|Butterfield|Karp|2001}} The tension between the suppression of women present in the poetry of the troubadours and similar themes in the poetry of the ''trobairitz'' is a major source of discussion for modern commentators. Trobairitz poetry pertaining to love tended to offer a less idealized conception of the subject than the poetry of their male counterparts, with a more conversational and less flourished style of writing intended to more closely emulate a more grounded vision of relationships.{{sfn|Bogin|1980|p=13}} The trobairitz wrote in the ''canso'' (strophic song) and ''tenso'' (debate poem) genres.{{sfn|Bruckner|1995|p=xii}} Besides cansos and tensos, ''trobairitz'' also wrote ''sirventes'' (political poems), ''planh'' (lament), ''salut d' amor'' (a love letter not in strophic form), ''alba'' (dawn songs), and ''balada'' (dance songs).{{sfn|Bruckner|1995|p=xxxix}} Judging by what survives today, the ''trobairitz'' wrote no ''pastorelas'' or ''malmariee'' songs, unlike their troubadour counterparts{{sfn|Earnshaw|1988}} Furthermore, in keeping with the troubadour tradition, the ''trobairitz'' closely linked the action of the singing to the action of loving. Comtessa de Dia demonstrates this in her poem ''Fin ioi me don'alegranssa,'' stating that "Fin ioi me dona alegranssa/per qu'eu chan plus gaiamen," translated as "Happiness brings me pure joy/which makes me sing more cheerfully."{{sfn|Bruckner|1995|p=xv}}

==Attribution== The number of works attributed to the ''trobairitz'' is estimated at thirty-two songs, but ranges anywhere from 23 to 46.{{sfn|Paden|1995}} There are a number of reasons why an exact number is not known. In the courtly love tradition it was common for poems to be written as an exchange of letters, or a debate, as in a ''tenso''. Some of these may have been originally written by one poet; however, some were originally an actual exchange of epistles, later gathered together in a manuscript.{{sfn|Dronke|1984}} Some of these were between men, and some were between a man and a woman. Some modern editors attribute these solely to the man who originated the exchange, and some attribute them to both the man and the woman involved. There is a long history of attributing these solely to men, even when all evidence points to the contrary.{{sfn|Bruckner|1992}}{{sfn|Dronke|1984}}

Since poetry was highly stylized, it is difficult to determine when a poet speaking as a woman actually was a woman, or a man speaking as a woman. This adds to the difficulty of attribution, especially of anonymous writers. There is some debate as to whether or not the poems by the ''trobairitz'' represent genuine feminine voices, since they worked within the highly circumscribed conventions of the troubadours.{{sfn|Tick|2001}} Matilda Bruckner suggests that the ''trobairitz'' "spoke in her own voice as channeled through the voices of many others". By manipulating the strict constructs of troubadour lyric, the ''trobairitz'' were able to create their own "fictions of the female voice".{{sfn|Bruckner|1992}}

There is one notable instance where clear attribution is given to a woman, Bieiris de Romans (also given as Beatritz), but the subject of the poem is another woman, Na Maria. In the poem "Na Maria" Beatritz expresses her love for Maria in the traditional ''fin' amors'' style, both in terms of physical longing and courtly admiration.{{sfn|Dronke|1984|p=98}} This poem, if not clearly marked as by a woman, would be assumed to be by a man. Some controversy surrounds the works of the Bieiris de Romans, as scholars have suggested that her canso expresses "lesbian desire."{{sfn|Paden|1989}} The troubadour would typically speak to the domna (woman); the fact that the lyrical dialogue takes place exclusively between one woman and another is an extreme rarity.{{sfn|Rieger|1989|p=73}}

==List of trobairitz== * Alais Iselda and Carenza: ''Na Carenza al bel cors avinen'' * Alamanda de Castelnau: ''S'ie'us quier conseill, bel'amig'Alamanda'' * Almucs de Castelnau and Iseut de Capio: ''Domna n'Iseutz, s'ieu saubes'', ''Domna n'Almucs, si-us plagues'' * Azalais d'Altier: ''Tanz salutz e tantas amors'' * Azalais de Porcairagues: ''Ar em al freg temps vengut'' * Beatriz de Diá: ''Fin joi me don'alegransa'', ''Ab joy et ab joven m'apais'', ''A chantar m'er de so qu'eu no volria'', ''Estat ai en greu consirier'' * Beatritz de Romans: ''Na Maria, pretz e fina valors'' * Castelloza: ''Amics, s'ie-us trobes avinen'', ''Ja de chanter non degr'aver talan'', ''Mout aurez fag lonc estage'', ''Per joi que d'amor m'avegna'' * Clara d'Anduza: ''En greu esmay et en greu pessamen'' * Felipa * Garsenda de Proença: ''Vos que-m semblatz dels corals amadors'' * Gaudairença: ''Coblas e dansas'' (not extant) * Gormonda de Monpeslier: ''Greu m'es a durar'' * Guillelma de Rosers: ''Na Guillelma, maint cavalher aratge'' * Domna H.: ''Rofin, digatz m'ades de cors'' * Lisa de Londres * Lombarda: ''Nom volgr'aver per Bernard Na Bernarda'' * Maria de Ventadorn: ''Gui d'Uisel, be.m pesa de vos'' * Tibors de Sarenom: ''Bels dous amics, ben vos puosc en ver dir'' * Ysabella

==See also== {{portal|Poetry}} * List of troubadours and trobairitz * Medieval music * Provençal literature * Marie de France – the only female composer from northern France: the northern term ''trouvère'' did not have a female equivalent (as ''trobairitz'' is the female equivalent of ''troubadour'') * List of medieval composers * List of female composers * Qiyan – female entertainers at Islamic courts, including Moorish ones ** Medieval Arabic female poets ** Andalusian classical music

==References==

===Notes=== {{reflist|30em}}

===Primary sources=== {{refbegin|30em}} * Manuscript du Roi (F-Pn fr. 844, c. 1246–1254) * Chansonnier cangé (F-Pn fr. 845); F-Pn n.a.fr. 21677; F-AS 657 (c1278); V-CVbav Reg. Lat. 1490 * Chansonnier de Noailles (F-Pn fr. 12615) {{refend}}

===Secondary sources=== {{refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |last=Bogin |first= Magda|title= The Women Troubadours|date= March 1, 1980|publisher= W. W. Norton & Company|location= New York|isbn= 0-393-00965-3}} * {{cite journal| last = Bruckner| first = Matilda Tomaryn|author-link=Matilda Bruckner|date=October 1992| title = Fictions of the Female Voice:The Women Troubadours| journal = Speculum| volume = 67| issue = 4| pages = 865–91| issn = 0038-7134| doi = 10.2307/2863471| jstor = 2863471| publisher = Medieval Academy of America| s2cid = 161976715}} * {{Cite book |last=Bruckner |first=Matilda Tomaryn |author-link=Matilda Bruckner |year=1995 |title=Songs of the Women Troubadours |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-203-01119-5 |editor-last=Bruckner |editor-first=Matilda Tomaryn |location=New York |language=en |chapter=Introduction |editor-last2=Shepard |editor-first2=Laurie |editor-last3=White |editor-first3=Sarah}} * {{cite book|last= Dronke|first= Peter|title= Women Writers of the Middle Ages|year= 1984|publisher= Cambridge University Press|location= New York|isbn= 0-521-25580-5|url-access= registration|url= https://archive.org/details/womenwritersofmi00dron}} * {{cite book| last = Earnshaw| first = Doris| year = 1988| title = The Female Voice in Medieval Romance Lyric| publisher = P. Lang| isbn = 0-8204-0575-2}} * {{cite book |last= Paden|first= William D.|title= The Voice of the Trobairitz:Perspectives on the Women Troubadours|year= 1989|publisher= University of Pennsylvania Press|location= Philadelphia|isbn= 0-8122-8167-5}} * {{Cite encyclopedia |year=1995 |title=Trobairitz |encyclopedia=Medieval France : An Encyclopedia |publisher=Garland |location=New York & London |last=Paden |first=William D. |editor-last=Kibler |editor-first=William W. |edition=1st |pages=1756–1757 | isbn = 978-1-135-57541-0}} * {{Cite journal |last=Poe |first=Elizabeth W. |date=2002 |title=Cantairitz e Trobairitz: A Forgotten Attestation of Old Provençal »Trobairitz« |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27941882 |journal=Romanische Forschungen |volume=114 |issue=2 |pages=206–215 |issn=0035-8126 |eissn=1864-0737 |url-access=subscription|jstor=27941882 }} * {{Cite book |last=Rieger |first=Angelica |title=The Voice of the Trobairitz: Perspectives on the Women Troubadours |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=1989 |isbn=978-1-5128-0544-4 |editor-last=Paden |editor-first=William D. |pages=73–94 |language=en |chapter=Was Bieiris de Romans Lesbian?: Women's Relations with Each Other in the World of the Troubadours |jstor=j.ctv5130m8}} * {{cite book | last = Schulman | first = Jana K. | title = The Rise of the Medieval World 500–1300 | publisher = Greenwood Publishing Group | year = 2002 | location = Westport, Conn | isbn = 978-0-313-30817-8 }} * {{cite Grove|last1 = Stevens | first1 = John | last2 = Butterfield | first2 = Ardis | last3 = Karp | first3 = Theodore | date=2001 | title=Troubadours, trouvères | url = https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.28468 |url-access=subscription}} ** Maria V. Coldwell. "Azalais de Porcairagues", ''Grove Music Online''. ** Elizabeth Aubrey. "Comtessa de Dia", ''Grove Music Online''. ** Maria V. Coldwell. "Castelloza", ''Grove Music Online''. * {{cite Grove |last1 = Tick |first1 = Judith | date = 2001 |title = Women in music |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.52554 |url-access=subscription}} {{refend}}

Category:Trobairitz Category:Medieval women poets Category:Medieval Occitan people Category:12th-century composers Category:13th-century composers Category:12th-century women writers Category:12th-century writers Category:13th-century women writers Category:13th-century writers Category:12th-century women composers