Solid-state battery

{{Short description|Battery with solid electrodes and a solid electrolyte}} {{Distinguish|Semi-solid-state battery}} {{infobox battery|image=File: All-Solid-State Battery.png|caption=All-solid-state battery with a solid electrolyte between two electrodes|EtoW=Thin film type: {{cvt|300|–|900|Wh/kg}}{{citation needed|date=April 2025}}<br />Bulk type: {{cvt|250|–|500|Wh/kg}}|EtoS=|PtoW=|CtoDE=|EtoCP=|SDR=6%ｰ85&nbsp;°C (month) <ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=https://biz.maxell.com/ja/rechargeable_batteries/assb-spec-ceramicpackage.html|title=セラミックパッケージ型全固体電池・評価用電源モジュールキット{{pipe}}二次電池{{pipe}}Biz.maxell - マクセル|website=Biz.maxell - マクセル}}</ref>|CD={{nowrap|10,000-100,000 cycles}} <ref name="auto1"/>|NomV={{nowrap| Thin film type: 4.6 V}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://biz.maxell.com/ja/rechargeable_batteries/assb-spec-coin.html|title=コイン形全固体電池・バイポーラ型全固体電池{{pipe}}二次電池{{pipe}}Biz.maxell - マクセル|website=Biz.maxell - マクセル}}</ref> {{nowrap| Bulk type: 2.5 V,}} <ref name="auto1"/> |CTI=-20&nbsp;°C 〜 105&nbsp;°C|DTI=-50&nbsp;°C 〜 125&nbsp;°C}}

A '''solid-state battery''' ('''SSB''') is an electrical battery that uses a solid electrolyte to conduct ions between the electrodes, instead of the liquid or gel polymer electrolytes found in conventional batteries.<ref name="WiredUK">{{cite magazine|last1=Vandervell|first1=Andy|title=What is a solid-state battery? The benefits explained|url=https://www.wired.co.uk/article/what-is-solid-state-battery-toyota-dyson|access-date=7 January 2018|magazine=Wired UK|date=26 September 2017}}</ref> Theoretically, solid-state batteries offer much higher energy density than the typical lithium-ion or lithium polymer batteries.<ref name="C&EN">{{cite journal |last1=Reisch |first1=Marc S. |title=Solid-state batteries inch their way to market |journal=C&EN Global Enterprise |date=20 November 2017 |volume=95 |issue=46 |pages=19–21 |doi=10.1021/cen-09546-bus }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Joshi |first1=Aniruddha |last2=Mishra |first2=Dillip Kumar |last3=Singh |first3=Rajendra |last4=Zhang |first4=Jiangfeng |last5=Ding |first5=Yi |title=A comprehensive review of solid-state batteries |journal=Applied Energy |date=2025 |volume=386 |article-number=125546 |doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125546 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2025ApEn..38625546J }}</ref>

While solid electrolytes were first discovered in the 19th century, several problems prevented widespread application. Developments in the late 20th and early 21st century generated renewed interest in the technology, especially in the context of electric vehicles. As of 2026, the solid-state battery market has yet to reach scalability and commercialization.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Janek |first1=Jürgen |last2=Zeier |first2=Wolfgang G. |title=Challenges in speeding up solid-state battery development |journal=Nature Energy |date=2023 |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=230–240 |doi=10.1038/s41560-023-01208-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thomas |first1=Felix |last2=Mahdi |first2=Lauren |last3=Lemaire |first3=Julien |last4=Santos |first4=Diogo M. F. |title=Technological Advances and Market Developments of Solid-State Batteries: A Review |journal=Materials |date=2024 |volume=17 |issue=1 |article-number=239 |doi=10.3390/ma17010239 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Handbook of Energy Materials|first=Montree|last=Sawangphruk|publisher=Springer|year=2026|isbn=978-981-95-2947-6|location=Singapore|pages=365–413|chapter=Solid-State Batteries: Materials, Technologies, and Future|editor-last=Gupta|editor-first=Ram K.|doi=10.1007/978-981-95-2947-6_9}}</ref>

Solid-state batteries can use metallic lithium for the anode and oxides or sulfides for the cathode, thereby enhancing energy density. The solid electrolyte acts as an ideal separator that allows only lithium ions to pass through. For that reason, solid-state batteries can potentially solve many problems of currently used liquid electrolyte Li-ion batteries, including flammability, limited voltage, unstable solid-electrolyte interface formation, poor cycling performance, and strength.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ping |first1=Weiwei |last2=Yang |first2=Chunpeng |last3=Bao |first3=Yinhua |last4=Wang |first4=Chengwei |last5=Xie |first5=Hua |last6=Hitz |first6=Emily |last7=Cheng |first7=Jian |last8=Li |first8=Teng |last9=Hu |first9=Liangbing |date=September 2019 |title=A silicon anode for garnet-based all-solid-state batteries: Interfaces and nanomechanics |journal=Energy Storage Materials |volume=21 |pages=246–252 |doi=10.1016/j.ensm.2019.06.024|bibcode=2019EneSM..21..246P |s2cid=198825492 }}</ref>

Materials proposed for use as electrolytes include ceramics (e.g., oxides, sulfides, phosphates), and solid polymers. Solid-state batteries are found in pacemakers and in RFID and wearable devices.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Greatbatch |first=Wilson |last2=Lee |first2=John H. |last3=Mathias |first3=Walter |last4=Eldridge |first4=Margery |last5=Moser |first5=James R. |last6=Schneider |first6=Alan A. |date=September 1971 |title=The Solid-State Lithium Battery: A New Improved Chemical Power Source for Implantable Cardiac Pacemakers |url=http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4502862/ |journal=IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering |volume=BME-18 |issue=5 |pages=317–324 |doi=10.1109/TBME.1971.4502862 |issn=0018-9294|url-access=subscription }}</ref> These batteries offer enhanced safety and higher energy densities. Challenges to widespread adoption include energy and power density, durability, material costs, sensitivity, and stability.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Weppner |first=Werner |date=September 2003 |title=Engineering of solid state ionic devices |journal=International Journal of Ionics |volume=9 |issue=5–6 |pages=444–464 |doi=10.1007/BF02376599 |s2cid=108702066 |quote=Solid state ionic devices such as high performance batteries... }}</ref>

== History ==

=== Origin === Between 1831 and 1834, Michael Faraday discovered the solid electrolytes silver sulfide and lead(II) fluoride, which laid the foundation for solid-state ionics.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Funke K | title = Solid State Ionics: from Michael Faraday to green energy-the European dimension | journal = Science and Technology of Advanced Materials | volume = 14 | issue = 4 | article-number = 043502 | date = August 2013 | pmid = 27877585 | pmc = 5090311 | doi = 10.1088/1468-6996/14/4/043502 | bibcode = 2013STAdM..14d3502F }}</ref><ref name="ARPA-E">{{cite web |last1=Lee |first1=Sehee |title=Solid State Cell Chemistries and Designs |url=https://arpa-e.energy.gov/sites/default/files/documents/files/CSESS%20Lee.pdf |website=ARPA-E |access-date=7 January 2018 |date=2012 |archive-date=2 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170502142325/https://arpa-e.energy.gov/sites/default/files/documents/files/CSESS%20Lee.pdf }}</ref> Through his research, Michael Faraday took note of these solid compounds transitioning from insulators to conductors after being heated.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Funke |first=Klaus |date=March 2013 |title=Solid State Ionics: from Michael Faraday to green energy—the European dimension |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1088/1468-6996/14/4/043502 |journal=Science and Technology of Advanced Materials |language=en |volume=14 |issue=4 |article-number=043502 |doi=10.1088/1468-6996/14/4/043502 |issn=1468-6996 |pmc=5090311 |pmid=27877585}}</ref> While this would take almost another century to be acknowledged by Michael O'Keeffe<ref name="auto2">{{Citation |last=Mahan |first=G. D. |title=Theoretical Issues in Superionic Conductors |date=1976 |work=Superionic Conductors |pages=115–134 |editor-last=Mahan |editor-first=Gerald D. |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4615-8789-7_10 |access-date=2026-03-01 |place=Boston, MA |publisher=Springer US |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-4615-8789-7_10 |isbn=978-1-4615-8791-0 |editor2-last=Roth |editor2-first=Walter L.|url-access=subscription }}</ref> in 1976, this mixed ionic/electronic conductions became the first record of a solid-state battery.<ref name="auto2"/>

By the late 1950s, several silver-conducting electrochemical systems employed solid electrolytes, at the price of low energy density and cell voltages, and high internal resistance.<ref name="UofM">{{cite journal|last1=Owens|first1=Boone B.|last2=Munshi|first2=M. Z. A.|date=January 1987|title=History of Solid State Batteries|url=http://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a176283.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224223047/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a176283.pdf|url-status=live|archive-date=February 24, 2020|journal=Defense Technical Information Center|publisher=Corrosion Research Center, University of Minnesota|bibcode=1987umn..rept.....O|access-date=7 January 2018}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Whittingham |first=M. Stanley |date=2021-02-01 |title=Solid-state ionics: The key to the discovery and domination of lithium batteries: some learnings from β-alumina and titanium disulfide |journal=MRS Bulletin |language=en |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=168–173 |doi=10.1557/s43577-021-00034-2 |bibcode=2021MRSBu..46..168W |osti=1848581 |s2cid=233939199 |issn=1938-1425}}</ref> In 1967, the discovery of fast ionic conduction β-alumina for a broad class of ions (Li+, Na+, K+, Ag+, and Rb+) kick-started the development of solid-state electrochemical devices with increased energy density.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Yung-Fang Yu Yao |last2=Kummer |first2=J. T. |date=1967-09-01 |title=Ion exchange properties of and rates of ionic diffusion in beta-alumina |journal=Journal of Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry |language=en |volume=29 |issue=9 |pages=2453–2475 |doi=10.1016/0022-1902(67)80301-4 |issn=0022-1902}}</ref><ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Whittingham |first=M. S. |title=Beta alumina—Prelude to a revolution in solid state electrochemistry |journal=NBS Special Publications |volume=13 |issue=364 |pages=139–154}}</ref> Most immediately, molten sodium / β-alumina / sulfur cells were developed at Ford Motor Company in the US,<ref>{{Cite web |title=New battery packs powerful punch - USATODAY.com |url=https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/money/industries/energy/2007-07-04-sodium-battery_N.htm |access-date=2022-12-08 |website=usatoday30.usatoday.com}}</ref> and NGK in Japan.<ref name=":5" /> This excitement manifested in the discovery of new systems in both organics, i.e. poly(ethylene) oxide (PEO), and inorganics such as NASICON.<ref name=":5" /> However, many of these systems required operation at temperatures greater than 300&nbsp;°C (or 572&nbsp;°F) and were expensive to produce, limiting commercial deployment and funding towards research efforts in the space.<ref name=":5" />

===1990s and 2000s=== A new class of solid-state electrolyte developed by Oak Ridge National Laboratory, lithium–phosphorus oxynitride (LiPON), emerged in the 1990s. LiPON was successfully used to make thin-film lithium-ion batteries,<ref name="CeramicBulletin">{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Kevin S. |last2=Rudawski |first2=Nicholas G. |last3=Oladeji |first3=Isaiah |last4=Pitts |first4=Roland |last5=Fox |first5=Richard |title=The state of solid-state batteries |url=https://swamp.mse.ufl.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/286/2020/06/Solid_state_batteries.pdf |journal=American Ceramic Society Bulletin |volume=91 |issue=2}}</ref> although applications were limited due to the cost associated with deposition of the thin-film electrolyte, along with the small capacities that could be accessed using the thin-film format.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=LaCoste |first1=Jed D. |last2=Zakutayev |first2=Andriy |last3=Fei |first3=Ling |date=2021-02-25 |title=A Review on Lithium Phosphorus Oxynitride |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.jpcc.0c10001 |journal=The Journal of Physical Chemistry C |language=en |volume=125 |issue=7 |pages=3651–3667 |doi=10.1021/acs.jpcc.0c10001 |osti=1772959 |s2cid=234022942 |issn=1932-7447}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liang |first1=XiaoPing |last2=Tan |first2=FeiHu |last3=Wei |first3=Feng |last4=Du |first4=Jun |date=2019-02-23 |title=Research progress of all solid-state thin film lithium Battery |journal=IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science |volume=218 |issue=1 |article-number=012138 |doi=10.1088/1755-1315/218/1/012138 |bibcode=2019E&ES..218a2138L |s2cid=139860728 |issn=1755-1315|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== 2010s === Kamaya et al. demonstrated in 2011 the first solid-electrolyte, Li{{sub|10}}GeP{{sub|2}}S{{sub|12}} (LGPS), capable of achieving a bulk ionic conductivity in excess of liquid electrolyte counterparts at room temperature.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kamaya |first1=Noriaki |last2=Homma |first2=Kenji |last3=Yamakawa |first3=Yuichiro |last4=Hirayama |first4=Masaaki |last5=Kanno |first5=Ryoji |last6=Yonemura |first6=Masao |last7=Kamiyama |first7=Takashi |last8=Kato |first8=Yuki |last9=Hama |first9=Shigenori |last10=Kawamoto |first10=Koji |last11=Mitsui |first11=Akio |date=July 2011 |title=A lithium superionic conductor |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nmat3066 |journal=Nature Materials |language=en |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=682–686 |doi=10.1038/nmat3066 |pmid=21804556 |bibcode=2011NatMa..10..682K |issn=1476-4660|url-access=subscription }}</ref> With this advancement, bulk solid-ion conductors could compete technologically with Li-ion counterparts.

Automotive companies researched the technology in the 2010s. Bolloré launched in 2011 a fleet of their BlueCar model cars featuring a 30&nbsp;kWh lithium metal polymer (LMP) battery with a polymeric electrolyte, created by dissolving lithium salt in polyoxyethylene co-polymer.{{citation needed|date=February 2026}} Toyota began conducting in 2012 research into automotive applications of solid-state batteries.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.autonews.com/article/20140127/OEM06/301279980/toyota-preps-solid-state-batteries-for-20s|title=Toyota preps solid-state batteries for '20s|last1=Greimel|first1=Hans|date=27 January 2014|work=Automotive News|access-date=7 January 2018}}</ref> At the same time, Volkswagen began partnering with small technology companies specializing in the technology.{{citation needed|date=February 2026}} Researchers at the University of Colorado Boulder announced in 2013 the development of a solid-state lithium battery, with a solid iron–sulfur composite cathode that promised higher energy.<ref name="UCBoulder">{{cite web|title=Solid-state battery developed at CU-Boulder could double the range of electric cars|work=News Center |url=https://www.colorado.edu/news/releases/2013/09/18/solid-state-battery-developed-cu-boulder-could-double-range-electric-cars|publisher=University of Colorado Boulder|access-date=7 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131107054525/https://www.colorado.edu/news/releases/2013/09/18/solid-state-battery-developed-cu-boulder-could-double-range-electric-cars|archive-date=7 November 2013|date=18 September 2013}}</ref> Toyota extended its decades-long partnership with Panasonic in 2017 to include collaboration on solid-state batteries.<ref name="ToyotaSSB">{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-12-13/toyota-panasonic-consider-joint-electric-car-battery-business|title=Toyota Deepens Panasonic Battery Ties in Electric-Car Rush|last1=Buckland|first1=Kevin|date=13 December 2017|work=Bloomberg Technology|access-date=7 January 2018|last2=Sagiike|first2=Hideki}}</ref> As of 2019 Toyota held the most SSB-related patents.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/storage/why-lithiumion-technology-is-poised-to-dominate-the-energy-storage-future/|title=Why lithium-ion technology is poised to dominate the energy storage future|last1=Baker|first1=David R|date=3 April 2019|website=www.renewableenergyworld.com|publisher=Bloomberg|access-date=7 April 2019}}</ref> The following years similar research efforts into solid-state batteries was separately announced by BMW,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bmw-solid-power/solid-power-bmw-partner-to-develop-next-generation-ev-batteries-idUSKBN1EC16V|title=Solid Power, BMW partner to develop next-generation EV batteries|date=18 December 2017|work=Reuters|access-date=7 January 2018}}</ref> Honda,<ref name="HondaSSB">{{cite news|url=https://www.cnet.com/roadshow/news/honda-hops-on-solid-state-battery-bandwagon/|title=Honda hops on solid-state battery bandwagon|last1=Krok|first1=Andrew|date=21 December 2017|work=Roadshow by CNET|access-date=7 January 2018}}</ref> Hyundai<ref name="HyundaiSSB">{{cite news|url=https://electrek.co/2017/04/06/hyundai-solid-state-batteries-electric-vehicles/|title=Hyundai reportedly started pilot production of next-gen solid-state batteries for electric vehicles|last1=Lambert|first1=Fred|date=6 April 2017|work=Electrek|access-date=7 January 2018}}</ref> (with Solid Power and Samsung),<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.boulderweekly.com/opinion/straight-cu-louisville-battery-change-world/ |title=Straight out of CU (and Louisville): A battery that could change the world |last=Danish |first=Paul |date=2018-09-12 |website=Boulder Weekly |access-date=2020-02-12 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://qz.com/1383884/a-startup-promising-an-all-solid-state-rechargeable-battery-has-raised-20-million/|title=Solid Power raises $20 million to build all-solid-state batteries — Quartz|website=qz.com|date=10 September 2018 |access-date=2018-09-10}}</ref> and Nissan.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2017/12/21/business/honda-nissan-said-developing-next-generation-solid-state-batteries-electric-vehicles/|title=Honda and Nissan said to be developing next-generation solid-state batteries for electric vehicles|date=21 December 2017|work=The Japan Times|access-date=7 January 2018|agency=Kyodo News}}</ref>

Outside of the automotive sector, other research and development in the 2010s included: solid-state batteries for electronics by Qing Tao announced in 2018;<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lambert |first1=Fred |title=China starts solid-state battery production, pushing energy density higher |url=https://electrek.co/2018/11/20/china-production-solid-state-batteries/ |work=Electrek |date=20 November 2018 }}</ref> and a solid-state glass battery by John Goodenough, the co-inventor of Li-ion batteries, unveiled in 2017, featuring a glass electrolyte and an alkali-metal anode consisting of lithium, sodium or potassium.<ref name="UTAustin">{{cite web|title=Lithium-Ion Battery Inventor Introduces New Technology for Fast-Charging, Noncombustible Batteries|url=https://news.utexas.edu/2017/02/28/goodenough-introduces-new-battery-technology|website=University of Texas at Austin|access-date=7 January 2018|date=28 February 2017}}</ref>

=== 2020s=== Many companies have announced readiness to commercialize solid-state batteries at the GWh scale in the 2020s, but their batteries' feasibility or technology readiness is unknown. These announcements include: ProLogium - GWh production capacity by 2022; QuantumScape - GWh production capacity by 2024; Qing Tao - GWh production capacity by 2020; Ampcera - commercial availability by 2021; Panasonic and Toyota - market maturity by 2025; Solid Power, BMW, and Ford - market maturity by end of 2020s; WeLion - GWh production capacity by 2022; StoreDot; Honda - market maturity by 2030; Ionic Materials and Hyundai - market maturity in the 2030s; and others.<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.isi.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/isi/dokumente/cct/2022/SSB_Roadmap.pdf |title=Solid-State Battery Roadmap 2035+ |date=April 2022 |website=Fraunhofer}}</ref> Many of these companies have not commercialized their product as of January 2026, and the solid-state battery market has yet to reach scalability and commercialization.<ref>{{citation |url=https://insideevs.com/news/771402/every-solid-state-battery-ev/ |title=A Solid-State Motorcycle Is Coming. These Current And Future EVs Have Solid-State Batteries |author=Suvrat Kothari |date=January 5, 2026 |website=InsideEVs}}</ref>

Donut Lab, a spinoff of the electric motorcycle company Verge, announced in 2026 that they have developed the first solid-state battery ready for commercial production. Battery researchers and engineers analyzing the published Donut Lab battery test results found they are consistent with results for currently-available Li-NMC battery cells, and the voltage curve strongly indicates the device chemistry is Li-NMC.<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.electronicdesign.com/markets/automotive/article/55359349/electronic-design-vtt-report-on-donut-labs-solid-state-battery-is-a-nothingburger |author=Andy Turudic |title=VTT Report on Donut Lab's Solid-State Battery is a Nothingburger |website=Electronic Design |date=2026-02-23}}</ref><ref>{{citation |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H45HXs4xXfA |title= Testing The World's First Solid-State Battery |via=YouTube |author=Ziroth |date=2026-02-24}}</ref><ref>{{citation |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wl7fRHlygSo&t=2570s |title= Is the new solid state battery from Donut Lab the end of petrol? |author=Electric Classic Cars and Plug Life Television |via=YouTube |date=2026-03-09}}</ref><ref>{{citation |url=https://www.heise.de/news/Donut-Batterie-Finnisches-Start-up-verspricht-Wunder-11197313.html |title=Donut-Batterie: Finnisches Start-up verspricht Wunder |author=Christoph M. Schwarzer |date=2026-03-03 |website=Heise Auto}}</ref> There is consensus among solid-state battery experts that the results from the first two sets of tests performed by VTT for Donut Lab are meaningless in terms of commercial use, as they do not test capacity fade and pack-level performance.<ref>{{citation |url=https://insideevs.com/news/788870/donut-lab-solid-state-battery-excessive-swell/ |title=What Donut Lab's Latest Solid-State EV Battery Test Actually Reveals |author=Suvrat Kothari |date=2026-03-03 |website=InsideEVs}}</ref>

== Materials == {{See also|Solid-state electrolyte}} Candidate materials for solid-state electrolytes (SSEs) include ceramics such as lithium orthosilicate,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Chandler|first1=David L.|title=Study suggests route to improving rechargeable lithium batteries|url=https://news.mit.edu/2017/solid-electrolyte-improving-rechargeable-lithium-batteries-0713|website=Massachusetts Institute of Technology|date=12 July 2017|quote=Researchers have tried to get around these problems by using an electrolyte made out of solid materials, such as some ceramics.}}</ref> glass,<ref name="UTAustin"/> sulfides<ref>{{cite web|last1=Chandler|first1=David L.|title=Toward all-solid lithium batteries|url=https://news.mit.edu/2017/toward-solid-lithium-batteries-0202|website=Massachusetts Institute of Technology|date=2 February 2017|quote=Researchers investigate mechanics of lithium sulfides, which show promise as solid electrolytes.}}</ref> and RbAg₄I₅.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Yuchen |last2=Akin |first2=Mert |last3=Qiao |first3=Xiaoyao |last4=Yan |first4=Zhiwei |last5=Zhou |first5=Xiangyang |title=Greatly enhanced energy density of all-solid-state rechargeable battery operating in high humidity environments |journal=International Journal of Energy Research |date=September 2021 |volume=45 |issue=11 |pages=16794–16805 |doi=10.1002/er.6928|s2cid=236256757 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021IJER...4516794W }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Akin |first1=Mert |last2=Wang |first2=Yuchen |last3=Qiao |first3=Xiaoyao |last4=Yan |first4=Zhiwei |last5=Zhou |first5=Xiangyang |title=Effect of relative humidity on the reaction kinetics in rubidium silver iodide based all-solid-state battery |journal=Electrochimica Acta |date=September 2020 |volume=355 |article-number=136779 |doi=10.1016/j.electacta.2020.136779|s2cid=225553692 }}</ref> Mainstream oxide solid electrolytes include Li_1.5Al_0.5Ge_1.5(PO₄)₃ (LAGP), Li_1.4Al_0.4Ti_1.6(PO₄)₃ (LATP), perovskite-type Li_3xLa_2/3-xTiO₃ (LLTO), and garnet-type Li_6.4La₃Zr_1.4Ta_0.6O₁₂ (LLZO) with metallic Li.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Rusong |last2=Nolan |first2=Adelaide M. |last3=Lu |first3=Jiaze |last4=Wang |first4=Junyang |last5=Yu |first5=Xiqian |last6=Mo |first6=Yifei |last7=Chen |first7=Liquan |last8=Huang |first8=Xuejie |last9=Li |first9=Hong |title=The Thermal Stability of Lithium Solid Electrolytes with Metallic Lithium |journal=Joule |date=April 2020 |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=812–821 |doi=10.1016/j.joule.2020.03.012|s2cid=218672049 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020Joule...4..812C }}</ref> The thermal stability versus Li of the four SSEs was in order of LAGP < LATP < LLTO < LLZO. Chloride superionic conductors have been proposed as another promising solid electrolyte. They are ionic conductive as well as deformable sulfides, but at the same time not troubled by the poor oxidation stability of sulfides. Other than that, their cost is considered lower than oxide and sulfide SSEs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Kai |last2=Ren |first2=Qingyong |last3=Gu |first3=Zhenqi |last4=Duan |first4=Chaomin |last5=Wang |first5=Jinzhu |last6=Zhu |first6=Feng |last7=Fu |first7=Yuanyuan |last8=Hao |first8=Jipeng |last9=Zhu |first9=Jinfeng |last10=He |first10=Lunhua |last11=Wang |first11=Chin-Wei |last12=Lu |first12=Yingying |last13=Ma |first13=Jie |last14=Ma |first14=Cheng |title=A cost-effective and humidity-tolerant chloride solid electrolyte for lithium batteries |journal=Nature Communications |date=December 2021 |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=4410 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-24697-2|pmid=34285207 |pmc=8292426 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.4410W }}</ref> The present chloride solid electrolyte systems can be divided into two types: Li₃MCl₆<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Xiaona |last2=Liang |first2=Jianwen |last3=Luo |first3=Jing |last4=Norouzi Banis |first4=Mohammad |last5=Wang |first5=Changhong |last6=Li |first6=Weihan |last7=Deng |first7=Sixu |last8=Yu |first8=Chuang |last9=Zhao |first9=Feipeng |last10=Hu |first10=Yongfeng |last11=Sham |first11=Tsun-Kong |last12=Zhang |first12=Li |last13=Zhao |first13=Shangqian |last14=Lu |first14=Shigang |last15=Huang |first15=Huan |last16=Li |first16=Ruying |last17=Adair |first17=Keegan R. |last18=Sun |first18=Xueliang |title=Air-stable Li 3 InCl 6 electrolyte with high voltage compatibility for all-solid-state batteries |journal=Energy & Environmental Science |date=2019 |volume=12 |issue=9 |pages=2665–2671 |doi=10.1039/C9EE02311A|bibcode=2019EnEnS..12.2665L |s2cid=202881108 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schlem |first1=Roman |last2=Muy |first2=Sokseiha |last3=Prinz |first3=Nils |last4=Banik |first4=Ananya |last5=Shao-Horn |first5=Yang |last6=Zobel |first6=Mirijam |last7=Zeier |first7=Wolfgang G. |title=Mechanochemical Synthesis: A Tool to Tune Cation Site Disorder and Ionic Transport Properties of Li 3 MCl 6 (M = Y, Er) Superionic Conductors |journal=Advanced Energy Materials |date=February 2020 |volume=10 |issue=6 |article-number=1903719 |doi=10.1002/aenm.201903719|s2cid=213539629 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020AdEnM..1003719S |hdl=1721.1/128746 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and Li₂M_2/3Cl₄.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Laidong |last2=Kwok |first2=Chun Yuen |last3=Shyamsunder |first3=Abhinandan |last4=Zhang |first4=Qiang |last5=Wu |first5=Xiaohan |last6=Nazar |first6=Linda F. |title=A new halospinel superionic conductor for high-voltage all solid state lithium batteries |journal=Energy & Environmental Science |date=2020 |volume=13 |issue=7 |pages=2056–2063 |doi=10.1039/D0EE01017K|bibcode=2020EnEnS..13.2056Z |osti=1657953 |s2cid=225614485 }}</ref> M Elements include Y, Tb-Lu, Sc, and In. The cathodes are lithium-based. Variants include LiCoO₂, LiNi_1/3Co_1/3Mn_1/3O₂, LiMn₂O₄, and LiNi_0.8Co_0.15Al_0.05O₂. The anodes vary more and are affected by the type of electrolyte. Examples include In, Si, Ge''_x''Si_1−''x'', SnO–B₂O₃, SnS –P₂S₅, Li₂FeS₂, FeS, NiP₂, and Li₂SiS₃.<ref name=":02">{{cite journal |last1=Takada |first1=Kazunori |title=Progress and prospective of solid-state lithium batteries |journal=Acta Materialia |date=February 2013 |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=759–770 |doi=10.1016/j.actamat.2012.10.034 |bibcode=2013AcMat..61..759T }}</ref>

Lithium-ceramic batteries demonstrate potential improvements with the integration of single wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs). SWCNTs build durable, long-range conductive pathways between electrode particles, effectively reducing electrode resistance and enhancing energy density.<ref>{{Cite web |last=itaizul0011 |date=2024-09-24 |title=ProLogium and OCSiAl Partner to Strengthen European Supply Chains for High-Performance Batteries |url=https://batteriesnews.com/prologium-and-ocsial-partner-to-strengthen-european-supply-chains-for-high-performance-batteries/ |access-date=2024-11-21 |website=Batteries News |language=en-US}}</ref>

One promising cathode material is Li–S, which (as part of a solid lithium anode/Li₂S cell) has a theoretical specific capacity of 1,670&nbsp;mAh/g, "ten times larger than the effective value of LiCoO₂". Sulfur makes an unsuitable cathode in liquid electrolyte applications because it is soluble in most liquid electrolytes, dramatically decreasing the battery's lifetime. Sulfur is studied in solid-state applications.<ref name=":02" />

Another encouraging cathode is NCM662 (LiNi_0.6Co_0.2Mn_0.2O₂), especially when coated with NiCo₂S₄ in a resonant acoustic mixing process. This creates a material with a capacity retention of 60.6%, with minimal side reactions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Young-Jin |last2=Rajagopal |first2=Rajesh |last3=Kang |first3=Sung |last4=Ryu |first4=Kwang-Sun |date=2021-03-16 |title=NiCo2S4 Bi-metal Sulfide Coating on LiNi0.6Co0.2Mn0.2O2 Cathode for High-Performance All-Solid-State Lithium Batteries |journal=ACS Omega |volume=6 |issue=10 |pages=6824–6835 |doi=10.1021/acsomega.0c05942 |doi-access=free|pmc=7970466 |pmid=33748596}}</ref>

Li-O₂ also have high theoretical capacity. The main issue with these devices is that the anode must be sealed from ambient atmosphere, while the cathode must be in contact with it.<ref name=":02" />

A Li/LiFePO₄ battery shows promise as a solid-state application for electric vehicles. A 2010 study presented this material as a safe alternative to rechargeable batteries for EV's that "surpass the USABC-DOE targets".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Damen |first1=L. |last2=Hassoun |first2=J. |last3=Mastragostino |first3=M. |last4=Scrosati |first4=B. |title=Solid-state, rechargeable Li/LiFePO₄ polymer battery for electric vehicle application |journal=Journal of Power Sources |date=October 2010 |volume=195 |issue=19 |pages=6902–6904 |doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.03.089 |bibcode=2010JPS...195.6902D }}</ref>

A cell with a pure silicon μSi||SSE||NCM811 anode was assembled by Darren H.S Tan et al. using μSi anode (purity of 99.9 wt %), solid-state electrolyte (SSE) and lithium–nickel–cobalt–manganese oxide (NCM811) cathode. This kind of solid-state battery demonstrated a high current density up to 5 mA cm⁻², a wide range of working temperature (-20&nbsp;°C and 80&nbsp;°C), and areal capacity (for the anode) of up to 11&nbsp;mAh/cm² (2,890 mAh/g). At the same time, after 500 cycles under 5 mA cm⁻², the batteries still provide 80% of capacity retention, which is the best performance of μSi all solid-state battery reported so far.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tan |first1=Darren H. S. |last2=Chen |first2=Yu-Ting |last3=Yang |first3=Hedi |last4=Bao |first4=Wurigumula |last5=Sreenarayanan |first5=Bhagath |last6=Doux |first6=Jean-Marie |last7=Li |first7=Weikang |last8=Lu |first8=Bingyu |last9=Ham |first9=So-Yeon |last10=Sayahpour |first10=Baharak |last11=Scharf |first11=Jonathan |last12=Wu |first12=Erik A. |last13=Deysher |first13=Grayson |last14=Han |first14=Hyea Eun |last15=Hah |first15=Hoe Jin |last16=Jeong |first16=Hyeri |last17=Lee |first17=Jeong Beom |last18=Chen |first18=Zheng |last19=Meng |first19=Ying Shirley |title=Carbon-free high-loading silicon anodes enabled by sulfide solid electrolytes |journal=Science |date=24 September 2021 |volume=373 |issue=6562 |pages=1494–1499 |doi=10.1126/science.abg7217|pmid=34554780 |bibcode=2021Sci...373.1494T |s2cid=232147704 |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/2vt9r39s }}</ref>

Chloride solid electrolytes also show promise over conventional oxide solid electrolytes owing to chloride solid electrolytes having theoretically higher ionic conductivity and better formability.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tanibata |first1=Naoto |last2=Takimoto |first2=Shuta |last3=Nakano |first3=Koki |last4=Takeda |first4=Hayami |last5=Nakayama |first5=Masanobu |last6=Sumi |first6=Hirofumi |date=2020-08-03 |title=Metastable Chloride Solid Electrolyte with High Formability for Rechargeable All-Solid-State Lithium Metal Batteries |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsmaterialslett.0c00127 |journal=ACS Materials Letters |language=en |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=880–886 |doi=10.1021/acsmaterialslett.0c00127 |bibcode=2020ACSML...2..880T |s2cid=225759726 |issn=2639-4979|url-access=subscription }}</ref> In addition chloride solid electrolyte's exceptionally high oxidation stability and high ductility add to its performance. In particular a lithium mixed-metal chloride family of solid electrolytes, Li₂In_xSc_0.666-xCl₄ developed by Zhou et al., show high ionic conductivity (2.0 mS cm⁻¹) over a wide range of composition. This is owing to the chloride solid electrolyte being able to be used in conjunction with bare cathode active materials as opposed to coated cathode active materials and its low electronic conductivity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Laidong |last2=Zuo |first2=Tong-Tong |last3=Kwok |first3=Chun Yuen |last4=Kim |first4=Se Young |last5=Assoud |first5=Abdeljalil |last6=Zhang |first6=Qiang |last7=Janek |first7=Jürgen |last8=Nazar |first8=Linda F. |date=January 2022 |title=High areal capacity, long cycle life 4 V ceramic all-solid-state Li-ion batteries enabled by chloride solid electrolytes |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41560-021-00952-0 |journal=Nature Energy |language=en |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=83–93 |doi=10.1038/s41560-021-00952-0 |bibcode=2022NatEn...7...83Z |osti=1869086 |s2cid=245654129 |issn=2058-7546}}</ref> Alternative cheaper chloride solid electrolyte compositions with lower, but still impressive, ionic conductivity can be found with an Li₂ZrCl₆ solid electrolyte. This particular chloride solid electrolyte maintains a high room temperature ionic conductivity (0.81 mS cm⁻¹), deformability, and has a high humidity tolerance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Kai |last2=Ren |first2=Qingyong |last3=Gu |first3=Zhenqi |last4=Duan |first4=Chaomin |last5=Wang |first5=Jinzhu |last6=Zhu |first6=Feng |last7=Fu |first7=Yuanyuan |last8=Hao |first8=Jipeng |last9=Zhu |first9=Jinfeng |last10=He |first10=Lunhua |last11=Wang |first11=Chin-Wei |last12=Lu |first12=Yingying |last13=Ma |first13=Jie |last14=Ma |first14=Cheng |date=2021-07-20 |title=A cost-effective and humidity-tolerant chloride solid electrolyte for lithium batteries |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=4410 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-24697-2 |pmid=34285207 |pmc=8292426 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.4410W |issn=2041-1723}}</ref>

===Perovskite-type===

Meanwhile, Perovskite materials also have great potential for application in solid-state batteries. In order to improve the low efficiency and high pollution of traditional fossil-based energy sources, more and more researchers have put forward the idea of solid-state batteries, which will have a longer lifespan and higher efficiency.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Cong |last2=Wang |first2=Zhen-yu |last3=He |first3=Zhen-jiang |last4=Li |first4=Yun-jiao |last5=Mao |first5=Jing |last6=Dai |first6=Ke-hua |last7=Yan |first7=Cheng |last8=Zheng |first8=Jun-chao |date=2021-09-01 |title=An advance review of solid-state battery: Challenges, progress and prospects |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S221499372100052X |journal=Sustainable Materials and Technologies |volume=29 |article-number=e00297 |doi=10.1016/j.susmat.2021.e00297 |bibcode=2021SusMT..2900297L |issn=2214-9937|url-access=subscription }}</ref> However, solid-state batteries still have a lot of safety concerns and drawbacks, so researchers are using a lot of new materials to solve this problem. One such material is perovskite materials.

Perovskite materials have excellent ionic conductivity, excellent charge storage capacity and good electrochemical activity, so this material has a very great potential for application in the field of electrochemical energy storage as well as energy conversion. This material is used in many new energy batteries, such as solid state batteries and solar cells. Its general formula is ABX<small>3</small>. In ABX<small>3</small>, the B ion is surrounded by the X ion octahedron and the A ion is located in the center of the cube.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Aftab |first1=Suhaima |last2=Nawaz |first2=Tasmia |last3=Bilal Tahir |first3=Muhammad |date=2021 |title=Recent development in shape memory based perovskite materials for energy conversion and storage applications |journal=International Journal of Energy Research |language=en |volume=45 |issue=15 |pages=20545–20558 |doi=10.1002/er.7151 |bibcode=2021IJER...4520545A |issn=1099-114X|doi-access=free }}</ref> Transition metal perovskite fluoride as a perovskite-type electrode material, has high voltage window, specific capacity and stability, moreover, the structure of transition metal perovskite fluoride facilitates ion migration and its general pseudocapacitance-controlled kinetic features make it has a fast charge transport rate so this material has good electrochemical properties.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Yi |last2=Ding |first2=Rui |date=2024-06-01 |title=Perovskite fluorides for electrochemical energy storage and conversion: Structure, performance and mechanisms |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2211285524001782 |journal=Nano Energy |volume=124 |article-number=109430 |doi=10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.109430 |bibcode=2024NEne..12409430L |issn=2211-2855|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Thus, more and more researchers focus on this material. Shan et al.'s research not only shows that lithium ions can be inserted into the lattice of perovskite oxides, but also demonstrates that perovskite oxides, with its high ionic conductivity, can be used as an electrode material.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shan |first1=Yue Jin |last2=Chen |first2=Liquan |last3=Inaguma |first3=Yoshiyuki |last4=Itoh |first4=Mitsuru |last5=Nakamura |first5=Tetsuro |date=April 1995 |title=Oxide cathode with perovskite structure for rechargeable lithium batteries |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/037877539402110O |journal=Journal of Power Sources |language=en |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=397–402 |doi=10.1016/0378-7753(94)02110-O|bibcode=1995JPS....54..397S |url-access=subscription }}</ref> For the transition metal perovskite fluoride, it has a fast charge transport rate, high energy density and high stability because it has metal-fluorine bond and the strong electronegativity of fluorine.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=Yong-Fa |last2=Ding |first2=Rui |last3=Ying |first3=Dan-Feng |last4=Huang |first4=Yu-Xi |last5=Yan |first5=Tong |last6=Tan |first6=Cai-Ni |last7=Sun |first7=Xiu-Juan |last8=Liu |first8=En-Hui |date=July 2022 |title=A novel Li-ion supercapattery by K-ion vacant ternary perovskite fluoride anode with pseudocapacitive conversion/insertion dual mechanisms |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12598-022-01979-2 |journal=Rare Metals |language=en |volume=41 |issue=7 |pages=2491–2504 |doi=10.1007/s12598-022-01979-2 |bibcode=2022RareM..41.2491H |issn=1001-0521|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Jiao et al. used solvothermal method to make the perovskite-type fluoride with a hollow micrometer spherical structure, after testing, this material shows a good retention rate like it has capacity of 142 mAh/g after 1000 cycles at 0.1 A/g.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jiao |first1=Ai-Jun |last2=Gao |first2=Jian-Fei |last3=He |first3=Zheng-Hua |last4=Hou |first4=Jing-Feng |last5=Kong |first5=Ling-Bin |date=October 2022 |title=Perovskite fluoride NaNiF3 with hollow micron sphere structure as anode for Li-ion hybrid capacitors |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12598-022-02047-5 |journal=Rare Metals |language=en |volume=41 |issue=10 |pages=3370–3380 |doi=10.1007/s12598-022-02047-5 |issn=1001-0521|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== Uses == Solid-state batteries are potentially useful in pacemakers, RFIDs, wearable devices, and electric vehicles.<ref name="AndroidAuthority">{{cite news|last1=Carlon|first1=Kris|title=The battery technology that could put an end to battery fires|url=https://www.androidauthority.com/solid-state-battery-technology-723936/|access-date=7 January 2018|work=Android Authority|date=24 October 2016}}</ref><ref name="Economist">{{cite news|title=Will solid-state batteries power us all?|url=https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2017/10/16/will-solid-state-batteries-power-us-all|newspaper=The Economist|date=16 October 2017}}</ref>

=== Electric vehicles === {{See also|Electric vehicle battery}}

Hybrid and plug-in electric vehicles have used a variety of battery technologies, including lead–acid, nickel–metal hydride (NiMH), lithium ion (Li-ion) and electric double-layer capacitor (or ultracapacitor),<ref>{{cite web|title=Batteries for Hybrid and Plug-In Electric Vehicles|url= https://www.afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/electric_batteries.html |website=Alternative Fuels Data Center|access-date=7 January 2018}}</ref> with Li-ion batteries dominating the market due to their superior energy density.<ref>{{cite web|title=Energy Storage|url= https://www.nrel.gov/transportation/energy-storage.html |website=National Renewable Energy Laboratory|access-date=7 January 2018|quote=Many automakers have adopted lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries as the preferred EDV energy storage option, capable of delivering the required energy and power density in a relatively small, lightweight package.}}</ref> Solid state batteries are desirable due to their lighter weight and higher energy density compared to batteries with liquid electrolytes, which can potentially increase a vehicle's range, reduce cost, and reduce curb weight, all of which are major challenges with current electric vehicles.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sparkes |first=Matthew |date=October 24, 2023 |title=What are solid-state batteries and why do we need them? |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2398896-what-are-solid-state-batteries-and-why-do-we-need-them/ |access-date=November 8, 2024 |website=New Scientist |language=en-US}}</ref>

Honda stated in 2022 that it planned to start operation of a demonstration line for the production of all-solid-state batteries in early 2024,<ref>{{cite web|date=August 2022 |title=All-solid-state battery technology |url=https://global.honda/innovation/advanced-technology/all-solid-state-battery.html |website=Honda |access-date=9 November 2022 }}</ref> and Nissan announced that, by FY2028, it aims to launch an electric vehicle with all-solid-state batteries that are to be developed in-house.<ref>{{cite web|date= |title=High-quality battery technology that dramatically boosts the performance of EVs |url=https://www.nissan-global.com/EN/INNOVATION/TECHNOLOGY/ARCHIVE/ASSB/ |website=Nissan |access-date=19 June 2023 }}</ref>

In June 2023, Toyota updated its strategy for battery electric vehicles, announcing that it will not use commercial solid-state batteries until at least 2027.<ref>{{cite web|date=13 June 2023 |author=Yuri Kageyama |title=Japan's Toyota announces initiative for all-solid state battery as part of electric vehicles plan |url=https://apnews.com/article/toyota-evs-hydrogen-battery-climate-cd7730dbb9c157cf1663d39a3b39778e |website=AP News |access-date=17 June 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |author= |date=13 June 2023 |title=Toyota Unveils New Technology That Will Change the Future of Cars |url=https://global.toyota/en/newsroom/corporate/39288520.html |publisher=Toyota |agency= |access-date=17 June 2023}}</ref>

In January 2022, Mercedes-Benz invested significantly in ProLogium to codevelop next gen ceramic solid-state battery cell. The company also collaborates on solid-state technology and plans to construct eight gigafactories with partners. By December 2023, Mercedes-Benz had invested in US-based Factorial Energy, advancing its solid-state battery initiatives.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mercedes-backed ProLogium may go public this year |url=https://www.electrive.com/2022/03/27/mercedes-backed-prologium-may-go-public-this-year/ |access-date=2024-11-25 |website=electrive.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Wearables === {{See also|Wearable technology}}

The characteristics of high energy density and keeping high performance even in harsh environments are expected in realization of new wearable devices that are smaller and more reliable than ever.<ref name="AndroidAuthority" /><ref>{{cite web|date=4 May 2021 |author=Henry Brown |title=Murata will soon start mass production of solid-state batteries |url=https://gadgettendency.com/murata-will-soon-start-mass-production-of-solid-state-batteries/ |website=gadget tendency |access-date=12 November 2021 }}</ref>

=== Equipment in space === In March 2021, industrial manufacturer Hitachi Zosen Corporation announced a solid-state battery they claimed has one of the highest capacities in the industry and has a wider operating temperature range, potentially suitable for harsh environments like space.<ref>{{cite web|date= |author= |title=All-solid-state Lithium-ion Batteries |url=https://www.hitachizosen.co.jp/english/business/field/functional/as-lib.html |website=Hitachi Zosen Corporation |access-date=17 November 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=4 March 2021 |author=Ryotaro Sato |title='World's highest-capacity' solid-state battery developed in Japan|url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Energy/World-s-highest-capacity-solid-state-battery-developed-in-Japan |work=Nikkei Asia |access-date=22 February 2023 }}</ref> A test mission was launched in February 2022, and in August, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) announced <ref>{{cite news |title=JAXA and Hitachi Zosen Jointly Confirm All-solid-state Lithium-ion Batteries' Charge/Discharge Operation in Space, World First |url=https://global.jaxa.jp/press/2022/08/20220805-1_e.html |access-date=22 February 2023 |agency=Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency |date=5 August 2022}}</ref> the solid-state batteries had properly operated in space, powering camera equipment in the Japanese Experiment Module ''Kibō'' on the International Space Station (ISS).

=== Drones === {{see also|Unmanned aerial vehicle}}

Solid-state batteries being lighter weight and more powerful than traditional lithium-ion batteries, it is reasonable that commercial drones would benefit from them. Vayu Aerospace, a drone manufacturer and designer, noted an increased flight time after they incorporated them into their G1 long flight drone.<ref>{{cite web|date=5 November 2022 |title=Solid State Batteries have arrived! |url=https://articlebiz.com/article/1051986432-solid-state-batteries-have-arrived }}</ref> Another advantage of drones is that all solid battery can be charged quickly. In September 2023, Panasonic announced a prototype all-solid-state battery that can be charged from 10% to 80% in 3 minutes.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |last=日経クロステック（xTECH） |date=2023-10-03 |title=パナソニックHDが全固体電池、3分で充電可能 |url=https://xtech.nikkei.com/atcl/nxt/column/18/00001/08462/ |access-date=2023-12-01 |website=日経クロステック（xTECH） |language=ja}}</ref>

=== Industrial machinery === All-solid-state batteries have long lifespans and excellent heat resistance. Accordingly, they are expected to be used in harsh environments. Production of Maxell's all-solid-state batteries for use in industrial machinery has already begun.

=== Portable solar generators === In 2023, Yoshino become the first producer of solid-state portable solar generators, 2.5 times higher energy density, double rated and surge AC output wattage of non-solid state lithium (NMC, LFP) generators.<ref>{{Citation |title=ALL the New Power Stations at CES 2023!? - EcoFlow, Bluetti, Jackery, Zendure, Yoshino, UGreen! | date=13 January 2023 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YgS2_EsMMGw |access-date=2023-09-23 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Solid-State Technology |url=https://yoshinopower.com/pages/solid-state-technology |access-date=2023-09-23 |website=Yoshino Power |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Yoshino Portable Power Stations |url=https://yoshinopower.com/collections/portable-power-stations |access-date=2023-09-23 |website=Yoshino Power |language=en}}</ref>

== Challenges ==

=== Cost === Thin-film solid-state batteries are expensive to make<ref name="UFJones">{{cite web |last1=Jones |first1=Kevin S. |title=State of Solid-State Batteries |url=http://www.ehcar.net/library/rapport/rapport206.pdf |access-date=7 January 2018}}</ref> and employ manufacturing processes thought to be difficult to scale, requiring expensive vacuum deposition equipment.<ref name="CeramicBulletin"/> As a result, costs for thin-film solid-state batteries become prohibitive in consumer-based applications. It was estimated in 2012 that, based on then-current technology, a 20 Ah solid-state battery cell would cost US$100,000, and a high-range electric car would require between 800 and 1,000 of such cells.<ref name="CeramicBulletin"/> Likewise, cost has impeded the adoption of thin-film solid-state batteries in other areas, such as smartphones.<ref name="AndroidAuthority"/>

=== Temperature and pressure sensitivity === Low temperature operations may be challenging.<ref name="UFJones"/> Solid-state batteries historically have had poor performance.<ref name="UCBoulder"/>

Solid-state batteries with ceramic electrolytes require high pressure to maintain contact with the electrodes.<ref>{{cite web|title=New hybrid electrolyte for solid-state lithium batteries|url=https://phys.org/news/2015-12-hybrid-electrolyte-solid-state-lithium-batteries.html|access-date=7 January 2018|date=21 December 2015}}</ref> Solid-state batteries with ceramic separators may break from mechanical stress.<ref name="CeramicBulletin"/>

In November 2022, Japanese research group, consisting of Kyoto University, Tottori University and Sumitomo Chemical, announced that they have managed to operate solid-state batteries stably without applying pressure with 230&nbsp;Wh/kg capacity by using copolymerized new materials for electrolyte.<ref>{{cite web|date=7 November 2022 |title="柔固体"型電池の共同開発に成功 新素材による高容量化で、次世代電池の早期実用化に貢献 |trans-title=Achieved in developing "Flexible solid" state battery: Large capacity by new material |url=https://www.t.kyoto-u.ac.jp/ja/research/topics/gkml1q |language=JA |website=Kyoto University |access-date=9 November 2022 }}</ref>

In June 2023, Japanese research group of the Graduate School of Engineering at Osaka Metropolitan University announced that they have succeeded in stabilizing the high-temperature phase of {{chem2|Li_{3}PS_{4} }} (α-{{chem2|Li_{3}PS_{4} }}) at room temperature. This was accomplished via rapid heating to crystallize the {{chem2|Li_{3}PS_{4} }} glass.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kimura |first1=Takuya |last2=Inaoka |first2=Takeaki |last3=Izawa |first3=Ryo |last4=Nakano |first4=Takumi |last5=Hotehama |first5=Chie |last6=Sakuda |first6=Atsushi |last7=Tatsumisago |first7=Masahiro |last8=Hayashi |first8=Akitoshi |date=June 20, 2023 |title=Stabilizing High-Temperature α-Li3PS4 by Rapidly Heating the Glass |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jacs.3c03827 |journal=Journal of the American Chemical Society |volume=145 |issue=26 |pages=14466–14474|doi=10.1021/jacs.3c03827 |pmid=37340711 |bibcode=2023JAChS.14514466K |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Interfacial resistance === High interfacial resistance between a cathode and solid electrolyte has been a long-standing problem for all-solid-state batteries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lou |first1=Shuaifeng |last2=Yu |first2=Zhenjiang |last3=Liu |first3=Qingsong |last4=Wang |first4=Han |last5=Chen |first5=Ming |last6=Wang |first6=Jiajun |title=Multi-scale Imaging of Solid-State Battery Interfaces: From Atomic Scale to Macroscopic Scale |journal=Chem |date=September 2020 |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=2199–2218 |doi=10.1016/j.chempr.2020.06.030|s2cid=225406505 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020Chem....6.2199L }}</ref> Traditional densification techniques used in Li-ion battery production—such as hot-rolling and uniaxial pressing—produce a non-uniform pressure field and therefore non-uniform closure of porosity in the solid electrolyte. In contrast, modern equipment designed specifically for solid-state batteries, such as warm isostatic pressing, applies a nearly uniform pressure throughout the solid electrolyte, leading to more homogeneous densification and, as a consequence, reduced bulk and grain boundary resistivity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Choi |first1=W. |last2=Ku |first2=J. H. |last3=Kim |first3=Y. |last4=Gwon |first4=H. |last5=Yoon |first5=G. |last6=Yu |first6=D. |last7=Kim |first7=J.-S. |date=2024 |title=Formulating Interfacial Impedances for Designing High-Energy and High-Power All-Solid-State Battery Cathodes |journal=ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces |volume=16 |issue=20 |pages=26066–26078 |doi=10.1021/acsami.4c01322 |pmid=38739559 |bibcode=2024AAMI...1626066C }}</ref>

To better understand degradation mechanisms at the interfaces and within materials, advanced nanoscale imaging techniques are often employed. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) enables topographical mapping of solid-state battery materials at the nanometer scale, revealing microstructural features such as cracks, dendrite initiation sites, or interphase evolution. Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM) extends this capability by mapping surface potential distributions, making it particularly useful for visualizing local charge accumulation and interfacial instabilities. Additionally, Conductive AFM (C-AFM) is used to map nanoscale electrical conductivity across electrodes and solid electrolytes, helping to identify failure zones and to evaluate the uniformity of ionic pathways.

=== Interfacial instability=== The interfacial instability of the electrode-electrolyte has always been a serious problem in solid-state batteries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Richards |first1=William D. |last2=Miara |first2=Lincoln J. |last3=Wang |first3=Yan |last4=Kim |first4=Jae Chul |last5=Ceder |first5=Gerbrand |title=Interface Stability in Solid-State Batteries |journal=Chemistry of Materials |date=12 January 2016 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=266–273 |doi=10.1021/acs.chemmater.5b04082|s2cid=14077506 |hdl=1721.1/101875 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> After solid-state electrolyte contacts with the electrode, the chemical and/or electrochemical side reactions at the interface usually produce a passivated interface, which impedes the diffusion of Li⁺ across the electrode-SSE interface. Upon high-voltage cycling, some SSEs may undergo oxidative degradation.

=== Dendrites === thumb|Lithium metal dendrite from the anode piercing through the separator and growing towards the cathode.

Solid lithium (Li) metal anodes in solid-state batteries are replacement candidates in lithium-ion batteries for higher energy densities, safety, and faster recharging times. Such anodes tend to suffer from the formation and the growth of Li dendrites, non-uniform metal growths which penetrate the electrolyte leading to electrical short circuits. This shorting leads to energy discharge, overheating, and sometimes fires or explosions due to thermal runaway.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Xu |last2=Zeng |first2=Wei |last3=Hong |first3=Liang |last4=Xu |first4=Wenwen |last5=Yang |first5=Haokai |last6=Wang |first6=Fan |last7=Duan |first7=Huigao |last8=Tang |first8=Ming |last9=Jiang |first9=Hanqing |title=Stress-driven lithium dendrite growth mechanism and dendrite mitigation by electroplating on soft substrates |journal=Nature Energy |date=March 2018 |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=227–235 |doi=10.1038/s41560-018-0104-5 |bibcode=2018NatEn...3..227W |s2cid=139981784 }}</ref> Li dendrites reduce coulombic efficiency.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Cheng|first1=Xin-Bing|last2=Zhang|date=17 November 2015|title=A Review of Solid Electrolyte Interphases on Lithium Metal Anode|journal=Advanced Science|volume=3|issue=3|article-number=1500213|doi=10.1002/advs.201500213|pmid=27774393|pmc=5063117}}</ref>

The exact mechanisms of dendrite growth remain a subject of research. Studies of metal dendrite growth in solid electrolytes began with research of molten sodium / sodium - β - alumina / sulfur cells at elevated temperature. In these systems, dendrites sometimes grow as a result of micro-crack extension due to the presence of plating-induced pressure at the sodium / solid electrolyte interface.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Armstrong |first1=R. D. |last2=Dickinson |first2=T. |last3=Turner |first3=J. |date=1974 |title=The Breakdown of Beta-Alumina Ceramic Electrolyte |journal=Electrochimica Acta |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=187–192|doi=10.1016/0013-4686(74)85065-6 }}</ref> However, dendrite growth may also occur due to chemical degradation of the solid electrolyte.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=De Jonghe |first1=Lutgard C. |last2=Feldman |first2=Leslie |last3=Beuchele |first3=Andrew |date=1981-03-01 |title=Slow degradation and electron conduction in sodium/beta-aluminas |journal=Journal of Materials Science |language=en |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=780–786 |doi=10.1007/BF02402796 |bibcode=1981JMatS..16..780J |osti=1070020 |s2cid=189834121 |issn=1573-4803}}</ref> The uneven densification of hot-rolling of the solid electrode, due to the non-uniform applied pressure, results in crack-initiation points for dendrite formation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dixit |first1=M. |last2=Beamer |first2=C. |last3=Amin |first3=R. |last4=Shipley |first4=J. |last5=Eklund |first5=R. |last6=Muralidharan |first6=N. |last7=Lindqvist |first7=L. |last8=Fritz |first8=A. |last9=Essehli |first9=R. |last10=Balasubramanian |first10=M. |last11=Belharouak |first11=I. |date=2022 |title=The Role of Isostatic Pressing in Large-Scale Production of Solid-State Batteries |journal=ACS Energy Letters |volume=7 |issue=11 |pages=3936–946 |doi=10.1021/acsenergylett.2c01936 |bibcode=2022ACSEL...7.3936D }}</ref>

In Li-ion solid electrolytes apparently stable to Li metal, as visualized and measured using photoelasticity experiments, dendrites propagate primarily due to pressure build up at the electrode / solid electrolyte interface, leading to crack extension.{{Clarify|reason=This sentence is hard to parse and when parsed makes no sense. What does "Li-ion solid electrolytes apparently stable to Li metal" even mean? How does their "apparent" but clearly not factual stability (otherwise why apparent?) relate to "pressure build up" at the "electrode / solid electrolyte interface" (which one - electrode OR the solid electrolyte interface)? And if that happens "primarily" due to pressure - what other reasons are for there for that happening? Also, "crack extension"? What cracks? Why are there cracks there in the first place?|date=July 2024}} Meanwhile, for solid electrolytes which are chemically unstable against their respective metal,{{Explain|reason=What does "electrolytes which are chemically unstable against their respective metal" even mean? How unstable? Is that a good thing? If so - why is it unstable?|date=July 2024}} interphase growth and eventual cracking often prevents dendrites from forming.{{Explain|reason=What does that mean? How do cracks prevent dendrites? Previous sentence just said that dendrites form due to cracks. What is interphase growth? Why does it crack eventually? Does that break the batteries? Why does it only happen "often" but not always? Is that good or bad?|date=July 2024}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tippens |first1=Jared |last2=Miers |first2=John C. |last3=Afshar |first3=Arman |last4=Lewis |first4=John A. |last5=Cortes |first5=Francisco Javier Quintero |last6=Qiao |first6=Haipeng |last7=Marchese |first7=Thomas S. |last8=Di Leo |first8=Claudio V. |last9=Saldana |first9=Christopher |last10=McDowell |first10=Matthew T. |date=2019-06-14 |title=Visualizing Chemomechanical Degradation of a Solid-State Battery Electrolyte |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsenergylett.9b00816 |journal=ACS Energy Letters |language=en |volume=4 |issue=6 |pages=1475–1483 |doi=10.1021/acsenergylett.9b00816 |bibcode=2019ACSEL...4.1475T |s2cid=195582019 |issn=2380-8195|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Dendrite growth in solid-state Li-ion cells can be mitigated by operating the cells at elevated temperature<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Michael |last2=Wolfenstine |first2=Jeffrey B. |last3=Sakamoto |first3=Jeff |date=2019-02-10 |title=Temperature dependent flux balance of the Li/Li7La3Zr2O12 interface |journal=Electrochimica Acta |language=en |volume=296 |pages=842–847 |doi=10.1016/j.electacta.2018.11.034 |s2cid=106296290 |issn=0013-4686|doi-access=free |bibcode=2019AcElc.296..842W }}</ref> thereby deflecting dendrites and delaying dendrite induced short-circuiting. Aluminum-containing electronic rectifying interphases between the solid-state electrolyte and the lithium metal anode have also been shown to be effective in preventing dendrite growth.<ref>{{cite web |title=New 'smart layer' could enhance the durability and efficiency of solid-state batteries |url=https://www.surrey.ac.uk/news/new-smart-layer-could-enhance-durability-and-efficiency-solid-state-batteries |website=University of Surrey |access-date=16 April 2023}}</ref>

=== Mechanical failure === A common failure mechanism in solid-state batteries is mechanical failure through volume changes{{Explain|reason=Volume changes how? Expansion? Contraction? How? When? Which parts expand or contract when? Why?|date=July 2024}} in the anode and cathode during charge and discharge due to the addition and removal of Li-ions from the host structures.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Deysher |first1=Grayson |last2=Ridley |first2=Phillip |last3=Ham |first3=So-Yeon |last4=Doux |first4=Jean-Marie |last5=Chen |first5=Yu-Ting |last6=Wu |first6=Erik A. |last7=Tan |first7=Darren H. S. |last8=Cronk |first8=Ashley |last9=Jang |first9=Jihyun |last10=Meng |first10=Ying Shirley |date=2022-05-01 |title=Transport and mechanical aspects of all-solid-state lithium batteries |journal=Materials Today Physics |language=en |volume=24 |article-number=100679 |doi=10.1016/j.mtphys.2022.100679 |s2cid=247971631 |issn=2542-5293|doi-access=free |bibcode=2022MTPhy..2400679D }}</ref>

==== Cathode ==== Cathodes will typically consist of active cathode particles mixed with SSE particles to assist with ion conduction. As the battery charges/discharges, the cathode particles change in volume typically on the order of a few percent.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Koerver |first1=Raimund |last2=Zhang |first2=Wenbo |last3=de Biasi |first3=Lea |last4=Schweidler |first4=Simon |last5=Kondrakov |first5=Aleksandr O. |last6=Kolling |first6=Stefan |last7=Brezesinski |first7=Torsten |last8=Hartmann |first8=Pascal |last9=Zeier |first9=Wolfgang G. |last10=Janek |first10=Jürgen |date=2018 |title=Chemo-mechanical expansion of lithium electrode materials – on the route to mechanically optimized all-solid-state batteries |url=http://xlink.rsc.org/?DOI=C8EE00907D |journal=Energy & Environmental Science |language=en |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=2142–2158 |doi=10.1039/C8EE00907D |bibcode=2018EnEnS..11.2142K |issn=1754-5692|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This volume change leads to the formation of interparticle voids which worsens contact between the cathode and SSE particles, resulting in a significant loss of capacity due to the restriction in ion transport.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Koerver |first1=Raimund |last2=Aygün |first2=Isabel |last3=Leichtweiß |first3=Thomas |last4=Dietrich |first4=Christian |last5=Zhang |first5=Wenbo |last6=Binder |first6=Jan O. |last7=Hartmann |first7=Pascal |last8=Zeier |first8=Wolfgang G. |last9=Janek |first9=Jürgen |date=2017-07-11 |title=Capacity Fade in Solid-State Batteries: Interphase Formation and Chemomechanical Processes in Nickel-Rich Layered Oxide Cathodes and Lithium Thiophosphate Solid Electrolytes |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.chemmater.7b00931 |journal=Chemistry of Materials |language=en |volume=29 |issue=13 |pages=5574–5582 |doi=10.1021/acs.chemmater.7b00931 |issn=0897-4756|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shi |first1=Tan |last2=Zhang |first2=Ya-Qian |last3=Tu |first3=Qingsong |last4=Wang |first4=Yuhao |last5=Scott |first5=M. C. |last6=Ceder |first6=Gerbrand |date=2020 |title=Characterization of mechanical degradation in an all-solid-state battery cathode |journal=Journal of Materials Chemistry A |language=en |volume=8 |issue=34 |pages=17399–17404 |doi=10.1039/D0TA06985J |s2cid=225222096 |issn=2050-7488|doi-access=free |bibcode=2020JMCA....817399S }}</ref>

One proposed solution to this issue is to take advantage of the anisotropy of volume change in the cathode particles. As many cathode materials experience volume changes only along certain crystallographic directions, if the secondary cathode particles are grown along a crystallographic direction which does not expand greatly with charge/discharge, then the change in volume of the particles can be minimized.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Yong-Ning |last2=Ma |first2=Jun |last3=Hu |first3=Enyuan |last4=Yu |first4=Xiqian |last5=Gu |first5=Lin |last6=Nam |first6=Kyung-Wan |last7=Chen |first7=Liquan |last8=Wang |first8=Zhaoxiang |last9=Yang |first9=Xiao-Qing |date=2014-11-18 |title=Tuning charge–discharge induced unit cell breathing in layer-structured cathode materials for lithium-ion batteries |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=5381 |doi=10.1038/ncomms6381 |pmid=25451540 |bibcode=2014NatCo...5.5381Z |issn=2041-1723|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Un-Hyuck |last2=Ryu |first2=Hoon-Hee |last3=Kim |first3=Jae-Hyung |last4=Mücke |first4=Robert |last5=Kaghazchi |first5=Payam |last6=Yoon |first6=Chong S. |last7=Sun |first7=Yang-Kook |date=April 2019 |title=Microstructure-Controlled Ni-Rich Cathode Material by Microscale Compositional Partition for Next-Generation Electric Vehicles |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aenm.201803902 |journal=Advanced Energy Materials |language=en |volume=9 |issue=15 |article-number=1803902 |doi=10.1002/aenm.201803902 |bibcode=2019AdEnM...903902K |s2cid=104475168 |issn=1614-6832|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Another proposed solution is to mix different cathode materials which have opposite expansion trends in the proper ratio such that the net volume change of the cathode is zero.<ref name=":3" /> For instance, LiCoO₂ (LCO) and LiNi_0.9Mn_0.05Co_0.05O₂ (NMC) are two well-known cathode materials for Li-ion batteries. LCO has been shown to undergo volume expansion when discharged while NMC has been shown to undergo volume contraction when discharged. Thus, a composite cathode of LCO and NMC at the correct ratio could undergo minimal volume change under discharge as the contraction of NMC is compensated by the expansion of LCO.

==== Anode ==== Ideally a solid-state battery would use a pure lithium metal anode due to its high energy capacity. However, lithium undergoes a large increase of volume during charge at around 5&nbsp;μm per 1&nbsp;mAh/cm² of plated Li.<ref name=":2" /> For electrolytes with a porous microstructure, this expansion leads to an increase in pressure which can lead to creep of Li metal through the electrolyte pores and short of the cell.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Doux |first1=Jean-Marie |last2=Nguyen |first2=Han |last3=Tan |first3=Darren H. S. |last4=Banerjee |first4=Abhik |last5=Wang |first5=Xuefeng |last6=Wu |first6=Erik A. |last7=Jo |first7=Chiho |last8=Yang |first8=Hedi |last9=Meng |first9=Ying Shirley |date=January 2020 |title=Stack Pressure Considerations for Room-Temperature All-Solid-State Lithium Metal Batteries |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aenm.201903253 |journal=Advanced Energy Materials |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |article-number=1903253 |doi=10.1002/aenm.201903253 |s2cid=203838056 |issn=1614-6832|arxiv=1910.02118 |bibcode=2020AdEnM..1003253D }}</ref> Lithium metal has a relatively low melting point of 453K and a low activation energy for self-diffusion of 50 kJ/mol, indicating its high propensity to significantly creep at room temperature.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=LePage |first1=William S. |last2=Chen |first2=Yuxin |last3=Kazyak |first3=Eric |last4=Chen |first4=Kuan-Hung |last5=Sanchez |first5=Adrian J. |last6=Poli |first6=Andrea |last7=Arruda |first7=Ellen M. |last8=Thouless |first8=M. D. |last9=Dasgupta |first9=Neil P. |date=2019 |title=Lithium Mechanics: Roles of Strain Rate and Temperature and Implications for Lithium Metal Batteries |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society |language=en |volume=166 |issue=2 |pages=A89–A97 |doi=10.1149/2.0221902jes |bibcode=2019JElS..166A..89L |s2cid=104319914 |issn=0013-4651|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Messer |first1=R. |last2=Noack |first2=F. |date=1975-02-01 |title=Nuclear magnetic relaxation by self-diffusion in solid lithium:T1-frequency dependence |journal=Applied Physics |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=79–88 |doi=10.1007/BF00883553 |bibcode=1975ApPhy...6...79M |s2cid=94108174 |issn=1432-0630}}</ref> It has been shown that at room temperature lithium undergoes power-law creep where the temperature is high enough relative to the melting point that dislocations in the metal can climb out of their glide plane to avoid obstacles. The creep stress under power-law creep is given by:

<math>\sigma_{creep} = \left(\frac{\dot{\varepsilon}}{A_c}\right)^{1/m}\exp{\left(\frac{Q_c}{mRT}\right)} </math>

Where <math>R </math> is the gas constant, <math>T </math> is temperature, <math>\dot{\varepsilon}</math> is the uniaxial strain rate, <math>\sigma_{creep}</math> is the creep stress, and for lithium metal <math>m = 6.6</math>, <math>Q_c = 37\,\mathrm{kJ} \cdot \mathrm{mol}^{-1}</math>, <math>A_c^{-1/m}=3\times 10^5\,\mathrm{Pa} \cdot \mathrm{s}^{-1} </math>.<ref name=":4" />

For lithium metal to be used as an anode, great care must be taken to minimize the cell pressure to relatively low values on the order of its yield stress of 0.8 MPa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Masias |first1=Alvaro |last2=Felten |first2=Nando |last3=Garcia-Mendez |first3=Regina |last4=Wolfenstine |first4=Jeff |last5=Sakamoto |first5=Jeff |date=February 2019 |title=Elastic, plastic, and creep mechanical properties of lithium metal |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10853-018-2971-3 |journal=Journal of Materials Science |language=en |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=2585–2600 |doi=10.1007/s10853-018-2971-3 |bibcode=2019JMatS..54.2585M |s2cid=139507295 |issn=0022-2461|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The normal operating cell pressure for lithium metal anode is anywhere from 1-7 MPa. Some possible strategies to minimize stress on the lithium metal are to use cells with springs of a chosen spring constant or controlled pressurization of the entire cell.<ref name=":2" /> Another strategy may be to sacrifice some energy capacity and use a lithium metal alloy anode which typically has a higher melting temperature than pure lithium metal, resulting in a lower propensity to creep.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Okamoto |first=H. |date=February 2009 |title=Li-Si (Lithium-Silicon) |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11669-008-9431-8 |journal=Journal of Phase Equilibria and Diffusion |language=en |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=118–119 |doi=10.1007/s11669-008-9431-8 |bibcode=2009JPED...30..118O |s2cid=96833267 |issn=1547-7037|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Predel |first=B. |title=Li-Sb (Lithium-Antimony) |date=1997 |url=http://materials.springer.com/lb/docs/sm_lbs_978-3-540-68538-8_1924 |work=Li-Mg – Nd-Zr |series=Landolt-Börnstein - Group IV Physical Chemistry |volume=H |pages=1–2 |editor-last=Madelung |editor-first=O. |place=Berlin/Heidelberg |publisher=Springer-Verlag |language=en |doi=10.1007/10522884_1924 |isbn=978-3-540-61433-3 |access-date=2022-05-19|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sherby |first1=Oleg D. |last2=Burke |first2=Peter M. |date=January 1968 |title=Mechanical behavior of crystalline solids at elevated temperature |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0079642568900248 |journal=Progress in Materials Science |language=en |volume=13 |pages=323–390 |doi=10.1016/0079-6425(68)90024-8|url-access=subscription }}</ref> While these alloys do expand quite a bit when lithiated, often to a greater degree than lithium metal, they also possess improved mechanical properties allowing them to operate at pressures around 50 MPa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tan |first1=Darren H. S. |last2=Chen |first2=Yu-Ting |last3=Yang |first3=Hedi |last4=Bao |first4=Wurigumula |last5=Sreenarayanan |first5=Bhagath |last6=Doux |first6=Jean-Marie |last7=Li |first7=Weikang |last8=Lu |first8=Bingyu |last9=Ham |first9=So-Yeon |last10=Sayahpour |first10=Baharak |last11=Scharf |first11=Jonathan |date=2021-09-24 |title=Carbon-free high-loading silicon anodes enabled by sulfide solid electrolytes |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abg7217 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=373 |issue=6562 |pages=1494–1499 |doi=10.1126/science.abg7217 |pmid=34554780 |bibcode=2021Sci...373.1494T |s2cid=232147704 |issn=0036-8075|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Luo |first1=Shuting |last2=Wang |first2=Zhenyu |last3=Li |first3=Xuelei |last4=Liu |first4=Xinyu |last5=Wang |first5=Haidong |last6=Ma |first6=Weigang |last7=Zhang |first7=Lianqi |last8=Zhu |first8=Lingyun |last9=Zhang |first9=Xing |date=December 2021 |title=Growth of lithium-indium dendrites in all-solid-state lithium-based batteries with sulfide electrolytes |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=6968 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-27311-7 |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=8630065 |pmid=34845223|bibcode=2021NatCo..12.6968L }}</ref> This higher cell pressure also has the added benefit of possibly mitigating void formation in the cathode.<ref name=":2" />

== Advantages ==

=== Improved energy density === Solid-state batteries offer the potential for significantly higher energy densities compared to traditional lithium-ion batteries. This is largely due to the use of lithium metal anodes, which have a much higher charge capacity than the graphite anodes used in lithium-ion batteries. At a cell level, lithium-ion energy densities are generally below 300Wh/kg while solid-state battery energy densities are able to exceed 350 Wh/kg.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Boaretto |first1=Nicola |last2=Garbayo |first2=Iñigo |last3=Valiyaveettil-SobhanRaj |first3=Sona |last4=Quintela |first4=Amaia |last5=Li |first5=Chunmei |last6=Casas-Cabanas |first6=Montse |last7=Aguesse |first7=Frederic |date=2021-08-01 |title=Lithium solid-state batteries: State-of-the-art and challenges for materials, interfaces and processing |journal=Journal of Power Sources |volume=502 |article-number=229919 |doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2021.229919 |bibcode=2021JPS...50229919B |issn=0378-7753|doi-access=free }}</ref> This energy density boost is especially beneficial for applications requiring longer-lasting and more compact batteries such as electric vehicles.<ref name=":8">{{Cite report |url=https://www.osti.gov/biblio/2466235 |title=A Review on Solid State Batteries: Life Cycle Perspectives |last1=Pandey |first1=Ramsharan |last2=Iyer |first2=Rakesh Krishnamoorthy |date=2024-09-01 |publisher=Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), Argonne, IL (United States) |issue=ANL/ESIA–24/13 |language=English |last3=Kelly |first3=Jarod C.|osti=2466235 }}</ref>

=== Increase of safety and thermal stability === One significant advantage of solid-state batteries is their improved safety profile. Solid electrolytes greatly reduce the risk of thermal runaway—a primary cause of battery fires. Because most solid electrolytes are nonflammable, solid-state batteries have a much lower fire risk and do not require as many safety systems, which can further increase energy density at the cell pack level.<ref name="C&EN" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":8" /> Studies have shown that heat generation during thermal runaway is only about 20-30% of what is observed in conventional batteries with liquid electrolytes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Inoue |first1=Takao |last2=Mukai |first2=Kazuhiko |date=2017-01-18 |title=Are All-Solid-State Lithium-Ion Batteries Really Safe?–Verification by Differential Scanning Calorimetry with an All-Inclusive Microcell |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acsami.6b13224 |journal=ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces |language=en |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=1507–1515 |doi=10.1021/acsami.6b13224 |pmid=28001045 |bibcode=2017AAMI....9.1507I |issn=1944-8244|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Expanded temperature and voltage operating ranges === Solid electrolytes enable a broader range of operating temperatures and voltages, which is crucial for high performance applications.<ref name=":8" /> SSBs can operate at temperatures above 60&nbsp;°C, where traditional are generally only able to operate from -20 to 60&nbsp;°C.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Long |last2=Wu |first2=Honglun |last3=Ai |first3=Xinping |last4=Cao |first4=Yuliang |last5=Chen |first5=Zhongxue |date=2022 |title=Toward wide-temperature electrolyte for lithium–ion batteries |journal=Battery Energy |language=en |volume=1 |issue=2 |article-number=20210006 |doi=10.1002/bte2.20210006 |issn=2768-1688|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Sheng |last2=Song |first2=Hucheng |last3=Song |first3=Xiaoying |last4=Zhu |first4=Ting |last5=Ye |first5=Yipeng |last6=Chen |first6=Jiaming |last7=Yu |first7=Linwei |last8=Xu |first8=Jun |last9=Chen |first9=Kunji |date=2021-08-01 |title=An extra-wide temperature all-solid-state lithium-metal battery operating from −73 °C to 120 °C |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2405829721001665 |journal=Energy Storage Materials |volume=39 |pages=139–145 |doi=10.1016/j.ensm.2021.04.024 |issn=2405-8297|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Solid state batteries also support high-voltage cathode chemistries such as lithium nickel manganese oxide, lithium nickel phosphate, and lithium cobalt phosphate. This allows voltages to potentially exceed 5 V (vs. a Li/Li⁺ reference electrode) while traditional cathode chemistries in lithium-ion batteries are unable to exceed 4.5V (vs. a Li/Li⁺ reference electrode).<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Juchuan |last2=Ma |first2=Cheng |last3=Chi |first3=Miaofang |last4=Liang |first4=Chengdu |last5=Dudney |first5=Nancy J. |date=February 2015 |title=Solid Electrolyte: the Key for High-Voltage Lithium Batteries |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aenm.201401408 |journal=Advanced Energy Materials |language=en |volume=5 |issue=4 |article-number=1401408 |doi=10.1002/aenm.201401408 |bibcode=2015AdEnM...501408L |osti=1185480 |issn=1614-6832}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ma |first1=Mingming |last2=Zhang |first2=Menghui |last3=Jiang |first3=Bitao |last4=Du |first4=Yang |last5=Hu |first5=Bingcheng |last6=Sun |first6=Chengguo |date=2023-03-27 |title=A review of all-solid-state electrolytes for lithium batteries: high-voltage cathode materials, solid-state electrolytes and electrode–electrolyte interfaces |url=https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2023/qm/d2qm01071b |journal=Materials Chemistry Frontiers |language=en |volume=7 |issue=7 |pages=1268–1297 |doi=10.1039/D2QM01071B |issn=2052-1537|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Faster charging and improved space efficiency === The solid electrolyte and lithium metal anode combination enables faster ion transfer, which can reduce charging times compared to lithium-ion batteries. Furthermore, bipolar stacking of cells can be incorporated, allowing for reduced cell size and more compact battery packs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-07-25 |title=New Battery Tech Could Let Electric Cars Charge in Mere Minutes |url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/cars/hybrid-electric/news/a27468/toyota-solid-state-batteries-electric-cars-2022/ |access-date=2024-11-14 |website=Popular Mechanics |language=en-US}}</ref> This allows for improved overall energy efficiency and enables design flexibility for various applications.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schnell |first1=Joscha |last2=Günther |first2=Till |last3=Knoche |first3=Thomas |last4=Vieider |first4=Christoph |last5=Köhler |first5=Larissa |last6=Just |first6=Alexander |last7=Keller |first7=Marlou |last8=Passerini |first8=Stefano |last9=Reinhart |first9=Gunther |date=2018-04-01 |title=All-solid-state lithium-ion and lithium metal batteries – paving the way to large-scale production |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378775318301836 |journal=Journal of Power Sources |volume=382 |pages=160–175 |doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2018.02.062 |bibcode=2018JPS...382..160S |issn=0378-7753}}</ref>

== Thin-film solid-state batteries ==

=== Background === The earliest thin-film solid-state batteries is found by Keiichi Kanehori in 1986,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kanehori |first1=K |last2=Ito |first2=Y |last3=Kirino |first3=F |last4=Miyauchi |first4=K |last5=Kudo |first5=T |title=Titanium disulfide films fabricated by plasma CVD |journal=Solid State Ionics |date=January 1986 |volume=18-19 |pages=818–822 |doi=10.1016/0167-2738(86)90269-9 }}</ref> which is based on the Li electrolyte. The technology was insufficient to power larger electronic devices so it was not fully developed. "Polyamorphism" exists besides crystalline states for thin-film Li-garnet solid-state batteries in 2018,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Garbayo |first1=Iñigo |last2=Struzik |first2=Michal |last3=Bowman |first3=William J. |last4=Pfenninger |first4=Reto |last5=Stilp |first5=Evelyn |last6=Rupp |first6=Jennifer L. M. |title=Glass-Type Polyamorphism in Li-Garnet Thin Film Solid State Battery Conductors |journal=Advanced Energy Materials |date=April 2018 |volume=8 |issue=12 |article-number=1702265 |doi=10.1002/aenm.201702265 |bibcode=2018AdEnM...802265G |hdl=1721.1/140483 |s2cid=103286218 |url=https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/empa/islandora/object/empa%3A16915 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Moran demonstrated that ample can manufacture ceramic films with the desired size range of 1–20 μm in 2021.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balaish |first1=Moran |last2=Gonzalez-Rosillo |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Kim |first3=Kun Joong |last4=Zhu |first4=Yuntong |last5=Hood |first5=Zachary D. |last6=Rupp |first6=Jennifer L. M. |title=Processing thin but robust electrolytes for solid-state batteries |journal=Nature Energy |date=March 2021 |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=227–239 |doi=10.1038/s41560-020-00759-5 |bibcode=2021NatEn...6..227B |s2cid=231886762 }}</ref>

=== Structure === Anode materials: Lithium is favored because of its storage properties, alloys of Al, Si and Sn are also suitable as anodes.

Cathode materials: require having light weight, good cyclical capacity and high energy density. They usually include LiCoO₂, LiFePO₄, TiS₂, V₂O₅ and LiMnO₂.<ref name=":9">{{cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Joo Gon |last2=Son |first2=Byungrak |last3=Mukherjee |first3=Santanu |last4=Schuppert |first4=Nicholas |last5=Bates |first5=Alex |last6=Kwon |first6=Osung |last7=Choi |first7=Moon Jong |last8=Chung |first8=Hyun Yeol |last9=Park |first9=Sam |title=A review of lithium and non-lithium based solid state batteries |journal=Journal of Power Sources |date=May 2015 |volume=282 |pages=299–322 |doi=10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.02.054 |bibcode=2015JPS...282..299K }}</ref>

=== Preparation techniques === Some methods are listed below.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mukanova |first1=Aliya |last2=Jetybayeva |first2=Albina |last3=Myung |first3=Seung-Taek |last4=Kim |first4=Sung-Soo |last5=Bakenov |first5=Zhumabay |title=A mini-review on the development of Si-based thin-film anodes for Li-ion batteries |journal=Materials Today Energy |date=September 2018 |volume=9 |pages=49–66 |doi=10.1016/j.mtener.2018.05.004 |s2cid=103894996 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018MTEne...9...49M }}</ref>

* Physical methods: *# Magnetron sputtering (MS) is one of the most widely used processes for thin-film manufacturing, which is based on physical vapor deposition.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Swann |first1=S |title=Magnetron sputtering |journal=Physics in Technology |date=March 1988 |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=67–75 |doi=10.1088/0305-4624/19/2/304 |bibcode=1988PhTec..19...67S }}</ref> *# Ion-beam deposition (IBD) is similar to the first method, however, bias is not applied and plasma doesn't occur between the target and the substrate in this process.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}} *# Pulsed laser deposition (PLD), laser used in this method has a high power pulses up to about 10⁸ W cm⁻².{{citation needed|date=November 2021}} *# Vacuum evaporation (VE) is a method to prepare alpha-Si thin films. During this process, Si evaporates and deposits on a metallic substrate.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ohara |first1=Shigeki |last2=Suzuki |first2=Junji |last3=Sekine |first3=Kyoichi |last4=Takamura |first4=Tsutomu |title=Li insertion/extraction reaction at a Si film evaporated on a Ni foil |journal=Journal of Power Sources |date=1 June 2003 |volume=119-121 |pages=591–596 |doi=10.1016/S0378-7753(03)00301-X |bibcode=2003JPS...119..591O }}</ref> * Chemical methods: *# Electrodeposition (ED) is for manufacturing Si films, which is convenient and economically viable technique.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dogan |first1=Fulya |last2=Sanjeewa |first2=Liurukara D. |last3=Hwu |first3=Shiou-Jyh |last4=Vaughey |first4=J.T. |title=Electrodeposited copper foams as substrates for thin film silicon electrodes |journal=Solid State Ionics |date=May 2016 |volume=288 |pages=204–206 |doi=10.1016/j.ssi.2016.02.001 |doi-access=free }}</ref> *# Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) is a deposition technique allowing to make thin films with a high quality and purity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mukanova |first1=A. |last2=Tussupbayev |first2=R. |last3=Sabitov |first3=A. |last4=Bondarenko |first4=I. |last5=Nemkaeva |first5=R. |last6=Aldamzharov |first6=B. |last7=Bakenov |first7=Zh. |title=CVD graphene growth on a surface of liquid gallium |journal=Materials Today: Proceedings |date=1 January 2017 |volume=4 |issue=3, Part A |pages=4548–4554 |doi=10.1016/j.matpr.2017.04.028 }}</ref> *# Glow discharge plasma deposition (GDPD) is a mixed physicochemical process. In this process, synthesis temperature has been increased to decrease the extra hydrogen content in the films.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kulova |first1=T. L. |last2=Pleskov |first2=Yu. V. |last3=Skundin |first3=A. M. |last4=Terukov |first4=E. I. |last5=Kon'kov |first5=O. I. |title=Lithium intercalation into amorphous-silicon thin films: An electrochemical-impedance study |journal=Russian Journal of Electrochemistry |date=1 July 2006 |volume=42 |issue=7 |pages=708–714 |doi=10.1134/S1023193506070032 |s2cid=93569567 }}</ref>

=== Development of thin-film system=== * Lithium–oxygen and nitrogen-based polymer thin-film electrolytes has got fully used in solid-state batteries. * Non-Li based thin-film solid-state batteries have been studied, such as Ag-doped germanium chalcogenide thin-film solid-state electrolyte system.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kozicki |first1=M. N. |last2=Mitkova |first2=M. |last3=Aberouette |first3=J. P. |title=Nanostructure of solid electrolytes and surface electrodeposits |journal=Physica E: Low-dimensional Systems and Nanostructures |date=1 July 2003 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=161–166 |doi=10.1016/S1386-9477(03)00313-8 |bibcode=2003PhyE...19..161K }}</ref> Barium-doped thin-film system has also been studied, which thickness can be 2&nbsp;μm at least.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/37835885.pdf|title=RF sputtering deposition of BCZY proton conducting electrolytes}}</ref> In addition, Ni can also be a component in thin film.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Xia|first1=H.|last2=Meng|first2=Y. S.|last3=Lai|first3=M. O.|last4=Lu|first4=L.|date=2010|title=Structural and Electrochemical Properties of LiNi[sub 0.5]Mn[sub 0.5]O[sub 2] Thin-Film Electrodes Prepared by Pulsed Laser Deposition |journal=Journal of the Electrochemical Society|volume=157|issue=3|pages=A348|doi=10.1149/1.3294719 }}</ref> * There are also other methods to fabricate the electrolytes for thin-film solid-state batteries, which are 1.electrostatic-spray deposition technique, 2. DSM-Soulfill process and 3. Using MoO₃ nanobelts to improve the performance of lithium-based thin-film solid-state batteries.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mai |first1=L. Q. |last2=Hu |first2=B. |last3=Chen |first3=W. |last4=Qi |first4=Y. Y. |last5=Lao |first5=C. S. |last6=Yang |first6=R. S. |last7=Dai |first7=Y. |last8=Wang |first8=Z. L. |title=Lithiated MoO₃ Nanobelts with Greatly Improved Performance for Lithium Batteries |journal=Advanced Materials |date=2007 |volume=19 |issue=21 |pages=3712–3716 |doi=10.1002/adma.200700883 |bibcode=2007AdM....19.3712M |s2cid=33290912 }}</ref>

=== Advantages === * Compared with other batteries, the thin-film batteries have both high gravimetric as well as volumetric energy densities. These are important indicators to measure battery performance of energy stored.{{Clarify|reason=OK, cool. Important factors. Uh-huh. What does that mean? Is that good? Bad? Better than e.g. hamburgers?|date=July 2024}}<ref name="Patil 1913–1942">{{cite journal |last1=Patil |first1=Arun |last2=Patil |first2=Vaishali |last3=Wook Shin |first3=Dong |last4=Choi |first4=Ji-Won |last5=Paik |first5=Dong-Soo |last6=Yoon |first6=Seok-Jin |title=Issue and challenges facing rechargeable thin film lithium batteries |journal=Materials Research Bulletin |date=4 August 2008 |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=1913–1942 |doi=10.1016/j.materresbull.2007.08.031 }}</ref> * In addition to high energy density, thin-film solid-state batteries have long lifetime{{Clarify|reason=Compared to what? Heat death of the Universe or more like life-span of subatomic particles detected during experiments at CERN?|date=July 2024}}, outstanding flexibility{{Clarify|reason=Compared to WHAT?|date=July 2024}} and low weight.{{Clarify|reason=Compared to WHAT?|date=July 2024}} These properties make thin-film solid-state batteries suitable for use in various fields such as electric vehicles, military facilities and medical devices.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Trakimavicius|first1=Lukas|title=Wanted: More Batteries for Defence |url=https://www.rusi.org/explore-our-research/publications/commentary/wanted-more-batteries-defence |website=RUSI |date=15 October 2025}}</ref>

=== Challenges === * Its performance and efficiency are constrained by the nature of its geometry. The current drawn from a thin-film battery largely depends on the geometry and interface contacts of the electrolyte/cathode and the electrolyte/anode interfaces{{Clarify|reason=What does any of that even mean? Explain it to me as if you would to a Bulgarian child raised in Kongo?|date=July 2024}} * Low thickness of the electrolyte and the interfacial resistance at the electrode and electrolyte interface affect the output and integration of thin-film systems.{{Clarify|reason=Affect it do they? How? Positively? Negatively? Is that good or bad?|date=July 2024}} * During the charging-discharging process, considerable change of volumetric makes the loss of material.{{Clarify|reason=Makes the loss of material WHAT? English? Do you spik it?|date=July 2024}}<ref name="Patil 1913–1942"/>

== Innovation and IP protection == thumb|Research and patenting activities in solid-state batteries have grown significantly and steadily between 2010 and 2023.

The patent landscape for solid-state batteries has been evolving since 2010, reflecting the global race to develop safer and more efficient energy storage solutions. Major corporations, particularly in the automotive and electronics sectors, have been actively filing patents to secure the Intellectual property of their innovations in this field. Toyota is the top company in terms of granted patent rights, followed by LG, Samsung, Murata and Panasonic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=LG |date=2024-10-14 |title=Toyota in a Solid Position in Solid-State Lithium Patents |url=https://www.potterclarkson.com/insights/toyota-in-a-solid-position-in-solid-state-lithium-patents/ |access-date=2025-02-09 |website=Potter Clarkson |language=en}}</ref> Japanese automaker Toyota was granted 8274 solid-battery patents between 2020 and 2023.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cooke |first=Elizabeth |date=2023-11-08 |title=Signal: Toyota dominates solid-state battery patents |url=https://www.just-auto.com/news/signal-toyota-dominates-solid-state-battery-patents/ |access-date=2025-02-10 |website=Just Auto |language=en-US}}</ref>

According to 2024 WIPO ''Technology trends future of transportation'' report, research and patenting activities in solid-state batteries have grown significantly between 2010 and 2023, and are an important niche within the broader field of battery technologies.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/wipo-technology-trends-future-of-transportation/en/5-emerging-technologies-in-transportation.html|title=WIPO Technology Trends: Future of Transportation - 5 Emerging technologies in transportation|via=www.wipo.int}}</ref> Isostatic pressing has gained traction for solid-state batteries. Patent registrations grew at a CAGR of 22% from 2017 to 2024, resulting in 2110 patents related to the combination of solid-state batteries and isostatic pressure as of November 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Solid-state batteries isostatic pressure (patent search) |url=https://worldwide.espacenet.com/patent/search?q=solid-state%20batteries%20isostatic%20pressure |website=Espacenet |publisher=European Patent Office |access-date=2025-11-12 }}</ref>

== See also == {{div col|colwidth=22em}} * Anode-free battery * Solid-state electrolyte * Divalent * Fast-ion conductor * Ionic conductivity * Ionic crystal * John B. Goodenough * List of battery types * Lithium–air battery * Lithium iron phosphate battery * Separator (electricity) * Supercapacitor * Thin-film lithium-ion battery * Silicon battery {{div col end}}

== References == {{Reflist}}

==External links==

{{Galvanic cells}} {{Authority control}}

Category:Solid-state batteries Category:2000s introductions