Synanceia

{{Short description|Genus of venomous fishes}} {{For|the tropical fish|Ocosia spinosa}} {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2015}} {{Automatic taxobox | image = Ichthyologie; ou, Histoire naturelle des poissons (Plate 183) (6918426608).jpg | image_caption = ''Synanceia horrida'', 1796 illustration | display_parents = 3 | taxon = Synanceia | authority = Bloch and J. G. Schneider, 1801 | type_species = ''Scorpaena brachion'' | type_species_authority = Linnaeus, 1766<ref name = CofF>{{Cof family | family = Synanceiinae | access-date = 11 April 2022}}</ref> | synonyms = {{Genus list | Barffianus | Curtiss, 1944 | Bufichthys | Swainson, 1839 | Deleastes | Seale, 1906 | Emmydrichthys | Jordan & Rutter, 1896 | Nofua | Whitley, 1930 | Phrynichthys | Agassiz, 1846 | Synanceichthys | Bleeker, 1863 | Synancidium | Müller, 1843 }} | synonyms_ref = <ref name = CofF/> }}

'''''Synanceia''''' is a genus of ray-finned fish belonging to the subfamily Synanceiinae, commonly known as the '''stonefish''', which is classified within the family Scorpaenidae, the scorpionfish and close relatives. Stonefish are the most venomous fish known; stings can be fatal to humans.<ref>{{cite book|editor1=Smith, M.M.|editor2=Heemstra, P.C.|year=2003|title=Smiths' Sea Fishes|publisher=Penguin Random House South Africa |isbn=1-86872-890-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Puffer Fish|url=https://a-z-animals.com/animals/puffer-fish/|access-date=26 January 2017|language=en|archive-date=8 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180908043811/https://a-z-animals.com/animals/puffer-fish/|url-status=dead}}</ref> They are found in the coastal regions of the Indo-Pacific. They are sometimes confused with the freshwater lionfish.

== Taxonomy == ''Synanceia'' was first described as a genus in 1801 by the German naturalists Marcus Elieser Bloch and Johann Gottlob Theaenus Schneider with ''Scorpaena horrida'', which had been described by Carl Linnaeus in 1766 from Ambon Island (Indonesia), as its type species.<ref name = CofF/><ref name = CofF2>{{Cof genus | genus = Synanceia | access-date = 14 April 2022}}</ref> The genus ''Synanceia'' is classified within the tribe Synanceiini which is one of three tribes in the subfamily Synanceeinae within the family Scorpaenidae.<ref name=Nelson5>{{cite book |title=Fishes of the World |edition=5th |author1=J. S. Nelson |author2=T. C. Grande |author3=M. V. H. Wilson |year=2016 |pages= 468–475 |publisher=Wiley |isbn= 978-1-118-34233-6 |url=https://sites.google.com/site/fotw5th/}}</ref> Despite this, other authorities regard Synanceiidae as a valid family and the Synanceiini as the subfamily Synanceiinae.<ref name = CofF/> The genus name ''Synanceia'' is made up of ''syn'' 'with' and ''angeíon'' 'cavity', an allusion to the large, cavernous heads of the species considered to be in the genus.<ref name = ETYFish>{{cite web | url = https://etyfish.org/perciformes10/ | title = Order Perciformes (Part 10): Suborder Scorpaenoidei: Families Apistidae, Tetrarogidae, Synanceiidae, Aploacrinidae, Perryenidae, Eschmeyeridae, Pataceidae, Gnathanacanthidae, Congiopodidae and Zanclorhynchidae | work = The ETYFish Project Fish Name Etymology Database | editor1= Christopher Scharpf | editor2 = Kenneth J. Lazara | name-list-style = amp |date = 10 March 2022 | access-date = 8 April 2022 | publisher = Christopher Scharpf and Kenneth J. Lazara}}</ref>

=== Species === [[File:Stone Fish at AQWA SMC2006.jpg|thumb|''Synanceia verrucosa'' in a public aquarium]]

''Synanceia'' contains the following species:<ref>{{ITIS |id=167077 |taxon=''Synanceia'' |access-date=28 December 2008}}</ref><ref name = CofF2/> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Image !! Scientific name !! Common name !! Distribution |- | || ''Synanceia alula'' (Eschmeyer & Rama Rao, 1973) ||Midget stonefish || northern Indian Ocean to the Solomon Islands |- | 120px|| ''Synanceia horrida'' (Linnaeus, 1766)||Estuarine stonefish || India to China, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea and Australia, and is also recorded in Vanuatu |- |120px || ''Synanceia nana'' (Eschmeyer & Rama Rao, 1973) ||Red Sea stonefish ||Red Sea and Persian Gulf |- | || ''Synanceia platyrhyncha'' (Bleeker, 1874) || || Indonesia |- |120px || ''Synanceia verrucosa'' (Bloch and J. G. Schneider, 1801)||Reef stonefish || Red Sea and Indo-Pacific |- | || ''Synanceia quinque'' Matsunuma, Manjaji‑Matsumoto & Motomura, 2021 || || Indonesia |- |}

== Habitat and characteristics == ''Synanceia'' are primarily marine, and although some species are known to live in rivers, most live in coral reefs near the tropical Pacific and Indian oceans. The species has potent neurotoxins secreted from glands at the base of their needle-like dorsal fin spines which stick up when disturbed or threatened.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/ncm/staff_htm_files/bullrout.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040823095203/http://www.scu.edu.au/schools/ncm/staff_htm_files/bullrout.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 August 2004|title=Notesthe robusta - Family Scorpaenidae|publisher=O'Connor，J. Southern Cross University|access-date=2009-06-14|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The vernacular name of the species, the stonefish, derives from its grey and mottled camouflage similar to the color of a stone.<ref>Pocock, C.A. "[http://eprints.utas.edu.au/629/4/Pocock_CH-2.pdf Romancing the Reef: history, heritage and the hyper-real]." ''James Cook University Ph.D. Thesis.'' 2003. Accessed 2009-06-14.</ref> Swimmers may not notice them and inadvertently step on them, triggering a sting. When the stonefish is disturbed, it may inject an amount of venom proportional to the amount of pressure applied to it.{{Citation needed|date=January 2012}} Stonefish have the ability to extend sharp, specialized spines (lachrymal saber) as an additional defense mechanism.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Smith, W. Leo | author2=Smith, Elizabeth | author3=Richardson, Clara | title=Phylogeny and Taxonomy of Flatheads, Scorpionfishes, Sea Robins, and Stonefishes (Percomorpha: Scorpaeniformes) and the Evolution of the Lachrymal Saber | date=February 2018 | journal=Copeia | volume=106 | number=1 | pages=94–119 | url=https://www.copeiajournal.org/copeia-bjah/ofcg-17-669yt497804km | doi=10.1643/CG-17-669| s2cid=91157582 | url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title=Stonefish are already scary, and now scientists have found they have switchblades in their heads | author=Willingham, AJ | date=April 13, 2018 | newspaper=CNN | url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/04/12/health/stonefish-switchblade-lachrymal-saber-trnd/index.html}}</ref>

=== Venom === The venom of ''Synanceia'' consists of a proteinaceous toxin called verrucotoxin (VTX), which modulates Ca2+ channel activity through the β-adrenoceptor-cAMP-PKA pathway. In humans, stings can cause intense pain, respiratory weakness, damage to the cardiovascular system, convulsions and paralysis; sometimes they can lead to death. The exact mechanism is not yet fully understood.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Yazawa, K| author2=Wang, JW | author3=Hao, LY |author4=Onoue, Y | author5=Kameyama, M. | title=Verrucotoxin, a stonefish venom, modulates calcium channel activity in guinea-pig ventricular myocytes. | date=August 2007 | journal=Br J Pharmacol | volume=151 | issue=8 | pages=1198–1203 | doi=10.1038/sj.bjp.0707340| pmid=17572694 | pmc=2189832 | doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Treatment of envenomation==

Stonefish stings are injuries which may include envenomation and mechanical trauma.<ref name="Cam2006">{{cite book |last1=Cameron |first1=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Woq0HVYwr4kC&pg=PA536 |title=Textbook of Paediatric Emergency Medicine |last2=Jelinek |first2=George |last3=Everitt |first3=Ian |date=2006-01-01 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=978-0-443-07348-9}}</ref> They are extremely painful and potentially lethal.<ref>Rebecca, Sarah. "The Most Excruciating Pain Known To Man." Scienceray. (29 Dec 2010): 1. Print. {{cite web |url=http://scienceray.com/biology/zoology/the-most-excruciating-pain-known-to-man |title=The Most Excruciating Pain Known to Man | Scienceray |access-date=2012-11-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523091230/http://scienceray.com/biology/zoology/the-most-excruciating-pain-known-to-man/ |archive-date=23 May 2013 |df=dmy-all }}.</ref> There are a number of species of venomous fish including the stonefish.<ref name="Cam2006" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Maillaud |first1=C. |last2=Hoang-Oppermann |first2=T. |last3=Hoang-Oppermann |first3=V. |last4=Rigot |first4=H. |last5=Girardot |first5=S. |last6=Nour |first6=M. |date=September 2020 |title=Is stonefish Synanceia verrucosa envenomation potentially lethal? |journal=Toxicon |volume=184 |pages=78–82 |bibcode=2020Txcn..184...78M |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2020.05.019 |pmid=32473254 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lennox-Bulow |first1=Danica |last2=Smout |first2=Michael |last3=Loukas |first3=Alex |last4=Seymour |first4=Jamie |date=December 2023 |title=Stonefish (Synanceia spp.) Ichthyocrinotoxins: An ecological review and prospectus for future research and biodiscovery |journal=Toxicon |volume=236 |bibcode=2023Txcn..23607329L |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107329 |pmid=37907137 |doi-access=free |article-number=107329}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Khalil |first1=Ahmad M. |last2=Wahsha |first2=Mohammad A. |last3=Abu Khadra |first3=Khalid M. |last4=Khalaf |first4=Maroof A. |last5=Al-Najjar |first5=Tariq H. |date=February 2018 |title=Biochemical and histopathological effects of the stonefish (Synanceia verrucosa) venom in rats |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S004101011730418X |journal=Toxicon |volume=142 |pages=45–51 |bibcode=2018Txcn..142...45K |doi=10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.12.052 |pmid=29294314 |url-access=subscription}}</ref> The two most recommended treatments are the application of heat to the affected area and antivenom.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tiziani |first1=Adriana P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XpzQAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1054 |title=Havard's Nursing Guide to Drugs |date=2013 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=978-0-7295-8162-2 |edition=9 |page=1054}}</ref> Hot water (at a temperature of at least {{convert|45|°C|°F|0|lk=on}})<ref>{{cite book | last = White | first = Julian | title = A Clinician's Guide to Australian Venomous Bites and Stings: Incorporating the Updated Antivenom Handbook | publisher = CSL Ltd.| location = Melbourne, Victoria | year = 2013 | isbn = 978-0-646-57998-6}}</ref> applied to the injured area has been found to denature stonefish venom, and causes minimal discomfort to the victim. Antivenom is used in more extreme cases. Vinegar is found on some Australian beaches as it is said to lessen the pain.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Taylor |first=G. |title=Toxic fish spine injury: Lessons from 11 years experience |journal=South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society Journal |volume=30 |issue=1 |year=2000 |issn=0813-1988 |oclc=16986801 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/5828 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629013653/http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/5828 |url-status=usurped |archive-date=29 June 2008 |access-date=2009-06-18 }}</ref>

===Stonefish stings in Australia=== The stonefish is the most venomous known fish in the world<ref>[http://www.adventuremedicine.net/envenom/marine/94-stonefish Stonefish Envenomation], adventure medicine {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120228222240/http://www.adventuremedicine.net/envenom/marine/94-stonefish |date=28 February 2012 }}</ref> and stings can cause death if not treated.<ref>[https://www.emed.theclinics.com/article/S0733-8627(16)30118-3/abstract Marine Envenomation], Hornbeak, Kirsten B., and Paul S. Auerbach. Emergency Medicine Clinics 35.2 (2017): 321–337.</ref> Most stonefish stings occur as a result of stepping on the creature which forces venom into the foot, while it is less common for the fish to sting when it is picked up.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.toxinology.com/generic_static_files/cslavh_antivenom_stonefish.html|title=CSL Antivenom Handbook - Stonefish Antivenom|website=www.toxinology.com|access-date=11 April 2018}}</ref> Stonefish stings can occur on the beach, not just in the water, since stonefish can survive out of the water for up to 24 hours. They are not easily seen as they look similar to rocks or coral. Stonefish antivenom is the second-most administered in Australia.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lAR5FyZGZb4&feature=player_embedded Stone Fish] slk320 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406073737/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lAR5FyZGZb4&feature=player_embedded |date=6 April 2017 }}</ref>{{Verify source|date=September 2018}}

Some Aboriginal Australians have corroborees which involve reenacting the death of someone who trod on the fish. The aboriginal people of Northern Australia and the Great Barrier Reef have ways of preparing the fish for eating to avoid poisoning.<ref name="auto">[http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article11021024 The Poisonous Stone Fish Dreaded Denizen of the North] The Argus 14 March 1936</ref>

After stonefish envenomation, the amount of anti-venom given depends on the number of puncture wounds from the stonefish spines.<ref>[http://www.csl.com.au/docs/236/440/Stone%20Fish%20PI-%20approved%20April%202011.pdf Stonefish antivenom] product information {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120329003955/http://www.csl.com.au/docs/236/440/Stone%20Fish%20PI-%20approved%20April%202011.pdf |date=29 March 2012 }}</ref>

===Number of incidents=== [[File:Poisonous Stone Fish article 1936.jpg|thumb|upright|1936 article from Melbourne newspaper ''The Argus'' about venomous stonefish.]]

There were 25 cases of the use of antivenom for stonefish reported to Commonwealth Serum Laboratories for a one-year period between July 1989 and June 1990, with most from Queensland and four from the Northern Territory.<ref>[http://www.carpa.org.au/Ref%20Manual%204th%20Ed/Emergency%20&%20assessment/Marine_stings_bites.pdf Marine Bites and Stings] Dr Mark Little {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140321003850/http://www.carpa.org.au/Ref%20Manual%204th%20Ed/Emergency%20%26%20assessment/Marine_stings_bites.pdf |date=21 March 2014 }}</ref> There were 14 calls to the Queensland Poisons Information System in 2008 regarding stonefish poison.<ref>[http://www.health.qld.gov.au/poisonsinformationcentre/docs/qpic_ann_report_2008.pdf annual report 2008], Queensland Poisons Information Centre</ref>

=== Fatal incidents === {| class="wikitable" ! width="200" |Name !Age!! width="100" |Date!! width="550" |Location |- |Joseph Leathom Wassell |41 |7 April 1915 |Thursday Island, Australia<ref>{{cite web|url=http://monumentaustralia.org.au/themes/people/medicine/display/92658-dr-joseph-wassell-(grave)|title=Dr Joseph Leathem Wassell - Monument Australia|first=UBC Web|last=Design|website=monumentaustralia.org.au|access-date=11 April 2018}}</ref><ref name="auto"/><ref>[http://www.carpa.org.au/Ref%20Manual%204th%20Ed/Emergency%20&%20assessment/Marine_stings_bites.pdf Marine Bites and Stings] Dr Mark Little {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140321003850/http://www.carpa.org.au/Ref%20Manual%204th%20Ed/Emergency%20%26%20assessment/Marine_stings_bites.pdf |date=21 March 2014 }}</ref> |- |- |name not given |58 |6 August 2010 |Nago, Okinawa, Japan<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.stripes.com/news/okinawan-diver-dies-from-stonefish-sting-1.migrated | title=Okinawan diver dies from stonefish sting }}</ref> |- |}

== As food == ''Synanceia'' are edible to humans if properly prepared. The protein-based venom breaks down quickly when heated, and raw stonefish served as part of sashimi is rendered harmless simply by removing the dorsal fins, which are the main source of venom. The fish are considered a delicacy in many parts of Asia, including south Japan, south Fujian, Guangdong in China, Hong Kong and some parts of Vietnam. In the Hokkien-speaking area, they are considered delicacies and good for health. The meat of ''Synanceia'' is white, dense and sweet and the skin is edible. They are usually cooked with ginger into a clear soup and sometimes served raw as sashimi.

== References == {{Reflist}}

==Further reading== * [http://www.fishbase.org/Summary/FamilySummary.cfm?id=578 FishBase entry] * {{Cof record|genid=427|title=Synanceia Bloch & Schneider 1801 |access-date=2008-12-29}}

==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7aLt5gxwTx8 National Geographic video, Deadly Stone Fish] * [http://australianmuseum.net.au/Reef-Stonefish-Synanceia-verrucosa-Bloch-Schneider-1801 Reef Stonefish, Synanceia verrucosa] Australian museum

Category:Synanceiini Category:Synanceia Category:Fish of the Pacific Ocean Category:Fish of the Indian Ocean Category:Marine fish genera Category:Taxa named by Marcus Elieser Bloch Category:Taxa named by Johann Gottlob Theaenus Schneider

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