Galanthus

{{Short description|Genus of flowering plants in the family Amaryllidacee}} {{Redirect|Snowdrop}} {{Use British English|date=May 2017}} {{Italic title}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2017}} {{Automatic taxobox |name = Snowdrop |image = Galanthus_nivalis.jpg |image_caption = ''Galanthus nivalis'' common snowdrop | status2 = CITES_A2 | status2_system = CITES | status2_ref = <ref>{{Cite web|title=Appendices {{!}} CITES|url=https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php|access-date=2024-01-17|website=cites.org}}</ref> |taxon = Galanthus |authority = L. |type_species = ''Galanthus nivalis'' |type_species_authority = L. |synonyms_ref = <ref name=WCSP/> |synonyms = * ''Erangelia'' Reneaulme ex L. * ''Acrocorion'' Adans. * ''Chianthemum'' Siegert ex Kuntze }} thumb|''Galanthus nivalis'': Flora von Deutschland, Österreich und der Schweiz, 1885

'''''Galanthus''''' (from Ancient Greek {{wikt-lang|grc|γάλα}}, ({{transliteration|grc|gála}}, "milk") + {{wikt-lang|grc|ἄνθος}} ({{transliteration|grc|ánthos}}, "flower")), or '''snowdrop''', is a small genus of approximately 20 species of bulbous perennial herbaceous plants in the family Amaryllidaceae. The plants have two linear leaves and a single small white drooping bell-shaped flower with six petal-like (petaloid) tepals in two circles (whorls). The smaller inner petals have green markings.

Snowdrops have been known since the earliest times under various names, but were named ''Galanthus'' in 1753. As the number of recognised species increased, various attempts were made to divide the species into subgroups, usually on the basis of the pattern of the emerging leaves (vernation). In the era of molecular phylogenetics this characteristic has been shown to be unreliable and now seven molecularly defined clades are recognised that correspond to the biogeographical distribution of species. New species continue to be discovered.

Most species flower in winter, before the vernal equinox (20 or 21 March in the Northern Hemisphere), but some flower in early spring and late autumn. Sometimes snowdrops are confused with the two related genera within the tribe Galantheae, snowflakes ''Leucojum'' and ''Acis''.

==Description== thumb|right|Snowdrops growing through autumn leaves === General === All species of ''Galanthus'' are perennial petaloid herbaceous bulbous (growing from bulbs) monocot plants. The genus is characterised by the presence of two leaves, pendulous white flowers with six free perianth segments in two whorls. The inner whorl is smaller than the outer whorl and has green markings.{{sfn|Ronsted et al.|2013}}

=== Vegetative ===

; Leaves: These are basal, emerging from the bulb initially enclosed in a tubular membranous sheath of cataphylls. Generally, these are two (sometimes three) in number and linear, strap-shaped, or oblanceolate. Vernation, the arrangement of the emerging leaves relative to each other, varies among species. These may be applanate (flat), supervolute (conduplicate), or explicative (pleated). In applanate vernation, the two leaf blades are pressed flat to each other within the bud and as they emerge; explicative leaves are also pressed flat against each other, but the edges of the leaves are folded back (externally recurved) or sometimes rolled; in supervolute plants, one leaf is tightly clasped around the other within the bud and generally remains at the point where the leaves emerge from the soil{{sfn|Bishop et al.|2001|loc=p. 1–2}} (for illustration, see Stearn{{sfn|Stearn vernation|1992}} and Davis{{sfn|Davis vernation|1999}}). In the past, this feature has been used to distinguish between species and to determine the parentage of hybrids, but now has been shown to be homoplasious, and not useful in this regard.

The scape (flowering stalk) is erect, leafless, terete, or compressed.{{sfn|Brickell|2011}}

=== Reproductive ===

;Inflorescence : At the top of the scape is a pair of bract-like spathes (valves) usually fused down one side and joined by a papery membrane, appearing monophyllous (single). From between the spathes emerges a solitary (rarely two), pendulous, nodding, bell-shaped white flower, held on a slender pedicel. The flower bears six free perianth segments (tepals) rather than true petals, arranged in two whorls of three, the outer whorl being larger and more convex than the inner whorl. The outer tepals are acute to more or less obtuse, spathulate or oblanceolate to narrowly obovate or linear, shortly clawed, and erect spreading. The inner tepals are much shorter (half to two thirds as long), oblong, spathulate or oblanceolate, somewhat unguiculate (claw like); tapering to the base and erect. These tepals also bear green markings at the base, the apex, or both, that when at the apex, are bridge-shaped over the small sinus (notch) at the tip of each tepal, which are emarginate. Occasionally, the markings are either green-yellow, yellow, or absent, and the shape and size varies by species.<ref name=Meerow98/>{{sfn|Brickell|2011}}

; Androecium : The six stamens are inserted at the base of the perianth, and are very short (shorter than the inner perianth segments), the anthers basifixed (attached at their bases) with filaments much shorter than the anthers; they dehisce (open) by terminal pores or short slits.{{sfn|Brickell|2011}}

; Gynoecium, fruit and seeds: The inferior ovary is three-celled. The style is slender and longer than the anthers; the stigma is minutely capitate. The ovary ripens into a three-celled capsule fruit. This fruit is fleshy, ellipsoid or almost spherical, opening by three flaps, with seeds that are light brown to white and oblong with a small appendage or tail (elaiosome) containing substances attractive to ants, which distribute the seeds.{{sfn|Brickell|2011}}<ref name=Dahlgren/>

The chromosome number is 2n=24.{{sfn|Bishop et al.|2001|loc=p. 7}}<ref name=Meerow98/>

Floral formula: <math>\star\; P_{3+3} \; A_{3+3} \; G_{\overline{(3)}}</math>

==Distribution and habitat== thumb|upright=2|right|Distribution map of ''Galanthus'' species in Europe and Western Asia The genus ''Galanthus'' is native to Europe and the Middle East, from the Spanish and French Pyrenees in the west through to the Caucasus and Iran in the east, and south to Sicily, the Peloponnese, the Aegean, Turkey, Lebanon, and Syria. The northern limit is uncertain because ''G. nivalis'' has been widely introduced and cultivated throughout Europe.{{sfn|Ronsted et al.|2013}} ''G. nivalis'' and some other species valued as ornamentals have become widely naturalised in Europe, North America, and other regions.<ref name=WCSP/> In the Udmurt republic of Russia, ''Galanthus'' are found even above the 56th parallel.{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}

''Galanthus nivalis'' is the best-known and most widespread representative of the genus ''Galanthus''. It is native to a large area of Europe, stretching from the Pyrenees in the west, through France and Germany to Poland in the north, Italy, northern Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, and European Turkey. It has been introduced and is widely naturalised elsewhere.<ref name=Davisnivalis/> Although it is often thought of as a British native wild flower, or to have been brought to the British Isles by the Romans, it most likely was introduced around the early sixteenth century, and is currently not a protected species in the UK.<ref name="BDG_p17"/> It was first recorded as naturalised in the UK in Worcestershire and Gloucestershire in 1770.<ref name=Oakes/> Most other ''Galanthus'' species are from the eastern Mediterranean, while several are found in the Caucasus, in southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan.{{sfn|Bishop et al.|2001|loc=p. 17–57}} ''Galanthus fosteri'' is found in Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, Turkey, and, perhaps, Palestine.{{sfn|Bishop et al.|2001|loc=p. 40}}

Most ''Galanthus'' species grow best in woodland, in acid or alkaline soil,{{sfn|Brickell|2011}} although some are grassland or mountain species.

==Taxonomy==

=== History ===

==== Early ==== [[File:Leucojum bulbosum praecox Gerard.jpg|thumb|''G. nivalis'' from John Gerard's ''Herball'', 1597]] Snowdrops have been known since early times, being described by the classical Greek author Theophrastus, in the fourth century BCE, in his ''Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία'' (Latin: ''Historia plantarum'', ''Enquiry into plants''). He gave it, and similar plants, the name λευκόἲον (λευκος, leukos "white" and ἰόν, ion "violet") from which the later name ''Leucojum'' was derived. He described the plant as "ἑπεἰ τοῖς γε χρώμασι λευκἂ καἱ οὐ λεπυριώδη" (in colour white and bulbs without scales)<ref name=HP134/> and of their habits "Ἰῶν δ' ἁνθῶν τὀ μἑν πρῶτον ἑκφαἱνεται τὁ λευκόἲον, ὅπου μἑν ό ἀἠρ μαλακώτερος εὐθὑς τοῦ χειμῶνος, ὅπου δἐ σκληρότερος ὕστερον, ἑνιαχοῡ τοῡ ἣρος" (Of the flowers, the first to appear is the white violet. Where the climate is mild, it appears with the first sign of winter, but in more severe climates, later in spring).<ref name=HP49/>

Rembert Dodoens, a Flemish botanist, described and illustrated this plant in 1583 as did Gerard in England in 1597 (probably using much of Dodoens' material), calling it ''Leucojum bulbosum praecox'' (Early bulbous violet). Gerard refers to Theophrastus's description as ''Viola alba'' or ''Viola bulbosa'', using Pliny's translation, and comments that the plant had originated in Italy and had "taken possession" in England "many years past".<ref name=Gerard/> The genus was formally named ''Galanthus'' and described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753,<ref name=Linnaeus/> with the single species, ''Galanthus nivalis'', which is the type species. Consequently, Linnaeus is granted the botanical authority. In doing so, he distinguished this genus and species from ''Leucojum'' (''Leucojum bulbosum trifolium minus''), a name by which it previously had been known.<ref name=WCSP/><ref name=APW/><ref name=Churchgal/>

==== Modern ====

In 1763 Michel Adanson began a system of arranging genera in families. Using the synonym ''Acrocorion'' (also spelt ''Akrokorion''),<ref name=Adansongal/> he placed ''Galanthus'' in the family Liliaceae, section Narcissi.<ref name=Adansonnarc/> Lamarck provided a description of the genus in his encyclopedia (1786),<ref name=Lamarck/> and later, ''Illustrations des genres'' (1793).<ref name=Lamarckillus/> In 1789 de Jussieu, who is credited with the modern concept of genera organised in families, placed ''Galanthus'' and related genera within a division of Monocotyledons, using a modified form of Linnaeus' sexual classification, but with the respective topography of stamens to carpels rather than just their numbers. In doing so, he restored the name ''Galanthus'' and retained their placement under Narcissi, this time as a family (known as ''Ordo'', at that time) and referred to the French vernacular name, ''Perce-neige''{{sfn|Clos|1862|loc=''Perce-neige'' p. 658}} (Snow-pierce), based on the plants tendency to push through early spring snow (see Ecology for illustration).<ref name=Jussieu/> The modern family of Amaryllidaceae, in which ''Galanthus'' is placed, dates to Jaume Saint-Hilaire (1805) who replaced Jussieu's Narcissi with ''Amaryllidées''.<ref name=Saint-Hilaire/> In 1810, Brown proposed that a subgroup of Liliaceae be distinguished on the basis of the position of the ovaries and be referred to as Amaryllideae,<ref name=Brown/> and in 1813, de Candolle separated them by describing Liliacées Juss. and Amaryllidées Brown as two quite separate families.<ref name=Candolle/> However, in his comprehensive survey of the Flora of France (Flore française, 1805–1815) he divided Liliaceae into a series of ''Ordres'', and placed Galanthus into the Narcissi ''Ordre''.<ref name=Candollegal/> This relationship of Galanthus to either liliaceous or amaryllidaceaous taxa (see Taxonomy of Liliaceae) was to last for another two centuries until the two were formally divided at the end of the twentieth century.{{sfn|Meerow et al.|1999}} Lindley (1830) followed this general pattern, placing ''Galanthus'' and related genera such as ''Amaryllis'' and ''Narcissus'' in his Amaryllideae (which he called The Narcissus Tribe in English).<ref name=Lindley1830/> By 1853, the number of known plants was increasing considerably and he revised his schema in his last work, placing ''Galanthus'' together, and the other two genera in the modern Galantheae in tribe Amarylleae, order Amaryllidaceae, alliance Narcissales.<ref name=Lindley53Amarylleae/> These three genera have been treated together taxonomically by most authors, on the basis of an inferior ovary. As the number of plant species increased, so did the taxonomic complexity. By the time Bentham and Hooker published their ''Genera plantarum'' (1862–1883){{sfn|Bentham|Hooker|1883}} ordo Amaryllideae<ref name=BHAmaryllideae/> contained five tribes, and tribe Amarylleae<ref name=BHAmarylleae/> three subtribes (see Bentham & Hooker system). They placed ''Galanthus'' in subtribe Genuinae and included three species.<ref name=BHgal/>

=== Phylogeny ===

{{cladogram | title=Cladogram of evolutionary lines in ''Galanthus'' ''sensu'' Ronsted ''et al.''{{sfn|Ronsted et al.|2013}} | align=''right'' | cladogram={{clade|style="text-align:right; padding:2.5px; background:#eef"; width:500px; | label1=Galantheae | 1={{clade | 1=''Galanthus'' | 2={{clade | 1=''Acis'' | 2=''Leucojum''}} }} }} }}

''Galanthus'' is one of three closely related genera making up the tribe Galantheae within subfamily Amaryllidoideae (family Amaryllidaceae). Sometimes snowdrops are confused with the other two genera, ''Leucojum'' and ''Acis'' (both called snowflakes). ''Leucojum'' species are much larger and flower in spring (or early summer, depending on the species), with all six tepals in the flower being the same size, although some "poculiform" (goblet- or cup-shaped) ''Galanthus'' species may have inner segments similar in shape and length to the outer ones. Galantheae are likely to have arisen in the Caucusus.{{sfn|Meerow et al.|2006a}}

===Subdivision=== thumb|The three different forms of leaf shoots from the bulb: flat (applanate), folded (explicative) rolled up (convolute) (left to right) [[File:Galanthus elwesii, flower.jpg|thumb|''Galanthus elwesii'']] thumb|''Galanthus nivalis'' 'Viridapice' [[File:Підсніжники в урочищі Холодний Яр.jpeg|thumb|''Galanthus plicatus'']] [[File:Weiße Galanthusblüten.JPG|thumb|''Galanthus woronowii'']]

''Galanthus'' has approximately 20 species, but new species continue to be described.<ref name=WCSP/> ''G. trojanus'' was identified in Turkey in 2001.<ref name=WCSPtroj/>{{sfn|Davis|Özhatay|2001}} ''G. panjutinii'' (Panjutin's snowdrop)<ref name=WCSPpanj/> was discovered in 2012 in five locations in a small area (estimated at {{cvt|20|km2}}) of the northern Colchis area (western Transcaucasus) of Georgia and Russia.<ref name=RBGpanj/>{{sfn|Zubov|Davis|2012}} ''G. samothracicus'' was identified in Greece in 2014. Since it has not been subjected to genetic sequencing, it remains unplaced. It resembles ''G. nivalis'', but is outside the distribution of that species.<ref name=WCSPsamo/>{{sfn|Tan et al.|2014}}

Many species are difficult to identify, however, and traditional infrageneric classification based on plant morphology alone, such as those of Stern (1956),{{sfn|Stern|1956}} Traub (1963)<ref name=Traub63/> and Davis{{sfn|Davis|2016}} (1999, 2001),<ref name=Davistax/>{{sfn|Davis|2001}}{{sfn|Brickell|2011}} has not reflected what is known about its evolutionary history, due to the morphological similarities among the species and relative lack of easily discernible distinguishing characteristics.{{sfn|Kamenetsky|2012}}{{sfn|Lledo et al.|2004}}{{sfn|Larsen et al.|2010}} Stern divided the genus into three series according to leaf vernation (the way the leaves are folded in the bud, when viewed in transverse section, see Description);{{sfn|Stern|1956}} * section ''Nivales'' Beck (flat leaves) * section ''Plicati'' Beck (plicate leaves) * section ''Latifolii'' Stern (convolute leaves) Stern further utilised characteristics such as the markings of the inner segments, length of the pedicels in relation to the spathe, and the colour and shape of the leaves in identifying and classifying species.

Traub considered them as subgenera; * subgenus ''Galanthus'' * subgenus ''Plicatanthus'' Traub & Moldk. * subgenus ''Platyphyllanthe'' Traub

By contrast Davis, with much more information and specimens, included biogeography in addition to vernation, forming two series. He used somewhat different terminology for vernation, namely applanate (flat), explicative (plicate), and supervolute (convolute). He merged ''Nivalis'' and ''Plicati'' into series ''Galanthus'', and divided ''Latifolii'' into two subseries, ''Glaucaefolii'' (Kem.-Nath) A.P.Davis and ''Viridifolii'' (Kem.-Nath) A.P.Davis.<ref name=Davistax/>

Early molecular phylogenetic studies confirmed the genus was monophyletic and suggested four clades, which were labelled as series, and showed that Davis' subseries were not monophyletic.{{sfn|Lledo et al.|2004}}{{sfn|Larsen et al.|2010}} An expanded study in 2013 demonstrated seven major clades, corresponding to biogeographical distribution. This study used nuclear encoded nrITS (Nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer), and plastid encoded genes ''matK'' (Maturase K), ''trnL-F'', ''ndhF'', and ''psbK–psbI'', and examined all species recognised at the time, as well as two naturally occurring putative hybrids. The morphological characteristic of vernation that earlier authors had mainly relied on was shown to be highly homoplasious. A number of species, such as ''G. nivalis'' and ''G. elwesii'' demonstrated intraspecific biogeographical clades, indicating problems with speciation and there may be a need for recircumscription. These clades were assigned names, partly according to Davis' previous groupings. In this model clade, the group containing ''G. platyphyllus'' is sister to the rest of the genus.{{sfn|Ronsted et al.|2013}}

By contrast, another study performed at the same time, using both nuclear and chloroplast DNA, but limited to the 14 species found in Turkey, largely confirmed Davis' series and subseries, and with biogeographical correlation. Series ''Galanthus'' in this study corresponded to clade nivalis, subseries ''Glaucaefolii'' with clade Elwesii and subseries ''Viridifolii'' with clades Woronowii and Alpinus. However, the model did not provide complete resolution.{{sfn|Margoz et al.|2013}}

==== Clades ====

{{cladogram | title=Cladogram of evolutionary lines in ''Galanthus'' ''sensu'' Ronsted ''et al.''{{sfn|Ronsted et al.|2013}} | align=''center'' | cladogram={{clade|style="text-align:left; padding:2.5px; background:#eef"; width:500px; | label1= ''Galanthus'' | 1={{clade | 1=Platyphyllus | 2={{clade | 1=Trojanus | 2={{clade | 1={{clade | 1=Ikariae | 2=Elwesii}} | 2={{clade | 1=Nivalis | 2={{clade | 1=Woronowii | 2=Alpinus}} }} }} }} }} }} }}''sensu'' Ronsted et al. 2013{{sfn|Ronsted et al.|2013}} * Platyphyllus clade (Caucasus, W. Transcaucasus, NE Turkey) ** ''Galanthus krasnovii'' Khokhr. 1963 ** ''Galanthus platyphyllus'' Traub & Moldenke 1948 ** ''Galanthus panjutinii'' Zubov & A.P.Davis 2012 * Trojanus clade (NW Turkey) ** ''Galanthus trojanus'' A.P.Davis & Özhatay 2001 * Ikariae clade (Aegean Islands) ** ''Galanthus ikariae'' Baker 1893 * Elwesii clade (Turkey, Aegean Islands, SE Europe) ** ''Galanthus cilicicus'' Baker 1897 ** ''Galanthus elwesii'' Hook.f. 1875 (2 variants) ** ''Galanthus gracilis'' Celak. 1891 ** ''Galanthus peshmenii'' A.P.Davis & C.D.Brickell 1994 * Nivalis clade (Europe, NW Turkey) ** ''Galanthus nivalis'' L. 1753 ** ''Galanthus plicatus'' M.Bieb. 1819 (2 subspecies) ** ''Galanthus reginae-olgae'' Orph. 1874 (2 subspecies) * Woronowii clade (Caucasus, E. and NE Turkey, N. Iran) ** ''Galanthus fosteri'' Baker 1889 ** ''Galanthus lagodechianus'' Kem.-Nath. 1947 ** ''Galanthus rizehensis'' Stern 1956 ** ''Galanthus woronowii'' Losinsk. 1935 * Alpinus clade (Caucasus, NE Turkey, N.Iran) ** ''Galanthus'' × ''allenii'' Baker 1891 ** ''Galanthus angustifolius'' Koss 1951 ** ''Galanthus alpinus'' Sosn. (2 variants) 1911 ** ''Galanthus koenenianus'' Lobin 1993 ** ''Galanthus transcaucasicus'' Fomin 1909 * Unplaced ** ''Galanthus bursanus'' Zubov, Konca & A.P.Davis 2019 (NW Turkey) ** ''Galanthus samothracicus'' Kit Tan & Biel 2014 (Greece)

{{cladogram | title=Cladogram of evolutionary lines in ''Galanthus'' ''sensu'' Margoz ''et al.''{{sfn|Margoz et al.|2013}} | align=''center'' | cladogram={{clade|style="text-align:left; padding:2.5px; background:#eef"; width:500px; | label1= ''Galanthus'' | 1={{clade | 1=''Viridifolii'' | 2={{clade | 1=''Glaucaefolii'' | 2=''Galanthus''}} }} }} }}

;Selected species * Common snowdrop, ''Galanthus nivalis'', grows to around 7–15 cm tall, flowering between January and April in the northern temperate zone (January–May in the wild). Applanate vernation.<ref name="BDG_p17">Bishop, Davis & Grimshaw (2002), p. 17.</ref> Grown as ornamental. * Crimean snowdrop, ''Galanthus plicatus'', 30 cm tall, flowering January/March, white flowers, with broad leaves folded back at the edges (explicative vernation). * Giant snowdrop, ''Galanthus elwesii'', a native of the Levant, 23 cm tall, flowering January/February, with large flowers, the three inner segments of which often have a much larger and more conspicuous green blotch (or blotches) than the more common kinds; supervolute vernation. Grown as ornamental.<ref name=elwesii/> * ''Galanthus reginae-olgae'', from Greece and Sicily, is quite similar in appearance to ''G. nivalis'', but flowers in autumn before the leaves appear. The leaves, which appear in the spring, have a characteristic white stripe on their upper side; applanate vernation. ** ''G. reginae-olgae'' subsp. ''vernalis'', from Sicily, northern Greece and the southern part of former Yugoslavia, blooms at the end of the winter with developed young leaves and is thus easily confused with ''G. nivalis''.

=== Etymology ===

''Galanthus'' is derived from the Greek γάλα (''gala''), meaning "milk" and ἄνθος (''anthos'') meaning "flower", alluding to the colour of the flowers. The epithet ''nivalis'' is derived from the Latin, meaning "of the snow".{{sfn|Hyam |Pankhurst |1995}}{{sfn|Hollinger}} The word "Snowdrop" may be derived from the German ''Schneetropfen'' (snow-drop), the tear drop shaped pearl earrings popular in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Other, earlier, common names include Candlemas bells, Fair maids of February, and White ladies (see Symbols).<ref name=Churchgal/>

== Ecology == thumb|''G. nivalis'' piercing snow cover Snowdrops are hardy herbaceous plants that perennate by underground bulbs. They are among the earliest spring bulbs to bloom, although a few forms of ''G. nivalis'' are autumn flowering.<ref name=Dahlgren/>{{sfn|Harland|2016}} In colder climates, they will emerge through snow (see illustration). To help against the cold and possible damage caused by ice crystals forming on the plant, they are coated in an enzyme that inhibits the creation of these crystals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Snowdrops |url=https://www.botanic.cam.ac.uk/the-garden/gardens-plantings/snowdrops/ |access-date=2025-11-25 |website=Cambridge University Botanic Garden |language=en-US}}</ref> They naturalise relatively easily forming large drifts. These are often sterile,{{sfn|Davis|1999}} found near human habitation, and also former monastic sites.{{sfn|Harland|2016}} The leaves die back a few weeks after the flowers have faded. ''Galanthus'' plants are relatively vigorous and may spread rapidly by forming bulb offsets. They also spread by dispersal of seed, animals disturbing bulbs, and water if disturbed by floods.{{sfn|Harland|2016}}<ref name=Churchgal/>

==Conservation==

Some snowdrop species are threatened in their wild habitats, due to habitat destruction, illegal collecting, and climate change.{{sfn|Ronsted et al.|2013}} In most countries collecting bulbs from the wild is now illegal. Under CITES regulations, international trade in any quantity of ''Galanthus'', whether bulbs, live plants, or even dead ones, is illegal without a CITES permit.{{sfn|CITES Convention}} This applies to hybrids and named cultivars, as well as species. CITES lists all species, but allows a limited trade in wild-collected bulbs of just three species (''G. nivalis'', ''G. elwesii'', and ''G. woronowii'') from Turkey and Georgia.{{sfn|Bishop et al.|2001|pp=341–343}} A number of species are on the IUCN Red List of threatened species, with the conservation status being ''G. trojanus'' as critically endangered,<ref>{{cite iucn |author=Davis, A. |year=2011 |title=''Galanthus trojanus'' |article-number=e.T164902A5937668 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-1.RLTS.T164902A5937668.en |language=en}}</ref> four species vulnerable, ''G. nivalis'' is near threatened<ref>{{cite iucn |author=Crook, V. |author2=Davis, A.P. |year=2011 |title=''Galanthus nivalis'' |article-number=e.T162168A5551773 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2011-1.RLTS.T162168A5551773.en |language=en}}</ref> and several species show decreasing populations.{{sfn|Ronsted et al.|2013}} ''G. panjutinii'' is considered endangered. One of its five known sites, at Sochi, was destroyed by preparations for the 2014 Winter Olympics.<ref name=RBGpanj/>

==Cultivation==

''Galanthus'' species and cultivars are extremely popular as symbols of spring and are traded more than any other wild-source ornamental bulb genus. Millions of bulbs are exported annually from Turkey and Georgia.{{sfn|Ronsted et al.|2013}} For instance export quotas for 2016 for ''G. elwesii'' were 7 million for Turkey.<ref name=CITESexpGelwesii/> Quotas for ''G. worononowii'' were 5 million for Turkey and 15 million for Georgia.<ref name=CITESexpGworonowii/> These figures include both wild-taken and artificially propagated bulbs.

===Snowdrop gardens=== {{main|List of snowdrop gardens}} [[File:Bank Hall Snowdrops Feb 2009.JPG|thumb|Snowdrop carpet at Bank Hall, Bretherton, Lancashire in February 2009]]

Celebrated as a sign of spring, snowdrops may form impressive carpets of white in areas where they are native or have been naturalised. These displays may attract large numbers of sightseers.{{sfn|Harland|2016}} There are a number of snowdrop gardens in England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.greatbritishgardens.co.uk/snowdrops.htm |website=Great British Gardens |title=Snowdrops and Snowdrop Gardens 2007 |access-date=11 March 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070401034623/http://www.greatbritishgardens.co.uk/snowdrops.htm |archive-date=1 April 2007 }}</ref> Several gardens open specially in February for visitors to admire the flowers. Sixty gardens took part in Scotland's first Snowdrop Festival (1 Feb–11 March 2007).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://white.visitscotland.com/snowdrops/ |website=VisitScotland.com |title=Scottish Snowdrop Festival |access-date=11 March 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070303112955/http://white.visitscotland.com/snowdrops/ |archive-date=3 March 2007 }}</ref> Several gardens in England open during snowdrop season for the National Gardens Scheme (NGS) and in Scotland for Scotland's Gardens. Colesbourne Park in Gloucestershire is one of the best known of the English snowdrop gardens, being the home of Henry John Elwes, a collector of Galanthus specimens, and after whom ''Galanthus elwesii'' is named.<ref>{{cite web|title=Henry John Elwes|url=https://www.colesbournegardens.org.uk/about-us/henry-john-elwes.html |publisher=Colesbourne Gardens}}</ref>{{sfn|Ellis|2010}}

===Cultivars=== thumb|Snowdrop with extra tepals (mutation) thumb|''Galanthus plicatus'' 'Wendy's Gold' has yellow markings and ovary. Numerous single- and double-flowered cultivars of ''Galanthus nivalis'' are known, and also of several other ''Galanthus'' species, particularly ''G. plicatus'' and ''G. elwesii''. Also, many hybrids between these and other species exist (more than 500 cultivars are described in Bishop, Davis, and Grimshaw's book, plus lists of many cultivars that have now been lost, and others not seen by the authors). They differ particularly in the size, shape, and markings of the flower, the period of flowering, and other characteristics, mainly of interest to the keen (even fanatical) snowdrop collectors, known as "galanthophiles", who hold meetings where the scarcer cultivars change hands.{{sfn|Bishop et al.|2001|loc=p. 329}}  Double-flowered cultivars and forms, such as the extremely common ''Galanthus nivalis'' f. ''pleniflorus'' 'Flore Pleno', may be less attractive to some people, but they can have greater visual impact in a garden setting. Cultivars with yellow markings and ovaries rather than the usual green are also grown, such as 'Wendy's Gold'.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/126686/Galanthus-plicatus-Wendy-s-Gold/Details |title=''Galanthus plicatus'' 'Wendy's Gold'|website=Plants|publisher=RHS|access-date=18 March 2021}}</ref> Many hybrids have also occurred in cultivation.{{sfn|Brickell|2011}}

===Awards=== {{as of|2017|July}}, the following have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/agm-lists/agm-ornamentals.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/agm-lists/agm-ornamentals.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=AGM Plants – Ornamental |date=July 2017 |page=39 |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society |access-date=27 February 2018}}</ref> {{div col|colwidth=22em}} * ''Galanthus'' 'Ailwyn'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/216755/Galanthus-Ailwyn-(d)/Details | title = ''Galanthus'' 'Ailwyn' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 7 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus'' 'Atkinsii' <ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/94362/Galanthus-Atkinsii/Details | title = ''Galanthus'' 'Atkinsii' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 7 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus'' 'Bertram Anderson'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/81782/Galanthus-Bertram-Anderson/Details | title = ''Galanthus'' 'Bertram Anderson' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 8 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus elwesii''<ref>{{cite web|work=RHS Plant Selector|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/7556/Galanthus-elwesii/Details | title = ''Galanthus elwesii'' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 7 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus elwesii'' 'Comet'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/155810/Galanthus-elwesii-Comet/Details | title = ''Galanthus elwesii'' 'Comet' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 7 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus elwesii'' 'Godfrey Owen'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/232928/Galanthus-elwesii-Godfrey-Owen-(d)/Details | title = ''Galanthus elwesii'' 'Godfrey Owen' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 8 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus elwesii'' 'Mrs Macnamara'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/290748/Galanthus-elwesii-Mrs-Macnamara/Details | title = ''Galanthus elwesii'' 'Mrs Macnamara' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 8 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus elwesii'' var. ''monostictus''<ref>{{cite web|title=RHS Plant Selector – ''Galanthus elwesii'' var. ''monostictus''|url= https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/134063/Galanthus-elwesii-var-monostictus/Details |access-date=7 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus'' 'John Gray'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/97864/Galanthus-John-Gray/Details | title = ''Galanthus'' 'John Gray' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 8 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus'' 'Lady Beatrix Stanley'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/89203/Galanthus-Lady-Beatrix-Stanley-(d)/Details | title = ''Galanthus'' 'Lady Beatrix Stanley' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 7 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus'' 'Magnet'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/93935/Galanthus-Magnet/Details | title = ''Galanthus'' 'Magnet' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 7 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus'' 'Merlin'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/194564/Galanthus-x-hybridus-Merlin/Details | title = ''Galanthus'' × ''hybridus'' 'Merlin' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 7 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus nivalis''<ref>{{cite web|work=RHS Plant Selector|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/7568/Galanthus-nivalis/Details | title = ''Galanthus nivalis'' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 7 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus nivalis'' f. ''pleniflorus'' 'Flore Pleno'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/197933/Galanthus-nivalis-f-pleniflorus-Flore-Pleno-(d)/Details | title = ''Galanthus nivalis'' f. ''pleniflorus'' 'Flore Pleno' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 8 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus nivalis'' 'Viridapice'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/173115/Galanthus-nivalis-Viridapice/Details | title = ''Galanthus nivalis'' 'Viridapice' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 8 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus plicatus''<ref>{{cite web|work=RHS Plant Selector|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/7582/Galanthus-plicatus/Details | title = ''Galanthus plicatus'' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 7 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus plicatus'' 'Augustus'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/194343/Galanthus-plicatus-Augustus/Details | title = ''Galanthus plicatus'' 'Augustus' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 8 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus plicatus'' 'Diggory'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/194345/Galanthus-plicatus-Diggory/Details | title = ''Galanthus plicatus'' 'Diggory' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 8 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus plicatus'' 'Three Ships'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/198398/Galanthus-plicatus-Three-Ships/Details | title = ''Galanthus plicatus'' 'Three Ships' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 7 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus reginae-olgae'' subsp. ''reginae-olgae''<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/30470/Galanthus-reginae-olgae-subsp-reginae-olgae/Details | title = ''Galanthus reginae-olgae'' subsp. ''reginae-olgae'' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 7 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus'' 'S. Arnott'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/48669/Galanthus-S-Arnott/Details | title = ''Galanthus'' 'S. Arnott' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 7 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus'' 'Spindlestone Surprise'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/131731/Galanthus-Spindlestone-Surprise/Details | title = ''Galanthus'' 'Spindestone Surprise' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 7 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus'' 'Straffan'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/91257/Galanthus-Straffan/Details | title = ''Galanthus'' 'Straffan' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 7 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus'' 'Trumps'<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/302040/Galanthus-Trumps/Details | title = ''Galanthus'' 'Trumps' | publisher = RHS | access-date = 8 July 2020}}</ref> * ''Galanthus woronowii''<ref>{{cite web|title=RHS Plant Selector – ''Galanthus woronowii''|url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/113950/Galanthus-woronowii/Details | access-date = 5 July 2020}}</ref> {{div col end}}

===Propagation===

Propagation is by offset bulbs, either by careful division of clumps in full growth ("in the green"), or removed when the plants are dormant, immediately after the leaves have withered; or by seeds sown either when ripe, or in spring. Professional growers and keen amateurs also use such methods as "twin-scaling" to increase the stock of choice cultivars quickly.

== Toxicity ==

Snowdrops contain an active lectin or agglutinin named GNA for ''Galanthus nivalis'' agglutinin.{{sfn|Hester et al.|1995}}

== Medicinal use ==

In 1983, Andreas Plaitakis and Roger Duvoisin suggested that the mysterious magical herb, moly, that appears in Homer's ''Odyssey'' is the snowdrop. One of the active principles present in the snowdrop is the alkaloid galantamine, which, as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, could have acted as an antidote to Circe's poisons.{{sfn|Plaitakis|Duvoisin|1983}} Further supporting this notion are notes made during the fourth century BC by the Greek scholar Theophrastus who wrote in ''Historia plantarum'' that moly was "used as an antidote against poisons" although which specific poisons it was effective against remains unclear.{{sfn|Kaplan|2015|p=36}} Galantamine (or galanthamine) may be helpful in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease, although it is not a cure;{{sfn|Loy|Schneider|2006}} the substance also occurs naturally in daffodils and other narcissi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nnfcc.co.uk/publications/nnfcc-project-factsheet-sustainable-production-of-the-natural-product-galanthamine-defra-nf0612|title=NNFCC Project Factsheet: Sustainable Production of the Natural Product Galanthamine (Defra), NF0612}}</ref>

==In popular culture== {{Quote box|title=''Blow, Northern Wind''|align=right|border=2px|bgcolor = Cornsilk|width=200px|fontsize=75% | title_fnt = blue | quote= <poem> 15px low, northern wind; fall snow; And thou—my loved and dear, See, in this waste of burthened cloud ::How Spring is near! </poem>|source= ''Walter de la Mare (1950)''{{sfn|de la Mare|1950}}}} frameless|right|upright Snowdrops figure prominently in art and literature,<ref name=Harlandintro/> often as a symbol in poetry of spring, purity, and religion (see Symbols), such as Walter de la Mare's poem ''The Snowdrop'' (1929).{{sfn|de la Mare|1929}} In this poem, he likened the triple tepals in each whorl ("A triplet of green-pencilled snow") to the Holy Trinity.{{sfn|Harland|2016}} He used snowdrop imagery several times in his poetry, such as ''Blow, Northern Wind'' (1950) – see Box.{{sfn|de la Mare|1950}} Another instance is the poem {{ws|''The Snowdrop''}} by Letitia Elizabeth Landon in which she asks "Thou fairy gift from summer, Why art thou blooming now?"<ref> {{cite book|last =Landon|first=Letitia Elizabeth|title=Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1836|url=https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=2dBbAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA12-IA10|section=poetical illustration|page=15|year=1835|publisher=Fisher, Son & Co.}}</ref> * In the fairy-tale play ''The Twelve Months'' by Russian writer Samuil Marshak, a greedy queen decrees that a basket of gold coins shall be rewarded to anyone who can bring her galanthus flowers in the dead of winter. A young orphan girl is sent out during a snow storm by her cruel stepmother to find the spirits of the 12 months of the year, who take pity on her and not only save her from freezing to death, but also make it possible for her to gather the flowers even in winter. The Soviet traditionally animated film ''The Twelve Months'' (1956), Lenfilm film ''The Twelve Months'' (1972), and the anime film ''Twelve Months'' (1980) (''Sekai meisaku dowa mori wa ikiteiru'' in Japan), are based on this fairy-tale play. * "Snowdrops" was the nickname that the British people gave during the Second World War to the military police of the United States Army (who were stationed in the UK preparatory to the invasion of the continent) because they wore a white helmet, gloves, gaiters, and Sam Browne belt against their olive drab uniforms. * In the German fairy tale, ''Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs'', "Snowdrop" is used as an alternate name for the Princess Snow White. * The short story ''The Snowdrop'' by Hans Christian Andersen follows the fate of a snowdrop from a bulb striving toward the light to a picked flower placed in a book of poetry. * Russian composer Tchaikovsky wrote a series of 12 piano pieces, each one named after a month of the year with a second name suggesting something associated with that month. His "April" piece is subnamed "Snow Drop". The Russian climate having a later spring, and winter ending a bit later than in other places. * Johann Strauss II named his very successful waltz ''Schneeglöckchen (Snowdrops)'' op. 143 after this flower. The inspiration is especially evident in the cello introduction and in the slow unfurling of the opening waltz. Strauss composed this piece for a Russian Embassy dinner given at the ''Sperl'' ballroom in Vienna on 2 December 1853, but did not perform it publicly until the year 1854. The ''Sperl'' banquet was given in honour of her Excellency Frau Maria von Kalergis, daughter of the Russian diplomat and foreign minister Count Karl Nesselrode, and Strauss also dedicated his waltz to her.{{sfn|Kemp|1989}} * In the 2007 film, Stardust, a glass snowdrop flower is gifted to the female protagonist, and serves to protect the bearer from all Witches' magic and bring them good luck.

=== Symbolism === Early names refer to the association with the religious feast of Candlemas (February 2) – the optimum flowering time of the plant – at which young women, robed in white, would walk in solemn procession in commemoration of the Purification of the Virgin, an alternative name for the feast day. The French name of {{lang|fr|violette de la chandaleur}} refers to Candlemas, while an Italian name, {{lang|it|fiore della purificazione}}, refers to purification. The German name of {{lang|de|Schneeglöckchen}} (little snow bells) invokes the symbol of bells.<ref name=Churchgal/>{{sfn|Harland|2016}}

In the language of flowers, the ''snowdrop'' is synonymous with 'hope' (and the goddess Persephone's/Proserpina's return from Hades), as it blooms in early springtime, just before the vernal equinox, and so, is seen as 'heralding' the new spring and new year.

In more recent times, the snowdrop was adopted as a symbol of sorrow and of hope following the Dunblane massacre in Scotland, and lent its name to the subsequent campaign to restrict the legal ownership of handguns in the UK.{{sfn|McGivern|2016}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=The "Snowdrop" Campaign |website=www.wcc-coe.org |url=http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/international/dunblane.html |access-date=2020-04-10}}</ref>

==See also== * List of snowdrop gardens

==References== {{Reflist|refs=

<ref name=Adansongal>{{harvnb|Adanson|1763|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/6958#page/1106/mode/1up ''Galanthus'' p. 560]}}</ref>

<ref name=Adansonnarc>{{harvnb|Adanson|1763|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/6958#page/603/mode/1up Narcissi p. 57]}}</ref>

<ref name=APW>{{harvnb|Stevens|2016|loc=[http://www.mobot.org/mobot/research/apweb/orders/asparagalesweb.htm#Galantheae Galantheae]}}</ref>

<ref name=BHAmarylleae>{{harvnb|Bentham|Hooker|1883|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/14690#page/280/mode/1up ''Amarylleae'' p. 718]}}</ref>

<ref name=BHAmaryllideae>{{harvnb|Bentham|Hooker|1883|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/14690#page/280/mode/1up ''Amaryllideae'' p. 711]}}</ref>

<ref name=BHgal>{{harvnb|Bentham|Hooker|1883|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/14690#page/280/mode/1up ''Galanthus'' p. 719]}}</ref>

<ref name=Brown>{{harvnb|Brown|1810|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/21871#page/164/mode/1up Prodromus. Amaryllideae p. 296]}}</ref>

<ref name=Candolle>{{harvnb|de Candolle|1813|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/88297#page/231/mode/1up Esquisse. D'une Série linéaire et par conséquent artificielle, pour la disposition des familles naturelles du règne végetal p. 219]}} </ref>

<ref name=Candollegal>{{harvnb|de Lamarck|de Candolle|1815|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=C_MHAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA234 ''Galanthus'' p. 234]}}</ref>

<ref name=Churchgal>{{harvnb|Church|1908|loc=[https://archive.org/stream/cu31924000658413#page/n37/mode/2up Galanthus nivalis p. 17]}}</ref>

<ref name=CITESexpGelwesii>{{cite web |title=Export quotas ''Galanthus elwesii'' |publisher=CITES |url=https://cites.org/eng/resources/quotas/export_quotas?field_country_target_id=All&field_species_target_id=Galanthus+elwesii&field_date_value%5Bmin%5D=2012-01-01&field_date_value%5Bmax%5D=2021-12-31 |access-date=2021-06-20}}</ref>

<ref name=CITESexpGworonowii>{{cite web |title=Export quotas ''Galanthus woronowii'' |publisher=CITES |url=https://cites.org/eng/resources/quotas/export_quotas?field_country_target_id=All&field_species_target_id=Galanthus+woronowii&field_date_value%5Bmin%5D=2012-01-01&field_date_value%5Bmax%5D=2021-12-31 |access-date=2021-06-20}}</ref>

<ref name=Dahlgren>{{harvnb|Dahlgren|Clifford|Yeo|1985|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3iGndTFY0skC&pg=PA206 p. 206]}}</ref>

<ref name=Davisnivalis>{{harvnb|Davis|1999|loc=''G. nivalis'' pp. 95–96}}</ref>

<ref name=Davistax>{{harvnb|Davis|1999|loc=Taxonomy pp. 77–192}}</ref>

<ref name=elwesii>{{harvnb|MBG|2016|loc=[http://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/PlantFinder/PlantFinderDetails.aspx?kempercode=c848 ''Galanthus elwesii'']}}</ref>

<ref name=Gerard>{{harvnb|Gerard|1597|loc=[https://ia800705.us.archive.org/BookReader/BookReaderImages.php?zip=/31/items/mobot31753000817749/mobot31753000817749_jp2.tar&file=mobot31753000817749_jp2/mobot31753000817749_0140.jp2&scale=2&rotate=0 i cap. 78 p. 120]}}</ref>

<ref name=Harlandintro>{{harvnb|Harland|2016|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lzOHDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT53 Introduction]}}</ref>

<ref name=HP49>{{harvnb|Theophrastus|1916|loc=[https://archive.org/stream/enquiryintoplant02theouoft#page/48/mode/2up 6.8.1 p. 49]}}</ref> <ref name=HP134>{{harvnb|Theophrastus|1916|loc=[https://archive.org/stream/enquiryintoplant02theouoft#page/134/mode/2up 7.13.9 p. 134]}}</ref> rm

<ref name=Jussieu>{{harvnb|Jussieu|1789|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/7125#page/150/mode/1up ''Galanthus'' p. 55]}}</ref>

<ref name=Lamarck>{{harvnb|Lamarck|1783–1808|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/15260#page/592/mode/1up ''Galanthus'' ii 1786 p. 590]}}</ref>

<ref name=Lamarckillus>{{harvnb|Lamarck|1793|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=EmpTAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA359 ''Galanthus'' pp. 359, 376]}}</ref>

<ref name=Lindley1830>{{harvnb|Lindley|1830|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/31944#page/327/mode/1up Amaryllideae p. 259]}}</ref>

<ref name=Lindley53Amarylleae>{{harvnb|Lindley|1853|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/173373#page/264/mode/1up Amarylleae p. 158]}}</ref>

<ref name=Linnaeus>{{harvnb|Linnaeus|1753|loc=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/358308#page/300/mode/1up ''Galanthus nivalis'' ''i'' p. 288]}}</ref>

<ref name=Meerow98>{{harvnb|Meerow|Snijman|1998|https://books.google.com/books?id=FyPVYzL76sMC&PA101 Galanthus p. 101}}</ref>

<ref name=Oakes>{{harvnb|HPS|2016|loc=[http://www.hpskent.co.uk/project/snowdrop-mania/ V Oakes. Snowdrop mania. 2009]}}</ref>

<ref name=RBGpanj>{{harvnb|RBG|2016|loc=[http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:77118772-1 ''Galanthus panjutinii'']}}</ref>

<ref name=Saint-Hilaire>{{harvnb|Jaume Saint-Hilaire|1805|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VEQAAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA139 ''Galanthus'' p. 139]}}</ref>

<ref name=Traub63>{{harvnb|Traub|1963|loc=[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015006929270;view=1up;seq=59 Galanthus p. 59–60]}}</ref>

<ref name=WCSP>{{harvnb|WCLSPF|2016|loc=[http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?name_id=307509 ''Galanthus'']}}</ref>

<ref name=WCSPpanj>{{harvnb|WCLSPF|2016|loc=[http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?name_id=473291 ''G. panjutinii'']}}</ref>

<ref name=WCSPsamo>{{harvnb|WCLSPF|2016|loc=[http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?name_id=496850 ''G. samothracicus '']}}</ref>

<ref name=WCSPtroj>{{harvnb|WCLSPF|2016|loc=[http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/namedetail.do?name_id=307612 ''G. trojanus'']}}</ref>

}}

==Bibliography== {{Refbegin|30em}} === Books === * {{cite book|last1=Bishop|first1=Matt|first2=Aaron|last2=Davis|first3=John|last3=Grimshaw|year=2001|title=Snowdrops: a Monograph of Cultivated Galanthus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PWbgQwAACAAJ|publisher=Griffin Press|isbn=978-0-9541916-0-3|ref={{harvid|Bishop et al.|2001}}}} * {{cite book|last1=Church|first1=Arthur Harry|author-link=Arthur Harry Church|title=Types of floral mechanism; a selection of diagrams and descriptions of common flowers arranged as an introduction to the systematic study of angiosperms|date=1908|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924000658413#page/n3/mode/2up|isbn=978-1-313-22387-4}} * {{cite book|last1=Cox|first1=Freda|title=Gardener's Guide to Snowdrops|date=2013|publisher=Crowood|location=Ramsbury|isbn=978-1-84797-562-1|pages=256|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZAfSAwAAQBAJ}} * {{cite book|editor1-last=Cullen|editor1-first=James|editor2-last=Knees|editor2-first=Sabina G.|editor3-last=Cubey|editor3-first=H. Suzanne Cubey|title=The European Garden Flora, Flowering Plants: A Manual for the Identification of Plants Cultivated in Europe, Both Out-of-Doors and Under Glass.|date=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-76147-5|edition=2nd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CkxWrDqtWLQC|access-date=11 October 2016|format=vol. 1. Alismataceae to Orchidaceae|ref={{harvid|Cullen et al.| 2011}}}} * {{cite book |last1=Dahlgren |first1=R.M. |last2=Clifford |first2=H.T. |last3=Yeo |first3=P.F. |author-link=Rolf Dahlgren |title=The families of the monocotyledons |year=1985 |publisher=Springer-Verlag |location=Berlin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3iGndTFY0skC |isbn=978-3-642-64903-5 |access-date=10 February 2014 }} * {{cite book |last=Davis |first=Aaron |year=1999 |title=The genus Galanthus |series=A ''Botanical Magazine'' monograph |publisher=Timber Press |location=Portland, OR |isbn=978-0-88192-431-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nw8mAQAAMAAJ }} ** {{cite journal|last1=Harvey|first1=M.J.|title=Davis: The genus ''Galanthus''|journal=Botanical Electronic News|date=21 May 2000|issue=250|url=http://www.ou.edu/cas/botany-micro/ben/ben250.html|format=Book Review}} * {{cite book|last1=de la Mare|first1=Walter|title=Inward Companion|date=1950|publisher=Faber and Faber|location=London|url=https://www.fadedpage.com/showbook.php?pid=20120109|access-date=15 October 2016|page=39}} * {{cite book|last1=Ellacombe|first1=Henry Nicholson|author-link=Henry Nicholson Ellacombe|title=In a Gloucestershire Garden|date=1895|publisher=Edward Arnold|location=London|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n_0CAAAAYAAJ}} * {{cite book|last1=Harland|first1=Gail|isbn=978-1-78023-628-5|title=Snowdrop|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lzOHDAAAQBAJ|publisher=Reaktion Books|location=London|date=2016}} * {{Cite book |last1=Hyam |first1=R. |last2=Pankhurst |first2=R.J. |year=1995 |title=Plants and their names: a concise dictionary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ywIPQgAACAAJ |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-866189-4 |pages=202, 342 |name-list-style=amp }} * {{cite book|editor-last=Kubitzki|editor-first=K.|editor-link=Klaus Kubitzki|title=The families and genera of vascular plants. Vol.3|year=1998|publisher=Springer-Verlag|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-540-64060-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FyPVYzL76sMC|access-date=14 January 2014}} * {{cite book|title=Ornamental Geophytes: From Basic Science to Sustainable Production|year=2012|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4398-4924-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5B-ucdbgA3wC|editor1=Rina Kamenetsky|editor2=Hiroshi Okubo|ref={{harvid|Kamenetsky|2012}}}} ** [https://www.academia.edu/6359004/Meerow_-_Ch_2_Ornamental_geophytes_Taxonomy_and_Phylogeny Chapter 2. Alan Meerow. Taxonomy and Phylogeny. pp. 17–55] * {{Cite book|last=Kaplan|first=Matt|title=Science of the magical: from the Holy Grail to love potions to superpowers|isbn=978-1-4767-7710-8|edition=First Scribner hardcover|location=New York|oclc=904813040|date=2015-10-27}} * {{cite book|last1=Pavord|first1=Anna|author-link=Anna Pavord|title=The naming of names the search for order in the world of plants.|date=2005|publisher=Bloomsbury|location=New York|isbn=978-1-59691-965-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qksX1BeWkqcC}} * {{cite book|last1=Slade|first1=Naomi|title=The Plant Lover's Guide to Snowdrops|date=2014|publisher=Timber Press|isbn=978-1-60469-607-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FKHhAwAAQBAJ}} * {{cite book|last=Stern|first=Frederick Claude|author-link=Frederick Claude Stern|date=1956|title=Snowdrops and Snowflakes – a study of the genera ''Galanthus'' and ''Leucojum''|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tWG1AAAAIAAJ|publisher=Royal Horticultural Society}} * {{cite book|last=Stearn|first=William T|author-link=William T. Stearn|title=Botanical Latin: history, grammar, syntax, terminology and vocabulary|date=1992|orig-date=1966|publisher=Timber Press|location=Portland, OR|isbn=978-0-88192-321-6|edition=4th|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SvlGAAAAYAAJ|access-date=19 February 2015}} * {{cite book|last1=Traub|first1=H.P.|author-link=Hamilton Traub|title=Genera of the Amaryllidaceae|series=Genera of organisms |date=1963|publisher=American Plant Life Society|location=La Jolla, CA|url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015006929270;view=1up;seq=3|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181001175229/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015006929270;view=1up;seq=3|archive-date=2018-10-01}} * {{cite book|last1=Waldorf|first1=Gunter|title=Snowdrops|date=2012|publisher=Frances Lincoln|location=London|isbn=978-0-7112-3385-0|pages=160|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9841LgEACAAJ}}

==== Chapters ==== * {{harvc|last=Brickell|first=CD|c=Galanthus|pages=222–225 |isbn=9780521761475 |in=Cullen et al.|year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CkxWrDqtWLQC&pg=PA222|access-date=11 October 2016}} * {{harvc|last1=Davis|first1=AP|c=The genus Galanthus – snowdrops in the wild|pages=9–63 |in=Bishop et al.|year=2001}} * {{harvc|last1=Meerow|first1=AW|c=Flowering Plants · Monocotyledons|last2=Snijman|first2=DA|author-link1=Alan Meerow|pages=83–110|doi=10.1007/978-3-662-03533-7_11|in=Kubitzki|year=1998 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FyPVYzL76sMC&pg=PA85}}

==== Historical (chronological) ==== * {{cite book|last1=Theophrastus|author-link=Theophrastus|editor1-last=Hort|editor1-first=Arthur|title=Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία|trans-title=Historia plantarum (Theophrastus: Enquiry into Plants &c.)|volume=ii|url=https://archive.org/details/enquiryintoplant02theouoft|date=1916|orig-date=4th century BC|publisher=William Heinemann and G.P. Putnam's Sons: Loeb Classical Library|location=London and New York|isbn=978-0-674-99077-7}} * {{cite web|last1=Plinius Secundus|first1=Gaius (Pliny the Elder)|author-link=Pliny the Elder|editor1-last=Mayhoff|editor1-first=Karl Friedrich Theodor|title=Naturalis Historia|year=1906|orig-date=77–79 AD|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext%3a1999.02.0138|website=Perseus Digital Library|publisher=Teubner|location=Leipzig|access-date=3 October 2014}} (see also, Naturalis Historia) * {{cite book|last1=Vergilius Maro|first1=Publius (Virgil)|author-link=Virgil|editor1-last=Davidson|editor1-first=Joseph|title=The Works of Virgil: Translated Into English Prose, as Near the Original as the Different Idioms of the Latin and English Languages Will Allow & etc.|date=1770|publisher=J Beecroft et al.|location=London|edition=5th|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o-opAAAAYAAJ}} ** {{cite book|last1=Martyn|first1=John|author-link=John Martyn (botanist)|title=P. Virgilii Maronis Bucolicorum eclogæ decem: The Bucolicks of Virgil, with an English translation and notes|date=1820|orig-date=1749|publisher=G. and W.B. Whittaker|location=London|edition=4th|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dbIMAAAAYAAJ}} (see also, Bucolics) * {{cite book|last1=Gerard|first1=John|author-link=John Gerard|title=The Herball or Generall Historie of Plantes|date=1597|edition=1st|publisher=John Norton|location=London|url=https://archive.org/details/mobot31753000817749}} * {{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=Carl |title=Species Plantarum: exhibentes plantas rite cognitas, ad genera relatas, cum differentiis specificis, nominibus trivialibus, synonymis selectis, locis natalibus, secundum systema sexuale digestas |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/669#/summary |year=1753 |publisher=Impensis Laurentii Salvii |location=Stockholm |access-date=13 October 2016 |author-link=Carl Linnaeus }} see also Species Plantarum * {{cite book|last=Adanson|first=Michel|author-link=Adans.|title=Familles des plantes|publisher=Vincent|location=Paris|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/271#/summary|access-date=9 February 2014|year=1763}} * {{cite book |last=Jussieu |first=Antoine Laurent de |author-link=Antoine Laurent de Jussieu |title=Genera Plantarum, secundum ordines naturales disposita juxta methodum in Horto Regio Parisiensi exaratam |year=1789 |location=Paris |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/284 |access-date=26 January 2015 |publisher=apud viduam Herissant et Theophilum Barrois }} * {{cite book|last1=Lamarck|first1=Jean-Baptiste|author-link=Lamarck|title=Encyclopédie méthodique. Botanique|date=1783–1808|publisher=Panckoucke|location=Paris|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/824#/summary}} (see Encyclopédie méthodique) * {{cite book|last1=Lamarck|first1=Jean-Baptiste|author-link=Lamarck|title=Tableau encyclopédique et méthodique des trois règnes de la nature. Botanique. Illustrations des genres II|date=1793|publisher=Panckoucke|location=Paris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EmpTAAAAcAAJ}} * {{cite book|title=Historia et commentationes Academiae Electoralis Scientiarvm et Elegantiorvm Litterarvm Theodoro-Palatinae, Volume 6|date=1790|publisher=Typis Academicis|location=Manheim|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rOQAAAAAYAAJ}} * {{cite book|last1=Jaume Saint-Hilaire|first1=Jean Henri|author-link=Jaume Saint-Hilaire|title=Exposition de familles naturales|date=1805|publisher=Treutel et Würtz|location=Paris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VEQAAAAAQAAJ|access-date=25 October 2014}} * {{cite book|last1=Brown|author-link=Robert Brown (botanist, born 1773)|first1=Robert|title=Prodromus florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van-Diemen, exhibens characteres plantarum|date=1810|publisher=Taylor|location=London|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/3678#/summary|access-date=30 October 2014}} * {{cite book|last1=de Candolle|first1=Augustin Pyramus|year=1813|author-link=Augustin Pyramus de Candolle|title=Théorie élémentaire de la botanique, ou exposition des principes de la classification naturelle et de l'art de décrire et d'etudier les végétaux|language=fr|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/39705#/summary|access-date=5 February 2014}} * {{cite book|last1=de Lamarck|first1=Jean-Baptiste|last2=de Candolle|first2=Augustin Pyramus|author-link1=Lamarck|author-link2=AP de Candolle|title=Flore française ou descriptions succinctes de toutes les plantes qui croissent naturellement en France disposées selon une nouvelle méthode d'analyse; et précédées par un exposé des principes élémentaires de la botanique|date=1815|publisher=Desray|location=Paris|edition=3rd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C_MHAQAAIAAJ|access-date=29 October 2014|series=vol. III}} * {{cite book|last=Lindley|first=John|author-link=John Lindley|title=An introduction to the natural system of botany: or, A systematic view of the organisation, natural affinities, and geographical distribution, of the whole vegetable kingdom: together with the uses of the most important species in medicine, the arts, and rural or domestic economy|year=1830|publisher=Longman|location=London|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/7551#/summary}} * {{cite book|last=Lindley|first=John|author-link=John Lindley|title=The Vegetable Kingdom: or, The structure, classification, and uses of plants, illustrated upon the natural system|publisher=Bradbury & Evans|location=London|date=1853|orig-date=1846|edition=3rd|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/95459#/summary}} * {{cite book|last1=Bentham|first1=G.|last2=Hooker|first2=J. D.|author-link1=George Bentham|author-link2=Joseph Dalton Hooker|title=Genera plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in herbariis kewensibus servata definita|format=3 vols. 1865–1883|year=1883|publisher=L Reeve & Co.|location=London|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/747#/summary|language=la}}

=== Articles === * {{cite journal|last1=Clos|first1=M.D.|title=Discussion de quelques points de glossologie botanique: revue critique des dénominations françaises des plantes|journal=Bulletin de la Société Botanique de France|date=June 1862|volume=9|issue=9|pages=652–666|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6lZJAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA652|doi=10.1080/00378941.1862.10836554|doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal|last1=Davis|first1=Aaron P|last2=Özhatay|first2=Neriman|title=''Galanthus trojanus'': a new species of ''Galanthus'' (Amaryllidaceae) from north-western Turkey|journal=Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society|date=2001|volume=137|issue=4|pages=409–412|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.2001.tb02335.x|url=http://citesbulbs.myspecies.info/sites/citesbulbs.myspecies.info/files/Davis%20%26%20Ozhatay%202001.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://citesbulbs.myspecies.info/sites/citesbulbs.myspecies.info/files/Davis%20%26%20Ozhatay%202001.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|doi-access=free}} * {{cite journal |first1=Stanley W. B. |last1=Ewen |first2=Árpád |last2=Pusztai |author2-link=Árpád Pusztai |name-list-style=amp |year=1999 |title=Effect of diets containing genetically modified potatoes expressing ''Galanthus nivalis'' lectin on rat small intestine |journal=The Lancet |volume=354 |issue=9187 |pages=1353–1354 |pmid=10533866 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(98)05860-7|s2cid=17252112}} * {{cite journal |first1=Oksana |last1=Fishchuk |first2=A. |last2=Odintsova |name-list-style=amp |date=August 2020 |title=Micromorphology and anatomy of the flowers of ''Galanthus nivalis'' and ''Leucojum vernum'' (Amaryllidaceae)|journal=Regulatory Mechanisms in Biosystems |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=463–468 |pmid= |doi=10.15421/022071|s2cid=229370844|doi-access=free }} * {{cite journal |first1=Gerko |last1=Hester |first2=Hanae |last2=Kaku |first3=Irwin J. |last3=Goldstein |first4=Christine |last4=Schubert Wright |name-list-style=amp |year=1995 |title=Structure of mannose-specific snowdrop (''Galanthus nivalis'') lectin is representative of a new plant lectin family |journal=Nature Structural Biology |volume=2 |issue=6 |pages=472–479 |pmid=7664110 |doi=10.1038/nsb0695-472 |s2cid=45031999 |ref={{harvid|Hester et al.|1995}}}} * {{cite journal|last1=Larsen|first1=Maja Mellergaard|last2=Adsersen|first2=Anne|last3=Davis|first3=Aaron P.|last4=Lledó|first4=M. Dolores|last5=Jäger|first5=Anna K.|last6=Rønsted|first6=Nina|author-link6=Nina Ronsted|title=Using a phylogenetic approach to selection of target plants in drug discovery of acetylcholinesterase inhibiting alkaloids in Amaryllidaceae tribe Galantheae|journal=Biochemical Systematics and Ecology|date=October 2010 |volume=38 |issue=5|pages=1026–1034|doi=10.1016/j.bse.2010.10.005|bibcode=2010BioSE..38.1026L |ref={{harvid|Larsen et al.|2010}}}} * {{cite journal|last1=Lledó|first1=Ma D.|last2=Davis|first2=A. P.|last3=Crespo|first3=M. B.|last4=Chase|first4=M. W.|last5=Fay|first5=M. F.|author-link4=Mark W Chase|author-link5=Michael F Fay|title=Phylogenetic analysis of ''Leucojum'' and ''Galanthus'' (Amaryllidaceae) based on plastid matK and nuclear ribosomal spacer (ITS) DNA sequences and morphology|journal=Plant Systematics and Evolution|date=14 June 2004|volume=246|issue=3–4|page=223|doi=10.1007/s00606-004-0152-0|bibcode=2004PSyEv.246..223L|s2cid=43826738|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/226774240|ref={{harvid|Lledo et al.|2004}}}} * {{Cite journal |last1=Loy|first1=C|last2=Schneider|first2=L|date=25 Jan 2006|title=Galantamine for Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment|pmid=16437436|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume=2009|issue=1 |at=CD001747 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD001747.pub3|pmc=8961200}} * {{cite journal |last1=Meerow |first1=A. W. |last2=Fay |first2=M.F. |last3=Guy |first3=C.L. |last4=Li |first4=Q.-B. |last5=Zaman |first5=F.Q. |last6=Chase |first6=M.W. |author-link1=Alan Meerow |author-link2=Michael F Fay |author-link6=Mark W Chase |title=Systematics of Amaryllidaceae based on cladistic analysis of plastid rbcL and trnL-F sequence data |journal=Am. J. Bot. |year=1999 |volume=86 |issue=9 |pages=1325–1345 |doi=10.2307/2656780|pmid=10487820 |jstor=2656780 |ref={{harvid|Meerow et al.|1999}}}} * {{cite journal|last1=Meerow|first1=AW|last2=Francisco-Ortega|first2=J|last3=Schnell|first3=RJ|author-link1=Alan Meerow|title=Phylogenetic relationships and biogeography within the Eurasian clade of Amaryllidaceae based on plastid ndhF and nrDNA ITS sequences: lineage sorting in a reticulate area?|journal=Systematic Botany|date=2006|volume=31|issue=1|pages=42–60|doi=10.1600/036364406775971787|jstor=25064128|bibcode=2006SysBo..31...42M|s2cid=85953035|ref={{harvid|Meerow et al.|2006a}}|url=https://naldc-legacy.nal.usda.gov/naldc/download.xhtml?id=1438&content=PDF|access-date=29 April 2018|archive-date=25 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225192049/https://naldc-legacy.nal.usda.gov/naldc/download.xhtml?id=1438&content=PDF|url-access=subscription}} * {{cite journal|last1=Mi|first1=Xiaoxiao|last2=Liu|first2=Xue|last3=Yan|first3=Haolu|last4=Liang |first4=Lina|last5=Zhou|first5=Xiangyan|last6=Yang|first6=Jiangwei|last7=Si|first7=Huaijun|last8=Zhang |first8=Ning|title=Expression of the Galanthus nivalis agglutinin (GNA) gene in transgenic potato plants confers resistance to aphids |journal=Comptes Rendus Biologies |date=January 2017 |volume=340 |issue=1 |pages=7–12 |pmid=27938939 |doi=10.1016/j.crvi.2016.10.003|doi-access=free|ref={{harvid|Mi et al.|2017}}}} * {{cite journal |first1=Andreas |last1=Plaitakis |first2=Roger C. |last2=Duvoisin |name-list-style=amp |year=1983 |title=Homer's moly identified as ''Galanthus nivalis'' L.: physiologic antidote to stramonium poisoning |journal=Clinical Neuropharmacology |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=1–6 |doi=10.1097/00002826-198303000-00001 |pmid=6342763 |s2cid=19839512}} * {{cite journal|last1=Rønsted|first1=Nina|last2=Zubov|first2=Dimitri|last3=Bruun-Lund|first3=Sam |last4=Davis|first4=Aaron P.|title=Snowdrops falling slowly into place: An improved phylogeny for ''Galanthus'' (Amaryllidaceae) |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|date=October 2013 |volume=69|issue=1|pages=205–217|pmid=23747523|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2013.05.019|bibcode=2013MolPE..69..205R |ref={{harvid|Ronsted et al.|2013}}}} * {{cite journal|last1=Semerdjieva|first1=Ivanka|last2=Sidjimova|first2=Boryana|last3=Yankova-Tsvetkova|first3=Elina |last4=Kostova|first4=Milena |last5=Zheljazkov|first5=Valtcho |title=Study on ''Galanthus'' species in the Bulgarian flora |journal=Heliyon|date=December 2019 |volume=5|issue=12|article-number=E03021|pmid=32373724|doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e03021|doi-access=free |pmc=7191607 |bibcode=2019Heliy...503021S |ref={{harvid|Semerdjieva et al.|2019}}}} * {{cite journal|last1=Taşci Margoz|first1=Nivart|last2=Yüzbaşioğlu|first2=İbrahim Sırrı|last3=Çelen|first3=Zeynep|last4=Ekim|first4=Tuna|last5=Bilgin|first5=Ayşe Neşe|title=Molecular phylogeny of ''Galanthus'' (Amaryllidaceae) of Anatolia inferred from multiple nuclear and chloroplast DNA regions|journal=Turkish Journal of Botany|date=2013|volume=37|pages=993–1007|doi=10.3906/bot-1209-41|ref={{harvid|Margoz et al.|2013}}|doi-access=free|bibcode=2013TJBot..37..993T }} * {{cite journal|last1=Tan|first1=Kit|last2=Siljak-Yakovlev|first2=Sonja|last3=Biel|first3=Burkhard|title=''Galanthus samothracicus'' (Amaryllidaceae) from the island of Samothraki, northeastern Greece|journal=Phytologica Balcanica|date=2014|volume=20|issue=1|page=6570|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263198942|ref={{harvid|Tan et al.|2014}}}} * {{cite journal|last1=Zubov|first1=Dmitriy A.|last2=Davis|first2=Aaron P.|title=''Galanthus panjutinii'' ''sp. nov.'': a new name for an invalidly published species of ''Galanthus'' (Amaryllidaceae) from the northern Colchis area of Western Transcaucasia|journal=Phytotaxa|date=20 April 2012|volume=50|issue=1|page=55|doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.50.1.5|bibcode=2012Phytx..50...55Z|url=http://citesbulbs.myspecies.info/sites/citesbulbs.myspecies.info/files/Zubov%20%26%20Davis%202012.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://citesbulbs.myspecies.info/sites/citesbulbs.myspecies.info/files/Zubov%20%26%20Davis%202012.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live}}

=== Websites === * {{cite web|last1=de la Mare|first1=Walter|date=1929|title=The Snowdrop|url=http://poetrynook.com/poem/snowdrop-3|via=Poetry Nook|access-date=14 October 2016}} * {{cite web|last1=Ellis|first1=Siân|title=Snowdrops and Strange Galanthophiles|website=British Heritage Travel|publisher=British Heritage Society|date=1 May 2010|url=http://britishheritage.com/snowdrops-and-strange-galanthophiles/}} * {{cite web|last1=Hollinger|first1=Jason|title=Plant Latin|url=http://alumnus.caltech.edu/~hollin/index.html?page=botany/latin/rules.html|access-date=13 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013222110/http://alumnus.caltech.edu/~hollin/index.html?page=botany%2Flatin%2Frules.html|archive-date=13 October 2016}} * {{cite web |last1=Kemp |first1=Peter |year=1989 |title=STRAUSS II, J.: Edition - Vol. 7 |website=Naxos |access-date=29 June 2020 |url=https://www.naxos.com/mainsite/blurbs_reviews.asp?item_code=8.223207&catNum=223207&filetype=About%20this%20Recording&language=English }} * {{Cite news|last=McGivern|first=Mark|date=2016-03-12|title=Dunblane 20 years on: Scotland unites to pay tribute|work=Daily Record|url=http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/scottish-news/snowdrops-sorrow-flowers-symbolise-tragic-7542680|access-date=2020-04-10}} * {{cite news|last=Randerson|first=James|title=Árpád Pusztai: Biological Divide|work=The Guardian|date=15 January 2008|location=London|url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2008/jan/15/academicexperts.highereducationprofile|access-date=25 April 2010}}

==== Images ==== * {{cite web|title=Digital Collections: Galanthus|url=https://digitalcollections.nypl.org/search/index?utf8=%E2%9C%93&keywords=Galanthus/|publisher=New York Public Library|format=Botanical illustrations|access-date=26 October 2016|date=2016}} * {{cite web|title=Vernation patterns in Galanthus|url=https://www.hort.net/lists/aroid-l/jun10/jpgIe9ly3YcfP.jpg|website=hort.net|access-date=20 October 2016|format=Figure|ref={{harvid|Stearn vernation|1992}}}}, in {{harvtxt|Stearn|1992}} * {{cite web|title=Leaf vernation|url=http://image.slidesharecdn.com/an-interactive-key-to-the-genus-emgalanthusem-l-21657/95/an-interactive-key-to-the-genus-galanthus-l-3-728.jpg?cb=1238566516|website=Kehan Harman: An Interactive Key to the Genus Galanthus L.|access-date=20 October 2016|format=Figure|ref={{harvid|Davis vernation|1999}}}}, in {{harvtxt|Davis|1999}}

==== Organisations ==== * {{cite report |ref={{harvid|CITES Convention}} |title=Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora |date=3 March 1973 |orig-date=Amended on 22 June 1979, Amended on 30 April 1983 |url=https://cites.org/eng/disc/text.php |access-date=2021-06-20 }} {{cite report |title=Convention |url=https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/disc/CITES-Convention-EN.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/disc/CITES-Convention-EN.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live }} ** {{cite web |title=Appendices |date=1973 |orig-date=valid from 14 February 2021 |url=https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php |access-date=2021-06-20 }} {{cite web |title=Appendices |url=https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/app/2021/E-Appendices-2021-02-14.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/app/2021/E-Appendices-2021-02-14.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live }} * {{cite web|last1=MBG|author-link=Missouri Botanical Garden|title=Missouri Botanical Garden|url=http://www.missouribotanicalgarden.org/|access-date=7 October 2016|ref={{harvid|MBG|2016}}}} ** {{citation|last=Stevens|first=P.F.|author-link=Peter F. Stevens|date=2016|orig-date=2001|title=Angiosperm Phylogeny Website|publisher=Missouri Botanical Garden|url=http://www.mobot.org/mobot/research/APWeb/|access-date=10 October 2016}} * {{cite web|last1=RBG|author-link=Royal Botanic Gardens Kew|title=Royal Botanic Gardens Kew|url=http://www.kew.org/|publisher=Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew|access-date=11 October 2016|ref={{harvid|RBG|2016}}}} ** {{cite web |title=World Checklist of Selected Plant Families |publisher=The Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/home.do |access-date=6 October 2016 |ref={{harvid|WCLSPF|2016}} }} ** {{cite web|title=Davis, Aaron P|url=https://www.kew.org/science/who-we-are-and-what-we-do/people/aaron-p-davis|publisher=Royal Botanical Gardens Kew|access-date=12 October 2016|ref={{harvid|Davis|2016}}}} ** {{cite web|title=Galanthus nivalis (common snowdrop)|url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:64496-1|publisher=Royal Botanic Garden Kew}} * {{cite web|last1=HPS|author-link=Hardy Plant Society|title=Hardy Plant Society|url=http://www.hpskent.co.uk|access-date=12 October 2016|location=Kent|ref={{harvid|HPS|2016}}}} * {{cite web|title=Shepton Mallet Horticultural Society|url=http://www.sheptonhortsoc.org.uk/snowdrop-project|location=Shepton Mallet, Somerset|date=2011|access-date=13 October 2016|archive-date=16 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216233941/http://www.sheptonhortsoc.org.uk/snowdrop-project}} {{Refend}}

==Further reading== ;Articles * {{cite journal|last1=Yüzbaşıoğlu|first1=Sırrı|title=Morphological variations of ''Galanthus elwesii'' in Turkey and difficulties on identification|journal=Bocconea|date=2012|volume=24|pages=335–339 |url=http://147.163.105.223/bocconea/24-335.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://147.163.105.223/bocconea/24-335.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}} ;Websites * {{cite web|title=Galanthamomanie – von der Liebe zu Galanthus Schneeglöckchen, Snowdrops, Sneeuwklokjes, Perce-Neiges |language=de |url=http://www.galanthomanie.de/index.htm|access-date=16 October 2016}} * {{cite web|title=Snowdrop Week: Galanthus 'John Gray'|website=The Frustrated Gardener|date=9 February 2015 |url=https://frustratedgardener.com/2015/02/09/snowdrop-week-galanthus-john-gray/|access-date=12 October 2016}} * {{cite web|title=Snowdrops: An introduction|date=23 March 2015 |url=https://changinglifestyleblog.wordpress.com/2015/03/23/snowdrops-an-introduction/}} * {{cite news|last1=Bourne|first1=Val|title=Wonderful snowdrop varieties|newspaper=Daily Telegraph |date=2 February 2015 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/gardening/plants/11370238/Wonderful-snowdrop-varieties.html |access-date=15 October 2016}} * {{cite web|last1=Bourne|first1=Val|title=Signs of spring|website=Val Bourne |url=http://www.valbourne.co.uk/signs_of_spring|access-date=15 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018213445/http://www.valbourne.co.uk/signs_of_spring |archive-date=2016-10-18}} * {{cite news|last1=Winterman|first1=Denise|title=Snowdrop fanciers and their mania|date=2 February 2012 |work=BBC News |publisher=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-16789834|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120719132558/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-16789834|archive-date=19 July 2012|access-date=12 October 2016}}

==External links== {{Wikispecies|position=right}} {{wiktionary|Galanthus|position=right}}{{wiktionary|snowdrop|position=right}} {{Commons category}} * {{cite web|title=Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora|url=https://cites.org/|publisher=UNEP}} * {{cite web|title=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org/ |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources |access-date=18 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140627094911/http://www.iucnredlist.org/ |archive-date=27 June 2014 }} * {{cite web|last1=Antheunisse|first1=Max|title=Galanthus L. |website=plantillustrations.org |access-date=19 October 2016 |url=http://plantgenera.org/taxa.php?id_taxon=9259&SID=0&lay_out=1&hd=0&group=0}} * {{cite web|last1=Vigneron|first1=Pascal|title=Amaryllidaceae|url=http://www.amaryllidaceae.org//index.htm |website=Amaryllidaceae.org|access-date=23 October 2014|language=fr|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150104114211/http://www.amaryllidaceae.org/index.htm|archive-date=4 January 2015}}

Category:Amaryllidaceae genera Category:Medicinal plants Category:Amaryllidoideae Category:Botanical taxa named by Carl Linnaeus