Russia

{{Short description|Country in Eastern Europe and North Asia}} {{About|the country}} {{pp-extended|small=yes}} {{pp-move}} {{Use British English|date=September 2022}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2026|cs1-dates=l}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Russian Federation | common_name = Russia | linking_name = Russia | native_name = {{lang|ru|Российская Федерация}} | image_flag = Russian flag (regulation GOST R 51130–2023).svg | image_coat = Coat of Arms of the Russian Federation.svg | national_anthem = {{nowrap|{{lang|ru|Государственный гимн Российской Федерации}}}} {{tlit|ru|Gosudarstvennyy gimn Rossiyskoy Federatsii}} "State Anthem of the Russian Federation"{{parabr}}{{center|File:National Anthem of Russia (2000), instrumental, one verse.ogg}} | image_map = {{Switcher|frameless{{parabr}}{{Legend|#336830|Recognised territory}} {{Legend|#61E760|Claimed but internationally unrecognised{{Efn|Crimea, which was annexed by Russia in 2014, remains internationally recognised as a part of Ukraine.<ref name="Pifer-2020">{{cite web |last=Pifer |first=Steven |url=https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/03/17/crimea-six-years-after-illegal-annexation/ |title=Crimea: Six years after illegal annexation |publisher=Brookings Institution |date=17 March 2020 |access-date=30 November 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414045104/https://www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2020/03/17/crimea-six-years-after-illegal-annexation/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Donetsk, Luhansk, Kherson, and Zaporizhzhia oblasts, which were annexed—though are only partially occupied—in 2022, also remain internationally recognised as a part of Ukraine. The southernmost Kuril Islands have been the subject of a territorial dispute with Japan since their occupation by the Soviet Union at the end of World War II.<ref name="Chapple-2019" />}} }}|Show globe|frameless|Show region with labels|frameless|Show map of Europe|default=1}} | map_caption = | capital = Moscow | coordinates = {{Coord|55|45|21|N|37|37|02|E|type:city}} | largest_city = capital | languages_type = Official language {{nobold|and national language}} | languages = Russian<ref name="Chevalier-2006">{{cite journal |last=Chevalier |first=Joan F. |title=Russian as the National Language: An Overview of Language Planning in the Russian Federation |jstor=43669126 |journal=Russian Language Journal |pages=25–36 |volume=56 |year=2006 |issue=1 |publisher=American Councils for International Education ACTR / ACCELS |doi=10.70163/0036-0252.1233}}</ref> | languages2_type = {{nobold|Recognised regional languages}} | languages2 = 35 regional official languages<ref>{{cite web |title=What Languages Are Spoken in Russia? |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-languages-are-spoken-in-russia.html |website=WorldAtlas |access-date=19 February 2024 |date=1 August 2017 |archive-date=19 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240219124154/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-languages-are-spoken-in-russia.html |url-status=live}}</ref> | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 71.7% Russian | 3.2% Tatar | 1.1% Bashkir | 1.1% Chechen | 11.3% other | 11.6% not reported }} | ethnic_groups_year = 2021; including Crimea | ethnic_groups_ref = <ref>{{cite web |script-title=ru:Национальный состав населения |url=https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/Tom5_tab1_VPN-2020.xlsx |publisher=Federal State Statistics Service |access-date=30 December 2022 |archive-date=30 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221230204643/https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/Tom5_tab1_VPN-2020.xlsx |url-status=live |language=ru}}</ref> | religion = {{ublist|item_style=white-space:nowrap; |{{Tree list}} *63% Christianity **61% Eastern Orthodoxy **2% other Christian {{Tree list/end}} *23% no religion *8% Islam *2% other religion *5% not answered }} | religion_year = 2026 | religion_ref = <ref name="FOM">{{cite web |author= |year=2026 |title=Русская православная церковь |trans-title=Russian Orthodox Church |url=https://fom.ru/TSennosti/15325 |access-date=April 11, 2026 |website=Public Opinion Foundation |language=ru }}</ref> | demonym = Russian | government_type = Authoritarian federal semi-presidential republic<ref name="cia"/><ref>{{cite web |title=Russia: Freedom in the World 2023 Country Report |website=Freedom House |date=9 March 2023 |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/russia/freedom-world/2023 |access-date=17 April 2023 |archive-date=11 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311093511/https://freedomhouse.org/country/russia/freedom-world/2023 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Kuzio-2016"/> | leader_title1 = President | leader_name1 = Vladimir Putin | leader_title2 = Prime Minister | leader_name2 = Mikhail Mishustin | legislature = Federal Assembly | upper_house = Federation Council | lower_house = State Duma | sovereignty_type = Formation | established_event1 = {{nowrap|Kievan Rus'}} | established_date1 = 882 | established_event2 = {{nowrap|Vladimir-Suzdal}} | established_date2 = 1125 | established_event3 = Grand Principality of Moscow | established_date3 = 1263 | established_event4 = Tsardom of Russia | established_date4 = 16 January 1547 | established_event5 = Russian Empire | established_date5 = 2 November 1721 | established_event6 = {{nowrap|Monarchy abolished}} | established_date6 = 15 March 1917 | established_event7 = {{nowrap|Soviet Union}} | established_date7 = 30 December 1922 | established_event8 = {{nowrap|Declaration of State Sovereignty}} | established_date8 = 12 June 1990 | established_event9 = {{nowrap|Russian Federation}} | established_date9 = 12 December 1991 | established_event10 = Current constitution | established_date10 = 12 December 1993 | area_km2 = 17,098,246 | area_footnote = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/publications/pocketbook/files/world-stats-pocketbook-2016.pdf#page=182 |title=World Statistics Pocketbook 2016 edition |publisher=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Statistics Division |access-date=24 April 2018 |archive-date=4 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190804041700/https://unstats.un.org/unsd/publications/pocketbook/files/world-stats-pocketbook-2016.pdf#page=182 |url-status=live}}</ref> (within internationally recognised borders) | percent_water = 13<ref>{{cite web |title=The Russian federation: general characteristics |url=http://www.gks.ru/scripts/free/1c.exe?XXXX09F.2.1/010000R |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728064121/http://www.gks.ru/scripts/free/1c.exe?XXXX09F.2.1%2F010000R |archive-date=28 July 2011 |website=Federal State Statistics Service |access-date=5 April 2008}}</ref> (including swamps) | population_estimate = {{plainlist| * {{DecreaseNeutral}} 146,028,325<ref>Including 2,459,276 people living on the annexed Crimean Peninsula</ref> * {{nowrap|(including Crimea)<ref name="gks.ru-popul">{{cite web |url=https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/PrPopul2025_Site.xlsx |format=XLSX |script-title=ru:Предварительная оценка численности постоянного населения на 1 января 2025 года |trans-title=Preliminary estimate of the permanent population as of January 1, 2025 |language=ru |work=Russian Federal State Statistics Service |access-date=10 March 2025 |archive-date=7 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250407172042/https://rosstat.gov.ru/storage/mediabank/PrPopul2025_Site.xlsx |url-status=live}}</ref>}} * {{DecreaseNeutral}} 143,569,049 * (excluding Crimea)}} | population_estimate_year = 2025 | population_estimate_rank = 9th | population_density_km2 = 8.4 | population_density_sq_mi = 21.5 | population_density_rank = 187th | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $7.525 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.RU">{{cite web |url=https://data.imf.org/en/Data-Explorer?datasetUrn=IMF.RES:WEO(9.0.0) |title=World Economic Outlook Database (April 2026 Edition) |publisher=International Monetary Fund |website=www.imf.org |date=14 April 2026 |access-date=18 April 2026}}</ref> | GDP_PPP_year = 2026 | GDP_PPP_rank = 4th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $52,479<ref name="IMFWEO.RU"/> | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 43rd | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $2.656 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.RU"/> | GDP_nominal_year = 2026 | GDP_nominal_rank = 9th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $18,525<ref name="IMFWEO.RU"/> | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 66th | Gini = 36.0  | Gini_year = 2020 | Gini_change = decrease  | Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=RU |title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) – Russian Federation |publisher=World Bank |access-date=23 June 2022 |archive-date=20 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170420201540/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=RU |url-status=live}}</ref> | HDI = 0.832 | HDI_year = 2023 | HDI_change = increase | HDI_ref = <ref name="UNHDR">{{Cite web |date=6 May 2025 |title=Human Development Report 2025 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506051232/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2025 |access-date=6 May 2025 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme}}</ref> | HDI_rank = 64th | currency = Russian ruble (₽) | currency_code = RUB | utc_offset = +2 to +12 | calling_code = +7 | cctld = {{unbulleted list |.ru|{{langx|ru|.рф|label=none}}}} }} '''Russia''',{{efn|{{langx|ru|Россия|Rossiya|engvar=gb}}, {{IPA|ru|rɐˈsʲijə|}}}} officially the '''Russian Federation''',{{efn|{{langx|ru|Российская Федерация|Rossiyskaya Federatsiya|engvar=gb}}, {{IPA|ru|rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə|IPA}}}} is a country in Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the largest country in the world, spanning eleven time zones and sharing land borders with fourteen countries.{{efn|The fourteen countries bordering Russia are<ref>{{Citation |title=Russia |year=2022 |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/#geography |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=14 October 2022 |archive-date=9 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109173026/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/#geography |url-status=dead}}</ref> Norway and Finland to the northwest; Estonia, Latvia, Belarus and Ukraine to the west, as well as Lithuania and Poland (with Kaliningrad Oblast); Georgia and Azerbaijan to the southwest; Kazakhstan and Mongolia to the south; China and North Korea to the southeast. Russia also shares maritime boundaries with Japan and the United States, as well as borders with the two partially recognised breakaway states of South Ossetia and Abkhazia that it occupies in Georgia.}} With a population of over 140 million, Russia is the most populous country in Europe and the ninth-most populous in the world. It is a highly urbanised country, with sixteen of its urban areas having more than 1 million inhabitants. Moscow, the most populous metropolitan area in Europe, is the capital and largest city of Russia, while Saint Petersburg is its second-largest city and a major cultural centre.

Human settlement on modern Russian territory dates back to the Lower Paleolithic. The emergence of the East Slavs as a prominent group in Europe between the 3rd and 8th centuries AD led to the establishment of Kievan Rus' in the 9th century, which adopted Orthodox Christianity from the Byzantine Empire in 988. Following its disintegration, the late medieval Grand Principality of Moscow led the unification of Russian lands, culminating in the formation of the Tsardom of Russia in 1547. By the early 18th century, Russia had expanded vastly through conquest, annexation, and the efforts of Russian explorers. It was proclaimed as the Russian Empire in 1721, which became the third-largest empire in history. The Russian Revolution of 1917 led to the abolition of the Russian monarchy and the creation of the Russian SFSR, the first socialist state. Following the Russian Civil War, Russia became the largest and principal constituent of the newly established Soviet Union in 1922. Amidst rapid industrialisation in the 1930s, millions died under Joseph Stalin. The Soviet Union played a decisive role for the Allies in World War II by leading large-scale efforts on the Eastern Front. During the Cold War, it emerged as a superpower and competed with the United States for ideological dominance. The Soviet era saw some of the most significant Russian technological achievements, including the first human-made satellite and the first human expedition into outer space.

In 1991, the Russian SFSR emerged from the dissolution of the Soviet Union as the Russian Federation. Following a constitutional crisis in 1993, a new constitution was adopted, establishing a semi-presidential republic. Since the turn of the century, Russia's political system has been dominated by Vladimir Putin, under whose leadership it has experienced democratic backsliding, transforming into an authoritarian regime. Russia has been militarily involved in numerous conflicts, including its war with Georgia in 2008 and its war with Ukraine since 2014, which in the latter has involved the internationally unrecognised annexation of Crimea in 2014 and four additional regions following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, resulting in a full-scale war.

Russia is generally considered a great power and wields significant regional influence in Europe, possessing the largest stockpile of nuclear weapons and having the third-highest military expenditure in the world. Its economy ranks among the largest in the world, relying on its vast mineral and energy resources, mainly oil and natural gas. Russia continues to rank very low in measurements of democracy, human rights and media freedom, while having high levels of corruption. As the successor state of the Soviet Union, it retains its seat as a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and is a member state of several international organisations. Russia is also home to 32 UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

==Etymology== {{Main|Names of Rus', Russia and Ruthenia}}

According to the ''Oxford English Dictionary'', the English name ''Russia'' first appeared in the 14th century, borrowed from {{Langx|la-x-medieval|Russia}}, used in the 11th century and frequently in 12th-century British sources, in turn derived from {{Langx|la-x-medieval|Russi|lit=the Russians|label=none}} and the suffix {{Langx|la-x-medieval|-ia|label=none}}.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 2023 |title=Russia (n.), Etymology |url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/russia_n?tab=etymology |website=Oxford English Dictionary |doi=10.1093/OED/2223074989 |access-date=3 January 2024 |archive-date=22 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240122215843/https://www.oed.com/dictionary/russia_n?tab=etymology |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Kuchkin |first=V. A. |title= |publisher=Institute of General History of the Russian Academy of Sciences; Ladomir |year=2014 |editor-last=Melnikova |editor-first=E. A. |location=Moscow |pages=700–701 |language=ru |script-title=ru:Древняя Русь в средневековом мире |trans-title=Old Rus' in the medieval world |script-chapter=ru:Русская земля |trans-chapter=Russian land |editor-last2=Petrukhina |editor-first2=V. Ya.}}</ref>

There are several words in Russian which translate to "Russians" in English. The noun and adjective {{Langx|ru|русский |engvar=gb|translit=russkiy|label=none}} refers to ethnic Russians. The adjective {{Langx|ru|российский|engvar=gb|translit=rossiiskiy|label=none}} denotes Russian citizens regardless of ethnicity. The same applies to the more recently coined noun {{Langx|ru|россиянин|engvar=gb|translit=rossiianyn|label=none}}, in the sense of citizen of the Russian state.<ref name="Hellberg-Hirn-1998" /><ref>{{cite journal |last=Merridale |first=Catherine |title=Redesigning History in Contemporary Russia |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |year=2003 |volume=38 |number=1 |pages=13–28 |doi=10.1177/0022009403038001961 |jstor=3180694}}</ref>

The oldest endonyms used were ''Rus{{'}}'' ({{langx|ru|Русь|label=none}}) and the "Russian land" ({{Langx|ru|Русская земля|Russkaya zemlya|label=none}}).<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kloss |first1=Boris |author-link1=Boris Kloss |title=О происхождении названия "Россия" |trans-title=About the origin of the name "Russia" |date=2012 |publisher=ИД ЯСК |location=Moskva |isbn=978-5-9551-0527-7 |page=3}}</ref> According to the ''Primary Chronicle'', the word ''Rus{{'}}'' is derived from the Rus' people, who were a Swedish tribe, and from where the three original members of the Rurikid dynasty came from.<ref>{{cite book |last=Duczko |first=Wladyslaw |title=Viking Rus |publisher=Brill Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=978-90-04-13874-2 |pages=10–11}}</ref> The Finnish word for Swedes, {{lang|fi|ruotsi}}, has the same origin.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=The Origin of Rus' |jstor=128848 |last1=Pritsak |first1=Omeljan |journal=The Russian Review |date=5 April 1977 |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=249–273 |doi=10.2307/128848}}</ref> In modern historiography, the early medieval East Slavic state is usually referred to as ''Kievan Rus''', named after its capital city.<ref name=":1">{{cite book |last1=Bushkovitch |first1=Paul |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Middle Ages |date=1 January 2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-866262-4 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198662624.001.0001/acref-9780198662624-e-5118 |language=en |chapter=Rus' |archive-date=17 February 2025 |access-date=6 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250217021825/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198662624.001.0001/acref-9780198662624-e-5118 |url-status=live}}</ref> Another Medieval Latin name for ''Rus{{'}}'' was ''Ruthenia''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Nazarenko |first=Aleksandr Vasilevich |author-link=Aleksandr Nazarenko |script-title=ru:Древняя Русь на международных путях: междисциплинарные очерки культурных, торговых, политических связей IX–XII веков |year=2001 |publisher=Languages of the Rus' culture |isbn=978-5-7859-0085-1 |pages=40, 42–45, 49–50 |chapter=1. Имя "Русь" в древнейшей западноевропейской языковой традиции (XI–XII века) |trans-title=Ancient Rus' on international routes: interdisciplinary essays on cultural, trade, and political ties in the 9th–12th centuries |language=ru |trans-chapter=The name Rus' in the old tradition of Western European language (XI-XII centuries) |chapter-url=http://dgve.csu.ru/download/Nazarenko_2001_01.djvu |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814143443/http://dgve.csu.ru/download/Nazarenko_2001_01.djvu |archive-date=14 August 2011}}</ref>

In Russian, the current name of the country, {{Lang|ru|Россия|italic=no}} ({{Lang|ru-latn|Rossiya}}), comes from the Byzantine Greek name {{Lang|grc|Ρωσία|italic=no}} ({{Lang|grc-latn|Rosía}}).<ref>{{cite book |title=The Russians: The People of Europe |last=Milner-Gulland |first=R. R. |year=1997 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |isbn=978-0-631-21849-4 |pages=1–4}}</ref> The name {{lang|ru|Росия|italic=no}} ({{lang|ru-latn|Rosiya}}) was first attested in 1387.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Obolensky |first1=Dimitri |author-link1=Dimitri Obolensky |title=Byzantium and the Slavs: Collected Studies |date=1971 |isbn=978-0-902089-14-3 |page=20 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wH4JAQAAIAAJ |language=en |chapter=Commentary on the ninth chapter of Constantine Porphyrogenitus' De Administrando lmperio |publisher=Variorum Reprints |quote=Later, the term ''Ρωσία'' was borrowed by the Russians, in the form ''Rosiya'', from the terminology used by the Byzantine Patriarchate.}}</ref> The name {{transliteration|engvar=gb|ru|Rossiya}} appeared in Russian sources in the 15th century and began to replace the vernacular ''Rus{{'}}'' during the rise of Moscow as the centre of a unified Russian state.{{sfn|Bushkovitch|2011|p=37|loc="Precisely at this time in written usage the modern term ''Rossia'' (a literary expression borrowed from Greek) began to edge out the traditional and vernacular ''Rus''"}} However, until the end of the 17th century, the country was more often referred to by its inhabitants as ''Rus{{'}}'', the "Russian land" ({{transliteration|engvar=gb|ru|Russkaya zemlya}}), or the "Muscovite state" ({{transliteration|engvar=gb|ru|Moskovskoye gosudarstvo}}), among other variations.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |last1=Langer |first1=Lawrence N. |title=Historical Dictionary of Medieval Russia |date=2021 |location=Lanham |isbn=978-1-5381-1942-6 |page=182 |edition=2nd |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield}}</ref><ref name="Hellberg-Hirn-1998">{{cite book |last1=Hellberg-Hirn |first1=Elena |title=Soil and Soul: The Symbolic World of Russianness |date=1998 |publisher=Ashgate |location=Aldershot [Hants, England] |isbn=1-85521-871-2 |page=54}}</ref>

In 1721, Peter the Great proclaimed the Russian Empire ({{transliteration|engvar=gb|ru|Rossiyskaya imperiya}}).<ref name=":0" /> The name ''Rossiya'' was used as the common designation for the multinational Russian Empire and then for the modern Russian state.<ref name=":7">{{cite book |last1=Kappeler |first1=Andreas |author1-link=Andreas Kappeler |editor1-last=Barker |editor1-first=Adele Marie |editor2-last=Grant |editor2-first=Bruce |title=The Russia Reader: History, Culture, Politics |date=12 July 2010 |publisher=Duke University Press |isbn=978-0-8223-4648-7 |page=37 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B-jWhJMt_9EC |language=en |chapter="Great Russians" and '"Little Russians"}}</ref> ''Rossiya'' is distinguished from the ethnonym ''russkiy'', as it refers to a supranational identity, including ethnic Russians.<ref name=":7"/> After the Russian Revolution and the proclamation of the Russian SFSR in 1918, the "Russian" in the title of the state was ''Rossiyskaya'', rather than ''Russkaya'', as the former denoted a multinational state, while the latter had ethnic dimensions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Service |first1=Robert |author-link1=Robert Service (historian) |title=A History of Modern Russia: From Tsarism to the Twenty-First Century, Third Edition |date=30 October 2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-03493-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fZkrAQAAIAAJ |language=en |page=84}}</ref> In modern Russian, the name ''Rus{{'}}'' is still used in poetry or prose to refer to either the older Russia or an imagined essence of Russia.<ref name=":1"/>

== History == {{Main|History of Russia}}

=== Early history === {{further|Ancient Greek colonies||Early Slavs|Huns|Turkic expansion|Prehistory of Siberia}} {{See also|Proto-Indo-Europeans|Proto-Uralic homeland}} The first human settlement on Russia dates back to the Oldowan period in the early Lower Paleolithic. About 2 million years ago, representatives of ''Homo erectus'' migrated to the Taman Peninsula in southern Russia.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shchelinsky |first1=V.E. |last2=Gurova |first2=M. |last3=Tesakov |first3=A.S. |last4=Titov |first4=V.V. |last5=Frolov |first5=P.D. |last6=Simakova |first6=A.N. |title=The Early Pleistocene site of Kermek in western Ciscaucasia (southern Russia): Stratigraphy, biotic record and lithic industry (preliminary results) |journal=Quaternary International |volume=393 |pages=51–69 |date=30 January 2016 |doi=10.1016/j.quaint.2015.10.032 |bibcode=2016QuInt.393...51S}}</ref> Flint tools, some 1.5 million years old, have been discovered in the North Caucasus.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Chepalyga |first1=A.L. |last2=Amirkhanov |first2=Kh.A. |last3=Trubikhin |first3=V.M. |last4=Sadchikova |first4=T.A. |last5=Pirogov |first5=A.N. |last6=Taimazov |first6=A.I. |year=2011 |title=Geoarchaeology of the earliest paleolithic sites (Oldowan) in the North Caucasus and the East Europe |url=http://paleogeo.org/article3.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520090413/http://paleogeo.org/article3.html |archive-date=20 May 2013 |access-date=18 December 2013}}</ref> Radiocarbon dated specimens from Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains estimate the oldest Denisovan specimen lived 195–122,700 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Douka |first1=K. |title=Age estimates for hominin fossils and the onset of the Upper Palaeolithic at Denisova Cave |journal=Nature |year=2019 |volume=565 |issue=7741 |pages=640–644 |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0870-z |pmid=30700871 |bibcode=2019Natur.565..640D |url=https://amu.hal.science/hal-03207786 |archive-date=10 February 2026 |access-date=6 January 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260210202004/https://amu.hal.science/hal-03207786 |url-status=live }}</ref> Fossils of ''Denny'', an archaic human hybrid that was half Neanderthal and half Denisovan, and lived some 90,000 years ago, was also found within the latter cave.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Warren |first=Matthew |title=Mum's a Neanderthal, Dad's a Denisovan: First discovery of an ancient-human hybrid |date=22 August 2018 |journal=Nature |volume=560 |issue=7719 |pages=417–418 |doi=10.1038/d41586-018-06004-0 |pmid=30135540 |bibcode=2018Natur.560..417W |doi-access=free}}</ref> Russia was home to some of the last surviving Neanderthals, from about 45,000 years ago, found in Mezmaiskaya cave.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Igor V. Ovchinnikov |last2=Anders Götherström |last3=Galina P. Romanova |last4=Vitaliy M. Kharitonov |last5=Kerstin Lidén |last6=William Goodwin |date=30 March 2000 |title=Molecular analysis of Neanderthal DNA from the northern Caucasus |journal=Nature |volume=404 |issue=6777 |pages=490–493 |bibcode=2000Natur.404..490O |doi=10.1038/35006625 |pmid=10761915}}</ref>

The first trace of an early modern human in Russia dates back to 45,000 years, in Western Siberia.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Fu Q, Li H, Moorjani P, Jay F, Slepchenko SM, Bondarev AA, Johnson PL, Aximu-Petri A, Prüfer K, de Filippo C, Meyer M, Zwyns N, Salazar-García DC, Kuzmin YV, Keates SG, Kosintsev PA, Razhev DI, Richards MP, Peristov NV, Lachmann M, Douka K, Higham TF, Slatkin M, Hublin JJ, Reich D, Kelso J, Viola TB, Pääbo S |title=Genome sequence of a 45,000-year-old modern human from western Siberia |journal=Nature |issue=7523 |pages=445–449 |date=23 October 2014 |doi=10.1038/nature13810 |pmid=25341783 |volume=514 |pmc=4753769 |bibcode=2014Natur.514..445F |hdl=10550/42071}}</ref> The discovery of high concentration cultural remains of anatomically modern humans, from at least 40,000 years ago, was found at Kostyonki–Borshchyovo,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dinnis |first1=Rob |last2=Bessudnov |first2=Alexander |last3=Reynolds |first3=Natasha |last4=Devièse |first4=Thibaut |last5=Pate |first5=Abi |last6=Sablin |first6=Mikhail |last7=Sinitsyn |first7=Andrei |last8=Higham |first8=Thomas |title=New data for the Early Upper Paleolithic of Kostenki (Russia) |pmid=30777356 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2018.11.012 |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |year=2019 |pages=21–40 |volume=127 |bibcode=2019JHumE.127...21D |url=https://hal.science/hal-01982049}}</ref> and at Sungir, dating back to 34,600 years ago—both in western Russia.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1126/science.aao1807 |pmid=28982795 |title=Ancient genomes show social and reproductive behavior of early Upper Paleolithic foragers |journal=Science |volume=358 |issue=6363 |pages=659–662 |year=2017 |vauthors=Sikora, Martin ''et al.'' |bibcode=2017Sci...358..659S |doi-access=free}}</ref> Humans reached Arctic Russia at least 40,000 years ago, in Mamontovaya Kurya.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Pavlov |first=Pavel |author2=John Inge Svendsen |author3=Svein Indrelid |date=6 September 2001 |title=Human presence in the European Arctic nearly 40,000 years ago |journal=Nature |volume=413 |pages=64–67 |doi=10.1038/35092552 |pmid=11544525 |issue=6851 |bibcode=2001Natur.413...64P}}</ref> Ancient North Eurasian populations from Siberia genetically similar to Mal'ta–Buret' culture and Afontova Gora were an important genetic contributor to Ancient Native Americans and Eastern Hunter-Gatherers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Balter |first1=M. |title=Ancient DNA Links Native Americans With Europe |journal=Science |date=25 October 2013 |volume=342 |issue=6157 |pages=409–410 |doi=10.1126/science.342.6157.409 |pmid=24159019 |bibcode=2013Sci...342..409B |doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[File:Yamnaya Steppe Pastoralists.jpg|thumb|320px|left|Bronze Age spread of Yamnaya Steppe pastoralist ancestry between 3300 and 1500 BC,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gibbons |first1=Ann |title=Thousands of horsemen may have swept into Bronze Age Europe, transforming the local population |journal=Science |date=21 February 2017 |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/thousands-horsemen-may-have-swept-bronze-age-europe-transforming-local-population |access-date=25 September 2022 |archive-date=25 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220925154535/https://www.science.org/content/article/thousands-horsemen-may-have-swept-bronze-age-europe-transforming-local-population |url-status=live}}</ref> including the Afanasievo culture of southern Siberia]]

The Kurgan hypothesis places the Volga-Dnieper region of southern Russia and Ukraine as the urheimat of the Proto-Indo-Europeans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Anthony |first1=David W. |last2=Ringe |first2=Don |date=1 January 2015 |title=The Indo-European Homeland from Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives |journal=Annual Review of Linguistics |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=199–219 |doi=10.1146/annurev-linguist-030514-124812 |issn=2333-9683 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Early Indo-European migrations from the Pontic–Caspian steppe of Ukraine and Russia spread Yamnaya ancestry and Indo-European languages across large parts of Eurasia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Haak |first1=Wolfgang |last2=Lazaridis |first2=Iosif |last3=Patterson |first3=Nick |last4=Rohland |first4=Nadin |last5=Mallick |first5=Swapan |last6=Llamas |first6=Bastien |last7=Brandt |first7=Guido |last8=Nordenfelt |first8=Susanne |last9=Harney |first9=Eadaoin|last10=Stewardson|first10=Kristin |last11=Fu |first11=Qiaomei |date=11 June 2015 |title=Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe |journal=Nature |volume=522 |issue=7555 |pages=207–211 |doi=10.1038/nature14317 |issn=0028-0836 |pmc=5048219 |pmid=25731166 |bibcode=2015Natur.522..207H |arxiv=1502.02783}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/nomadic-herders-left-strong-genetic-mark-europeans-and-asians |first=Ann |last=Gibbons |date=10 June 2015 |title=Nomadic herders left a strong genetic mark on Europeans and Asians |journal=Science |publisher=AAAS |access-date=25 September 2022 |archive-date=2 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220902191050/https://www.science.org/content/article/nomadic-herders-left-strong-genetic-mark-europeans-and-asians |url-status=live}}</ref> Nomadic pastoralism developed in the Pontic–Caspian steppe beginning in the Chalcolithic.<ref name="Belinskij-1999">{{Cite journal |last1=Belinskij |first1=Andrej |last2=Härke |first2=Heinrich |title=The 'Princess' of Ipatovo |journal=Archeology |volume=52 |issue=2 |year=1999 |url=http://cat.he.net/~archaeol/9903/newsbriefs/ipatovo.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610043326/http://cat.he.net/~archaeol/9903/newsbriefs/ipatovo.html |archive-date=10 June 2008 |access-date=26 December 2007}}</ref> Remnants of these steppe civilisations were discovered in places such as Ipatovo,<ref name="Belinskij-1999"/> Sintashta,<ref name="mounted">{{Cite book |author=Drews, Robert |title=Early Riders: The beginnings of mounted warfare in Asia and Europe |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |page=50 |isbn=978-0-415-32624-7}}</ref> Arkaim,<ref>{{cite web |author=Koryakova, L. |title=Sintashta-Arkaim Culture |publisher=The Center for the Study of the Eurasian Nomads (CSEN) |url=http://www.csen.org/koryakova2/Korya.Sin.Ark.html |access-date=13 May 2021 |archive-date=28 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190228104055/http://www.csen.org/koryakova2/Korya.Sin.Ark.html |url-status=usurped}}</ref> and Pazyryk,<ref>{{cite web |title=1998 NOVA documentary: "Ice Mummies: Siberian Ice Maiden" |work=Transcript |url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2517siberian.html |access-date=13 May 2021 |archive-date=16 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416163503/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2517siberian.html |url-status=live}}</ref> which bear the earliest known traces of horses in warfare.<ref name="mounted"/> The genetic makeup of speakers of the Uralic language family in northern Europe was shaped by migration from Siberia that began at least 3,500 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lamnidis |first1=Thiseas C. |last2=Majander |first2=Kerttu |last3=Jeong |first3=Choongwon |last4=Salmela |first4=Elina |last5=Wessman |first5=Anna |last6=Moiseyev |first6=Vyacheslav |last7=Khartanovich |first7=Valery |last8=Balanovsky |first8=Oleg |last9=Ongyerth |first9=Matthias |last10=Weihmann |first10=Antje |last11=Sajantila |first11=Antti |last12=Kelso |first12=Janet |last13=Pääbo |first13=Svante |last14=Onkamo |first14=Päivi |last15=Haak |first15=Wolfgang |date=27 November 2018 |title=Ancient Fennoscandian genomes reveal origin and spread of Siberian ancestry in Europe |journal=Nature Communications |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=5018 |doi=10.1038/s41467-018-07483-5 |pmid=30479341 |pmc=6258758 |bibcode=2018NatCo...9.5018L}}</ref>

In the 3rd to 4th centuries AD, the Gothic kingdom of Oium existed in southern Russia, which was later overrun by Huns. Between the 3rd and 6th centuries AD, the Bosporan Kingdom, which was a Hellenistic polity that succeeded the Greek colonies,<ref>{{Cite book |author=Tsetskhladze, G. R. |title=The Greek Colonisation of the Black Sea Area: Historical Interpretation of Archaeology |publisher=F. Steiner |year=1998 |page=48 |isbn=978-3-515-07302-8}}</ref> was also overwhelmed by nomadic invasions led by warlike tribes such as the Huns and Eurasian Avars.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Turchin, P. |title=Historical Dynamics: Why States Rise and Fall |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2003 |pages=185–186 |isbn=978-0-691-11669-3}}</ref> The Khazars, who were of Turkic origin, ruled the steppes between the Caucasus in the south, to the east past the Volga river basin, and west as far as Kiev on the Dnieper river until the 10th century.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Weinryb |first=Bernard D. |title=The Khazars: An Annotated Bibliography |journal=Studies in Bibliography and Booklore |publisher=Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion |volume=6 |number=3 |pages=111–129 |year=1963 |jstor=27943361}}</ref> After them came the Pechenegs who created a large confederacy, which was subsequently taken over by the Cumans and the Kipchaks.<ref>Carter V. Findley, ''The Turks in World History'' (Oxford University Press, 2004) {{ISBN|0-19-517726-6}}</ref>

The ancestors of Russians are among the Slavic tribes that separated from the Proto-Indo-Europeans, who appeared in the northeastern part of Europe {{Circa|1500}} years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhernakova |first1=Daria V. |display-authors=etal |title=Genome-wide sequence analyses of ethnic populations across Russia |volume=112 |number=1 |journal=Genomics |year=2020 |pages=442–458 |doi=10.1016/j.ygeno.2019.03.007 |doi-access=free |publisher=Elsevier |pmid=30902755}}</ref> The East Slavs gradually settled western Russia (approximately between modern Moscow and Saint-Petersburg) in two waves: one moving from Kiev towards present-day Suzdal and Murom and another from Polotsk towards Novgorod and Rostov.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Christian, D. |title=A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=1998 |pages=6–7 |isbn=978-0-631-20814-3}}</ref> Prior to Slavic migration, that territory was populated by Finno-Ugrian peoples. From the 7th century onwards, the incoming East Slavs slowly assimilated the native Finno-Ugrians.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}}<ref>Ed. Timothy Reuter, ''The New Cambridge Medieval History'', Volume 3, Cambridge University Press, 1995, pp. 494-497. {{ISBN|0-521-36447-7}}.</ref>

=== Kievan Rus' === {{Main|Rus' Khaganate|Kievan Rus'|List of tribes and states in Belarus, Russia and Ukraine}}

[[File:Kievan-rus-1015-1113-(en).png|thumb|Kievan Rus' after the Council of Liubech in 1097]] The establishment of the first East Slavic states in the 9th century coincided with the arrival of the Varangians, Vikings who ventured along the waterways extending from the eastern Baltic to the Black and Caspian Seas.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|p=6|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}}{{sfn|Ward|Thompson|2021|pp=5–6}} According to the ''Primary Chronicle'', a Varangian from the Rus', named Rurik, was elected ruler of Novgorod in 862.{{sfn|Dukes|1998|p=7}}{{sfn|Channon|Hudson|1995|p=8}} In 882, his successor Oleg ventured south and conquered Kiev, which had been previously paying tribute to the Khazars.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|p=6|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}}{{sfn|Dukes|1998|pp=7–8}} Rurik's son Igor and Igor's son Sviatoslav subsequently subdued all local East Slavic tribes to Kievan rule, destroyed the Khazar state, and launched several military expeditions to Bulgaria, Byzantium and Persia.{{sfn|Dukes|1998|pp=9–10}}{{sfn|Galeotti|2024|pp=39–40}}<ref>{{cite book |author=Logan, Donald F. |url=https://archive.org/details/vikingsinhistory00loga |title=The Vikings in History |edition=2nd |date=1992 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-08396-6 |page=201 |url-access=registration}}</ref>

During the 10th and 11th centuries, Kievan Rus' became one of the largest and most prosperous states in Europe. The reigns of Vladimir the Great (980–1015) and his son Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054) constitute Kiev's Golden Age.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=6–7|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}} Through his political and religious reforms, Vladimir laid the foundations for the transformation of Kievan Rus' from a fragmented conglomeration of tributary groups into a more unified realm, connected by dynastic authority and shared religious and cultural ties.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Martin |first1=Janet |title=Medieval Russia, 980-1584 |date=7 December 1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-36832-2 |page=20 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Medieval_Russia_980_1584/sRCc3TtL9bIC |language=en}}</ref> He adopted Christianity from the Byzantine Empire, beginning the synthesis of Byzantine and Slavic cultures that would define Russian culture for the next millennium.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=3,5–7|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}}{{sfn|Channon|Hudson|1995|p=26}} The reign of Yaroslav also saw the creation of the state's first written legal code, the ''Russkaya Pravda''.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|p=7|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}}

Kievan Rus' was politically unstable due to weak centralisation and the absence of a stable succession principle.{{sfn|Ward|Thompson|2021|p=19}} The rota system introduced by Yaroslav led to princely authority being distributed among members of the ruling Rurikid dynasty according to seniority.{{sfn|Ward|Thompson|2021|p=19}} Intended to preserve dynastic unity, this system increasingly fostered rivalry among princes, leading to frequent infighting.{{sfn|Ward|Thompson|2021|p=19}}{{sfn|Curtis|1998|p=9|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}} As a result, political power fragmented among competing regional centres, marking a gradual shift toward decentralisation.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|p=9|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}}{{sfn|Ward|Thompson|2021|pp=19–20}}{{sfn|Bushkovitch|2011|pp=13–14}} Kiev's dominance waned, to the benefit of Vladimir-Suzdal in the north-east, the Novgorod Republic in the north, and Galicia–Volhynia in the south-west.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=9–10|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}}{{sfn|Dukes|1998|p=14}} By the 12th century, Kiev lost its pre-eminence and Kievan Rus' had fragmented into different principalities.{{sfn|Channon|Hudson|1995|p=16}} Prince Andrey Bogolyubsky sacked Kiev in 1169 and made Vladimir his base,{{sfn|Channon|Hudson|1995|p=16}} leading to political power being shifted to the north-east.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=9–10|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}}

Vladimir-Suzdal continued the tradition of strong princely rule, while the Novgorod Republic, which formally won its independence in 1136, was an exception.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Riddle |first1=John M. |last2=Black |first2=Winston |title=A History of the Middle Ages, 300–1500 |date=25 February 2016 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-4422-4685-0 |page=322 |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/A_History_of_the_Middle_Ages_300_1500.html?id=x4FgEQAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> From the mid-13th century, the throne of Novgorod was held by the grand princes of Vladimir, although the prince's authority gradually diminished in favour of more republican-style governance, with political power increasingly held by the ''veche'' (popular assembly) and elected officials.{{sfn|Bushkovitch|2011|p=24}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Paul |first1=Michael C. |title=Was The Prince of Novgorod a Third-Rate Bureaucrat after 1136? |journal=Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas |date=2008 |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=72–113 |jstor=41052013 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41052013 |issn=0021-4019 |language=en}}</ref>{{rp|83}} Novgorod became a major commercial centre through the fur trade and an important centre of Russian culture.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Paul |first1=Michael C. |editor-last1=Murray |editor-first1=Alan V. |title=The Clash of Cultures on the Medieval Baltic Frontier |date=2009 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |isbn=978-0-7546-6483-3 |pages=253–254 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kv599Lb04UC |chapter=Archbishop Vasilii Kalika of Novgorod, the Fortress of Orekhov and the Defence of Orthodoxy |language=en}}</ref> Led by Prince Alexander Nevsky, the Novgorodians repelled the invading Swedes in the Battle of the Neva in 1240, as well as the Germanic crusaders in the Battle on the Ice in 1242.{{sfn|Dukes|1998|p=26}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ostrowski |first=Donald |year=2006 |title=Alexander Nevskii's "Battle on the Ice": The Creation of a Legend |journal=Russian History |volume=33 |pages=289–312 |doi=10.1163/187633106X00186 |jstor=24664446 |number=2/4}}</ref>

Kievan Rus' finally fell to the Mongol invasions of 1237–1240, which resulted in the sacking of Kiev and other cities, as well as the death of a major part of the population.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|p=10|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}} The invaders, later known as Tatars, formed the state of the Golden Horde, which ruled over Russia for the next two centuries.{{sfn|Dukes|1998|pp=26–27}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Halperin |first=Charles J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kPwX2dW-V6sC&pg=PA7 |title=Russia and the Golden Horde: The Mongol Impact on Medieval Russian History |date=1987 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-20445-5 |page=7 |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=13 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813152923/https://books.google.com/books?id=kPwX2dW-V6sC&pg=PA7 |url-status=live}}</ref> Only the Novgorod Republic escaped foreign occupation after it agreed to pay tribute to the Mongols.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|p=10|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}} Galicia–Volhynia would later be absorbed by Lithuania and Poland, while the Novgorod Republic continued to prosper in the north.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=9–10|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}} In the northeast, the Byzantine-Slavic traditions of Kievan Rus' were adapted to form the Russian autocratic state.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|p=11|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}}

=== Grand Principality of Moscow === {{Main|Grand Principality of Moscow}}

[[File:Lissner TroiceSergievaLavr.jpg|thumb|Sergius of Radonezh blessing Dmitry Donskoy in Trinity Sergius Lavra, before the Battle of Kulikovo, depicted in a painting by Ernst Lissner]] The destruction of Kievan Rus' saw the eventual rise of the Grand Principality of Moscow, initially a part of Vladimir-Suzdal.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}}{{Rp|pages=11–20}} While still under the domain of the Mongol-Tatars and with their connivance, Moscow began to assert its influence in the region in the early 14th century,<ref>{{cite book |last=Davies |first=Brian L. |title=Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe, 1500–1700 |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |page=4 |url=http://www.reenactor.ru/ARH/PDF/Davies.pdf#page=20 |access-date=31 March 2021 |archive-date=9 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009193828/http://www.reenactor.ru/ARH/PDF/Davies.pdf#page=20 |url-status=live}}</ref> gradually becoming the leading force in the "gathering of the Russian lands".{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=11–12|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mackay |first1=Angus |title=Atlas of Medieval Europe |date=11 September 2002 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-80693-5 |page=187 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X6KIAgAAQBAJ |language=en |archive-date=20 August 2024 |access-date=20 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240820063434/https://books.google.com/books?id=X6KIAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> When the seat of the metropolitan of the Russian Orthodox Church moved to Moscow in 1325, its influence increased.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gleason |first1=Abbott |title=A Companion to Russian History |date=2009 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |location=Chichester |isbn=978-1-4443-0842-6 |page=126}}</ref> Moscow's last rival, the Novgorod Republic, prospered as the chief fur trade centre and the easternmost port of the Hanseatic League.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Halperin |first=Charles J. |title=Novgorod and the 'Novgorodian Land' |jstor=20171136 |volume=40 |number=3 |pages=345–363 |date=September 1999 |publisher=EHESS |journal=Cahiers du Monde russe}}</ref>

Led by Prince Dmitry Donskoy of Moscow, the united army of Russian principalities inflicted a milestone defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|p=10|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}}{{sfn|Galeotti|2024|p=84}} Moscow gradually absorbed its parent duchy and surrounding principalities, including formerly strong rivals such as Tver and Novgorod.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=11–12|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}}

Ivan III ("the Great") threw off the control of the Golden Horde and gained sovereignty over the ethnically Russian lands;{{sfn|Curtis|1998|p=12|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}} he later adopted the title of sovereign of all Russia.<ref>{{cite book |last=Millar |first=James R. |title=Encyclopedia of Russian History |date=2004 |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |location=New York |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R-KYwQEACAAJ |isbn=978-0-02-865693-9 |page=688 |quote=Ivan III assumed the title of the sovereign of all Russia...}}</ref> After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Moscow claimed succession to the legacy of the Eastern Roman Empire. Ivan III married Sophia Palaiologina, the niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI, and made the Byzantine double-headed eagle his own, and eventually Russia's, coat-of-arms.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|p=12|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}} Vasili III united all of Russia by annexing the last few independent Russian states in the early 16th century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=M.S. |title=The Origins of the Modern European State System, 1494–1618 |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-89275-5 |url={{GBurl |id=smCgBAAAQBAJ |pg=PT281}}}}</ref>

=== Tsardom of Russia === {{Main|Tsardom of Russia}}

{{See also|Moscow, third Rome}} [[File:Ivan grozny frame.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Ivan IV was the Grand Prince of Moscow from 1533 to 1547, then Tsar of Russia until his death in 1584.]] In development of the Third Rome ideas, the grand prince Ivan IV ("the Terrible") was officially crowned as the first tsar of all Russia in 1547. The tsar promulgated a new code of laws (Sudebnik of 1550), established the first Russian feudal representative body (the Zemsky Sobor), revamped the military, curbed the influence of the clergy, and reorganised local government.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}} During his long reign, Ivan nearly doubled the already large Russian territory by annexing the three Tatar khanates: Kazan and Astrakhan along the Volga,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Perrie |first=Maureen |title=The Popular Image of Ivan the Terrible |jstor=4207642 |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review |volume=56 |number=2 |date=April 1978 |pages=275–286 |publisher=Modern Humanities Research Association}}</ref> and the Khanate of Sibir in southwestern Siberia. Ultimately, by the end of the 16th century, Russia expanded east of the Ural Mountains.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Skrynnikov |first=R. G. |title=Ermak's Siberian Expedition |journal=Russian History |volume=13 |number=1 |pages=1–39 |publisher=Brill Publishers |jstor=24655823 |year=1986 |doi=10.1163/187633186X00016}}</ref> However, the Tsardom was weakened by the long and unsuccessful Livonian War against the coalition of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (later the united Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth), the Kingdom of Sweden, and Denmark–Norway for access to the Baltic coast and sea trade.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Filyushkin |first=Alexander |title=Livonian War in the Context of the European Wars of the 16th Century: Conquest, Borders, Geopolitics |year=2016 |pages=1–21 |volume=43 |number=1 |journal=Russian History |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/18763316-04301004 |jstor=44647035}}</ref> In 1571, the Crimean Tatars, supported by the Ottomans, burned down Moscow, destroying everything except the Kremlin. The following year, the Crimeans attempted another raid on Moscow, but this time they were defeated in the crucial Battle of Molodi.<ref>{{cite book |date=2015 |last=Skrynnikov |first=R. G. |title=Reign of Terror: Ivan IV |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9-004-30401-7 |pages=417–421}}</ref> [[File:Fedor chertezh.jpeg|thumb|left|Feodor Godunov's map of Russia, as published by Hessel Gerritsz in 1614]] The death of Ivan's sons marked the end of the ancient Rurik dynasty in 1598, and in combination with the disastrous famine of 1601–1603, led to a civil war, the rule of pretenders, and foreign intervention during the Time of Troubles in the early 17th century.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dunning |first=Chester |title=Crisis, Conjuncture, and the Causes of the Time of Troubles |jstor=41036998 |journal=Harvard Ukrainian Studies |year=1995 |publisher=Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute |volume=19 |pages=97–119}}</ref> The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, taking advantage, occupied parts of Russia, extending into the capital Moscow.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wójcik |first=Zbigniew |title=Russian Endeavors for the Polish Crown in the Seventeenth Century |journal=Slavic Review |jstor=2496635 |doi=10.2307/2496635 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=41 |number=1 |year=1982 |pages=59–72}}</ref> In 1612, the Poles were forced to retreat by the Russian volunteer corps, led by merchant Kuzma Minin and prince Dmitry Pozharsky.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bogolitsyna |first1=Anna |last2=Pichler |first2=Bernhard |last3=Vendl |first3=Alfred |last4=Mikhailov |first4=Alexander |last5=Sizov |first5=Boris |title=Investigation of the Brass Monument to Minin and Pozharsky, Red Square, Moscow |journal=Studies in Conservation |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2009 |volume=54 |number=1 |pages=12–22 |doi=10.1179/sic.2009.54.1.12 |jstor=27867061}}</ref> The Romanov dynasty acceded to the throne in 1613 by the decision of the Zemsky Sobor, and the country started its gradual recovery from the crisis.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Orchard |first=G. Edward |title=The Election of Michael Romanov |jstor=4210028 |publisher=Modern Humanities Research Association |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review |volume=67 |number=3 |date=July 1989 |pages=378–402}}</ref>

Russia continued its territorial growth through the 17th century, which was the age of the Cossacks.<ref name="Siberia">{{cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/collections/meeting-of-frontiers/articles-and-essays/exploration/russian-discovery-of-siberia/ |title=The Russian Discovery of Siberia |year=2000 |publisher=Library of Congress |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=25 January 2022 |archive-date=30 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330122944/https://www.loc.gov/collections/meeting-of-frontiers/articles-and-essays/exploration/russian-discovery-of-siberia/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1654, the Ukrainian leader, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, offered to place Ukraine under the protection of the Russian tsar, Alexis, whose acceptance of this offer led to another Russo-Polish War. Ultimately, Ukraine was split along the Dnieper, placing Left-bank Ukraine and Kiev under Russian rule.<ref>{{cite book |last=Frost |first=Robert I. |title=The Northern Wars: War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe, 1558–1721 |date=2000 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-58206-429-4 |page=13}}</ref> In the east, the rapid Russian exploration and colonisation of vast Siberia continued, hunting for valuable furs and ivory. Russian explorers pushed eastward primarily along the Siberian River Routes, and by the mid-17th century, there were Russian settlements in eastern Siberia, on the Chukchi Peninsula, along the Amur River, and on the coast of the Pacific Ocean.<ref name="Siberia"/> In 1648, Semyon Dezhnyov became the first European to navigate through the Bering Strait.<ref>{{cite book |last=Oliver |first=James A. |title=The Bering Strait Crossing: A 21st Century Frontier between East and West |year=2006 |publisher=Information Architects |pages=36–37 |isbn=978-0-9546995-8-1}}</ref>

=== Imperial Russia === {{Main|Russian Empire}}

Under Peter the Great, Russia was proclaimed an empire in 1721, and established itself as one of the European great powers. Ruling from 1682 to 1725, Peter defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War (1700–1721), securing Russia's access to the sea and sea trade. In 1703, Peter founded Saint Petersburg on the Baltic Sea by establishing the Peter and Paul Fortress as a strategic outpost; the city later replaced Moscow as Russia's capital in 1712. Throughout his rule, sweeping reforms were made, which brought significant Western European cultural influences to Russia.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}} He was succeeded by Catherine I (1725–1727), followed by Peter II (1727–1730), and Anna. The reign of Peter I's daughter Elizabeth in 1741–1762 saw Russia's participation in the Seven Years' War (1756–1763). During the conflict, Russian troops overran East Prussia, reaching Berlin.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kohn |first=Hans |title=Germany and Russia |journal=Current History |volume=38 |number=221 |pages=1–5 |year=1960 |publisher=U of California Press |doi=10.1525/curh.1960.38.221.1 |jstor=45310370}}</ref> However, upon Elizabeth's death, all these conquests were returned to the Kingdom of Prussia by pro-Prussian Peter III of Russia.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Raeff |first=Marc |title=The Domestic Policies of Peter III and his Overthrow |journal=The American Historical Review |volume=75 |number=5 |date=June 1970 |pages=1289–1310 |publisher=Oxford University Press |jstor=1844479 |doi=10.2307/1844479}}</ref> [[File:Growth of Russia 1547-1725.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Expansion and territorial evolution of Russia from the coronation of Ivan IV to the death of Peter I]] Catherine II ("the Great"), who ruled in 1762–1796, presided over the Russian Age of Enlightenment. She extended Russian political control over the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and annexed most of its territories into Russia, making it the most populous country in Europe.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Perkins |first=James Breck |title=The Partition of Poland |jstor=1833615 |doi=10.2307/1833615 |doi-access=free |volume=2 |number=1 |date=October 1896 |pages=76–92 |journal=The American Historical Review |publisher=Oxford University Press}}</ref> In the south, after the successful Russo-Turkish Wars against the Ottoman Empire, Catherine advanced Russia's boundary to the Black Sea, by dissolving the Crimean Khanate, and annexing Crimea.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Anderson |first=M.S. |jstor=4205010 |title=The Great Powers and the Russian Annexation of the Crimea, 1783–1784 |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review |date=December 1958 |volume=37 |number=88 |pages=17–41 |publisher=Modern Humanities Research Association}}</ref> As a result of victories over Qajar Iran through the Russo-Persian Wars, by the first half of the 19th century, Russia also conquered the Caucasus.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Behrooz |first=Maziar |title=Revisiting the Second Russo-Iranian War (1826–1828): Causes and Perceptions |jstor=24482847 |journal=Iranian Studies |year=2013 |volume=46 |number=3 |pages=359–381 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |doi=10.1080/00210862.2012.758502}}</ref> Catherine's successor, her son Paul, was unstable and focused predominantly on domestic issues.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ragsdale |first=Hugh |title=Russia, Prussia, and Europe in the Policy of Paul I |year=1992 |pages=81–118 |journal=Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas |jstor=41046596 |volume=31 |number=1 |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag}}</ref> Following his short reign, Catherine's strategy was continued with Alexander I's (1801–1825) wresting of Finland from the weakened Sweden in 1809,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Finland |jstor=1945868 |doi-access=free |doi=10.2307/1945868 |publisher=American Political Science Association |date=August 1910 |volume=4 |number=3 |pages=350–364 |journal=The American Political Science Review}}</ref> and of Bessarabia from the Ottomans in 1812.<ref>{{cite journal |last=King |first=Charles |title=Moldova and the New Bessarabian Questions |jstor=40396520 |journal=The World Today |volume=49 |number=7 |pages=135–139 |date=July 1993 |publisher=Royal Institute of International Affairs (Chatham House)}}</ref> In North America, the Russians became the first Europeans to reach and colonise Alaska.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/harriman/1899/exploration.html |title=Exploration and Settlement on the Alaskan Coast |publisher=PBS |access-date=13 January 2022 |archive-date=19 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319205223/http://www.pbs.org/harriman/1899/exploration.html |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1803–1806, the first Russian circumnavigation was made.<ref>{{cite journal |last=McCartan |first=E. F. |title=The Long Voyages-Early Russian Circumnavigation |journal=The Russian Review |volume=22 |number=1 |year=1963 |pages=30–37 |doi=10.2307/126593 |jstor=126593}}</ref> In 1820, a Russian expedition discovered the continent of Antarctica.<ref>{{cite web |last=Blakemore |first=Erin |title=Who really discovered Antarctica? Depends who you ask. |date=27 January 2020 |access-date=12 January 2022 |work=National Geographic |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/who-discovered-antarctica-depends-who-ask |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305011853/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/who-discovered-antarctica-depends-who-ask |archive-date=5 March 2021}}</ref>

====Great power and development of society, sciences, and arts==== [[File:Napoleons retreat from Moscow by Adolph Northen.jpg|thumb|''Napoleon's retreat from Moscow'' by Albrecht Adam (1851)]] During the Napoleonic Wars, Russia joined alliances with various European powers, and fought against France. The French invasion of Russia at the height of Napoleon's power in 1812 reached Moscow, but eventually failed as the obstinate resistance in combination with the bitterly cold Russian winter led to a disastrous defeat of invaders, in which the pan-European Grande Armée faced utter destruction. Led by Mikhail Kutuzov and Michael Andreas Barclay de Tolly, the Imperial Russian Army ousted Napoleon and drove throughout Europe in the War of the Sixth Coalition, ultimately entering Paris.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kroll |first1=Mark J. |last2=Toombs |first2=Leslie A. |last3=Wright |first3=Peter |title=Napoleon's Tragic March Home from Moscow: Lessons in Hubris |date=February 2000 |journal=The Academy of Management Executive |jstor=4165613 |pages=117–128 |publisher=Academy of Management |volume=14 |number=1}}</ref> Alexander I controlled Russia's delegation at the Congress of Vienna, which defined the map of post-Napoleonic Europe.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ghervas |first=Stella |title=The Long Shadow of the Congress of Vienna |jstor=26266203 |publisher=SAGE Publishers |journal=Journal of Modern European History |volume=13 |number=4 |pages=458–463 |year=2015 |doi=10.17104/1611-8944-2015-4-458}}</ref>

The officers who pursued Napoleon into Western Europe brought ideas of liberalism back to Russia, and attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive Decembrist revolt of 1825.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Grey |first=Ian |url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/decembrists-russia%E2%80%99s-first-revolutionaries |title=The Decembrists: Russia's First Revolutionaries |magazine=History Today |date=9 September 1973 |volume=23 |issue=9 |access-date=23 November 2021 |archive-date=30 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330122946/https://www.historytoday.com/archive/decembrists-russia%E2%80%99s-first-revolutionaries |url-status=live}}</ref> At the end of the conservative reign of Nicholas I (1825–1855), a zenith period of Russia's power and influence in Europe, was disrupted by defeat in the Crimean War.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Vincent |first=J.R. Vincent |title=The Parliamentary Dimension of the Crimean War |journal=Transactions of the Royal Historical Society |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=37–49 |volume=31 |year=1981 |jstor=3679044 |doi=10.2307/3679044}}</ref>

====Great liberal reforms and capitalism==== [[File:The defeat of Shipka Peak, Bulgarian War of Independence.JPG|thumb|The Battle of Shipka Pass for the control of the vital Shipka Pass during the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War]] Nicholas's successor Alexander II (1855–1881) enacted significant changes throughout the country, including the emancipation reform of 1861.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zenkovsky |first=Serge A. |author-link=Serge Aleksandrovich Zenkovsky |title=The Emancipation of the Serfs in Retrospect |jstor=126692 |doi=10.2307/126692 |publisher=Wiley |volume=20 |number=4 |journal=The Russian Review |date=October 1961 |pages=280–293}}</ref> These reforms spurred industrialisation, and modernised the Imperial Russian Army, which liberated much of the Balkans from Ottoman rule in the aftermath of the 1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gunter |first=Michael M. |author-link=Michael Gunter |title=War and Diplomacy: The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 and the Treaty of Berlin |pages=231–233 |doi=10.1353/jwh.2013.0031 |journal=Journal of World History |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |issn=1527-8050 |date=March 2013 |volume=24 |number=1}}</ref> During most of the 19th and early 20th century, Russia and Britain colluded over Afghanistan and its neighbouring territories in Central and South Asia; the rivalry between the two major European empires came to be known as the Great Game.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fromkin |first=David |author-link=David Fromkin |title=The Great Game in Asia |year=1980 |volume=58 |number=4 |pages=936–951 |jstor=20040512 |doi=10.2307/20040512 |journal=Foreign Affairs}}</ref>

The late 19th century saw the rise of various socialist movements in Russia. Alexander II was assassinated in 1881 by revolutionary terrorists.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Frank |first=Goodwin |journal=The Slavic and East European Journal |jstor=309128 |title=Review: [Untitled] |doi=10.2307/309128 |pages=641–43 |year=1995 |volume=39 |number=4}}</ref> The reign of his son Alexander III (1881–1894) was less liberal but more peaceful.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Taranovski |first=Theodore |title=Alexander III and his Bureaucracy: The Limitations on Autocratic Power |journal=Canadian Slavonic Papers |volume=26 |number=2/3 |year=1984 |pages=207–219 |doi=10.1080/00085006.1984.11091776 |jstor=40868293}}</ref>

====Constitutional monarchy and World War==== During the reign of the last Russian emperor, Nicholas II (1894–1917), the Revolution of 1905 was precipitated by the disastrous and humiliating defeat in the Russo-Japanese War.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Esthus |first=Raymond A. |title=Nicholas II and the Russo-Japanese War |jstor=129919 |doi=10.2307/129919 |volume=40 |number=4 |journal=The Russian Review |date=October 1981 |pages=396–411}}</ref> The uprising was put down, but the government was forced to concede major reforms (Russian Constitution of 1906), including granting freedoms of speech and assembly, the legalisation of political parties, and the creation of an elected legislative body, the State Duma.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Doctorow |first=Gilbert S. |title=The Fundamental State Laws of 23 April 1906 |journal=The Russian Review |year=1976 |jstor=127655 |doi=10.2307/127655 |volume=35 |number=1 |pages=33–52}}</ref>

=== Revolution and civil war === {{main|Russian Revolution|Russian Civil War|Dissolution of the Russian Empire}}

[[File:Russian Imperial Family 1913.jpg|thumb|left|Emperor Nicholas II of Russia and the Romanovs were executed by the Bolsheviks in 1918.]] In 1914, Russia entered World War I in response to Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Russia's ally Serbia,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Williamson |first=Samuel R. Jr. |author-link=Samuel R. Williamson Jr. |title=The Origins of World War I |jstor=204825 |doi=10.2307/204825 |journal=The Journal of Interdisciplinary History |year=1988 |publisher=The MIT Press |volume=18 |number=4 |pages=795–818}}</ref> and fought across multiple fronts while isolated from its Triple Entente allies.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Triple Alliance and Triple Entente, 1902–1914 |journal=The American Historical Review |publisher=Oxford University Press |jstor=1836520 |doi-access=free |doi=10.2307/1836520 |volume=29 |number=3 |pages=449–473 |date=April 1924 |last1=Schmitt |first1=Bernadotte E. |author1-link=Bernadotte Everly Schmitt}}</ref> In 1916, the Brusilov Offensive of the Imperial Russian Army almost completely destroyed the Austro-Hungarian Army.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schindler |first=John |year=2003 |title=Steamrollered in Galicia: The Austro-Hungarian Army and the Brusilov Offensive, 1916. |journal=War in History |volume=10 |number=1 |pages=27–59 |doi=10.1191/0968344503wh260oa |jstor=26061940}}</ref> However, the already-existing public distrust of the regime was deepened by the rising costs of war, high casualties, and rumours of corruption and treason. All this formed the climate for the Russian Revolution of 1917, carried out in two major acts.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}} In early 1917, Nicholas II was forced to abdicate; he and his family were imprisoned and later executed during the Russian Civil War.<ref>{{cite web |last=Walsh |first=Edmund |author-link=Edmund A. Walsh |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1928/03/the-last-days-of-the-romanovs/303877/ |title=The Last Days of the Romanovs |work=The Atlantic |date=March 1928 |access-date=14 January 2022 |archive-date=30 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330124604/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1928/03/the-last-days-of-the-romanovs/303877/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The monarchy was replaced by a shaky coalition of political parties that declared itself the Provisional Government,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mosse |first=W. E. |title=Interlude: The Russian Provisional Government 1917 |journal=Soviet Studies (Europe-Asia Studies) |jstor=149631 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |volume=15 |number=4 |pages=408–419 |date=April 1964}}</ref> and proclaimed the Russian Republic. On {{OldStyleDateNY|19 January|6 January}}, 1918, the Russian Constituent Assembly declared Russia a democratic federal republic (thus ratifying the Provisional Government's decision). The next day the Constituent Assembly was dissolved by the All-Russian Central Executive Committee.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}}

An alternative socialist establishment co-existed, the Petrograd Soviet, wielding power through the democratically elected councils of workers and peasants, called ''soviets''. The rule of the new authorities only aggravated the crisis in the country instead of resolving it, and eventually, the October Revolution, led by Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the Provisional Government and gave full governing power to the soviets, leading to the creation of the world's first socialist state.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}} The Russian Civil War broke out between the anti-communist White movement and the Bolsheviks with its Red Army.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Figes |first=Orlando |author-link=Orlando Figes |title=The Red Army and Mass Mobilization during the Russian Civil War 1918–1920 |jstor=650938 |journal=Past & Present |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=168–211 |date=November 1990 |number=190 |doi=10.1093/past/129.1.168}}</ref> In the aftermath of signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that concluded hostilities with the Central Powers of World War I, Bolshevist Russia surrendered most of its western territories, which hosted 34% of its population, 54% of its industries, 32% of its agricultural land, and roughly 90% of its coal mines.<ref>{{cite web |last=Figes |first=Orlando |author-link=Orlando Figes |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/history-magazine/article/russian-revolution-history-lenin |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415111202/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/history-magazine/article/russian-revolution-history-lenin |archive-date=15 April 2021 |title=From Tsar to U.S.S.R.: Russia's Chaotic Year of Revolution |work=National Geographic |date=25 October 2017 |access-date=27 November 2021}}</ref> [[File:Vladimir_Lenin_Speech_in_May_1920.jpg|thumb|Vladimir Lenin speaks in Moscow, 1920, with Leon Trotsky leaning against the podium.]] The Allied powers launched an unsuccessful military intervention in support of anti-communist forces.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Carley |first=Michael Jabara |date=November 1989 |jstor=40106089 |title=Allied Intervention and the Russian Civil War, 1917–1922 |journal=The International History Review |volume=11 |number=4 |pages=689–700 |doi=10.1080/07075332.1989.9640530}}</ref> In the meantime, both the Bolsheviks and White movement carried out campaigns of deportations and executions against each other, known respectively as the Red Terror and White Terror.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/red-terror-set-macabre-course-soviet-union |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210222175025/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/red-terror-set-macabre-course-soviet-union |archive-date=22 February 2021 |title=How the Red Terror set a macabre course for the Soviet Union |work=National Geographic |first=Erin |last=Blakemore |date=2 September 2020 |access-date=26 June 2021}}</ref> By the end of the violent civil war, Russia's economy and infrastructure were heavily damaged, and as many as 10 million perished during the war, mostly civilians.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Russian-Civil-War/Foreign-intervention#ref283723 |title=Russian Civil War – Casualties and consequences of the war |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=14 January 2022 |archive-date=30 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330124604/https://www.britannica.com/event/Russian-Civil-War/Foreign-intervention#ref283723 |url-status=live}}</ref> Millions became White émigrés,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schaufuss |first=Tatiana |title=The White Russian Refugees |journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |date=May 1939 |volume=203 |issue=1 |pages=45–54 |publisher=SAGE Publishing |doi=10.1177/000271623920300106 |jstor=1021884}}</ref> and the Russian famine of 1921–1922 claimed up to five million victims.<ref>{{cite web |last=Haller |first=Francis |url=https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/resources/documents/article/other/5rfhjy.htm |title=Famine in Russia: the hidden horrors of 1921 |work=Le Temps |publisher=International Committee of the Red Cross |date=8 December 2003 |access-date=26 July 2021 |archive-date=14 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200314134441/https://www.icrc.org/en/doc/resources/documents/article/other/5rfhjy.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Soviet Union === {{Main|History of the Soviet Union}}

[[File:Russian SFSR in Soviet Union (1936).svg|thumb|left|Location of the Russian SFSR (red) within the Soviet Union in 1936]]

====Command economy and Soviet society==== On 30 December 1922, Lenin and his aides formed the Soviet Union, by joining the Russian SFSR into a single state with the Byelorussian, Transcaucasian, and Ukrainian republics.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Szporluk |first=Roman |title=Nationalities and the Russian Problem in the U.S.S.R.: an Historical Outline |jstor=24356607 |publisher=Journal of International Affairs Editorial Board |journal=Journal of International Affairs |volume=27 |number=1 |pages=22–40 |year=1973}}</ref> Eventually, internal border changes and annexations during World War II resulted in a union of 15 republics, the largest and most populous being the Russian SFSR, which dominated the union politically, culturally, and economically.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brzezinski |first=Zbigniew |author-link=Zbigniew Brzezinski |date=1984 |title=The Soviet Union: World Power of a New Type |journal=Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science |publisher=The Academy of Political Science |volume=35 |pages=147–159 |doi=10.2307/1174124 |jstor=1174124 |number=3}}</ref>

Following Lenin's death in 1924, a troika was designated to take charge. Eventually Joseph Stalin, the General Secretary of the Communist Party, managed to suppress all opposition factions and consolidate power in his hands to become the country's dictator by the 1930s.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Glassman |first=Leo M. |title=Stalin's Rise to Power |date=April 1931 |pages=73–77 |publisher=University of California Press |jstor=45336496 |journal=Current History |volume=34 |number=1 |doi=10.1525/curh.1931.34.1.73}}</ref> Leon Trotsky, the main proponent of world revolution, was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Getty |first=J Arch. |title=Trotsky in Exile: The Founding of the Fourth International |jstor=151989 |pages=24–35 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |volume=38 |number=1 |date=January 1986 |journal=Soviet Studies (Europe-Asia Studies)}}</ref> and Stalin's idea of Socialism in One Country became the official line.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://kar.kent.ac.uk/47659/1/Socialism%20in%20One%20Country%20Redacted.pdf |title=Socialism in One Country: A Study of Pragmatism and Ideology in the Soviet 1920s |publisher=University of Kent |last=Bensley |first=Michael |year=2014 |access-date=26 June 2021 |archive-date=26 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210626142120/https://kar.kent.ac.uk/47659/1/Socialism%20in%20One%20Country%20Redacted.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> The continued internal struggle in the Bolshevik party culminated in the Great Purge.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kuromiya |first=Hirosaki |title=Accounting for the Great Terror |jstor=41051345 |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |journal=Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas |year=2005 |pages=86–101 |volume=53 |number=1}}</ref>

====Stalinism and modernisation==== [[File:Telegram Stalin STZ.jpg|thumb|Congratulations sent by Joseph Stalin on the opening of the Stalingrad Tractor Plant]] Under Stalin's leadership, the government launched a command economy, industrialisation of the largely rural country, and collectivisation of its agriculture. During this period of rapid economic and social change, millions of people were sent to penal labour camps, including many political convicts for their suspected or real opposition to Stalin's rule,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rosefielde |first=Steven |title=An Assessment of the Sources and Uses of Gulag Forced Labour 1929–1956 |jstor=151474 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |pages=51–87 |volume=33 |number=1 |date=January 1981 |journal=Soviet Studies (Europe-Asia Studies)}}</ref> and millions were deported and exiled to remote areas of the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kreindler |first=Isabelle |title=The Soviet Deported Nationalities: A Summary and an Update |jstor=151700 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |journal=Soviet Studies (Europe-Asia Studies) |volume=38 |number=3 |date=July 1986 |pages=387–405}}</ref> The transitional disorganisation of the country's agriculture, combined with the harsh state policies and a drought,<ref>{{cite book |last=Zadoks |first=J.C. |title=On the political economy of plant disease epidemics: Capita selecta in historical epidemiology |publisher=Wageningen Academic Publishers |year=2008 |isbn=978-90-8686-653-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EBLTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA171 |access-date=8 December 2022 |page=171 |archive-date=25 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221225095407/https://books.google.com/books?id=EBLTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA171 |url-status=live}}</ref> led to the Soviet famine of 1932–1933, which killed 5.7<ref>{{cite book |last1=Davies |first1=Robert W. |last2=Wheatcroft |first2=Stephen G. |title=The Industrialisation of Soviet Russia Volume 5: The Years of Hunger |date=2010 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |page=415 |doi=10.1057/9780230273979 |isbn=978-0-230-23855-8}}</ref> to 8.7 million, 3.3 million of them in the Russian SFSR.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wolowyna |first=Oleh |date=October 2020 |title=A Demographic Framework for the 1932–1934 Famine in the Soviet Union |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=23 |number=4 |pages=501–526 |doi=10.1080/14623528.2020.1834741}}</ref> The Soviet Union, ultimately, made the costly transformation from a largely agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse within a short span of time.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rosefielde |first=Steven |title=Excess Deaths and Industrialization: A Realist Theory of Stalinist Economic Development in the 1930s |jstor=260849 |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |year=1988 |volume=23 |number=2 |pages=277–289 |publisher=SAGE Publishing |doi=10.1177/002200948802300207 |pmid=11617302}}</ref>

====World War II and United Nations==== {{main|Soviet Union in World War II}}

[[File:Ленинград блокадный. Им обеим 30 лет.jpg|thumb|Two teenage girls assemble PPD-40 submachine guns during the Siege of Leningrad in 1942.]] [[File:RIAN archive 602161 Center of Stalingrad after liberation.jpg|thumb|The Battle of Stalingrad, the largest and bloodiest battle in the history of warfare, ended in 1943 with a decisive Soviet victory against the German army.]] The Soviet Union entered World War II on 17 September 1939 with its invasion of Poland,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kornat |first=Marek |title=Choosing Not to Choose in 1939: Poland's Assessment of the Nazi-Soviet Pact |jstor=40647041 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |volume=31 |number=4 |date=December 2009 |journal=The International History Review |pages=771–797 |doi=10.1080/07075332.2009.9641172}}</ref> in accordance with a secret protocol within the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Roberts |first=Geoffrey |title=The Soviet Decision for a Pact with Nazi Germany |jstor=152247 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |volume=44 |number=1 |year=1992 |journal=Soviet Studies (Europe-Asia Studies) |pages=57–78}}</ref> The Soviet Union later invaded Finland,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Spring |first=D. W. |title=The Soviet Decision for War against Finland, 30 November 1939 |jstor=152247 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |volume=38 |number=2 |date=April 1986 |journal=Soviet Studies (Europe-Asia Studies) |pages=207–226}}</ref> and occupied and annexed the Baltic states,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Saburova |first=Irina |title=The Soviet Occupation of the Baltic States |journal=The Russian Review |volume=14 |number=1 |pages=36–49 |publisher=Wiley |doi=10.2307/126075 |jstor=126075 |date=January 1955}}</ref> as well as parts of Romania.<ref>{{cite book |last=King |first=Charles |title=The Moldovans: Romania, Russia, and the Politics of Culture |date=1999 |publisher=Hoover Institution Press |url=https://archive.org/details/moldovansromania00king_0/page/n3/mode/2up |isbn=978-0-817-99791-5}}</ref>{{rp|91–95}} On 22 June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stolfi |first=Russel H. S. |title=Barbarossa Revisited: A Critical Reappraisal of the Opening Stages of the Russo-German Campaign (June–December 1941) |jstor=1906049 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |volume=54 |number=1 |pages=27–46 |journal=The Journal of Modern History |date=March 1982 |doi=10.1086/244076 |hdl=10945/44218 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> opening the Eastern Front, the largest theatre of World War II.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=David |title=The Eastern Front Campaign: An Operational Level Analysis |publisher=Eschenburg Press |date=2018 |isbn=978-1-789-12193-3}}</ref>{{rp|7}}

Eventually, some 5 million Red Army troops were captured by the Nazis;<ref>{{cite book |last=Chapoutot |first=Johann |title=The Law of Blood: Thinking and Acting as a Nazi |date=2018 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-66043-4}}</ref>{{rp|272}} the latter deliberately starved to death or otherwise killed 3.3 million Soviet POWs, and a vast number of civilians, as the "Hunger Plan" sought to fulfil Generalplan Ost.<ref>{{cite book |last=D. Snyder |first=Timothy |location=New York |title=Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin |date=2010 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-00239-9}}</ref>{{rp|175–186}} Although the Wehrmacht had considerable early success, their attack was halted in the Battle of Moscow.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Assmann |first=Kurt |title=The Battle for Moscow, Turning Point of the War |jstor=20030251 |doi=10.2307/20030251 |volume=28 |number=2 |pages=309–326 |publisher=Council on Foreign Relations |date=January 1950 |journal=Foreign Affairs}}</ref> Subsequently, the Germans were dealt major defeats first at the Battle of Stalingrad in the winter of 1942–1943,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Clairmont |first=Frederic F. |title=Stalingrad: Hitler's Nemesis |jstor=4413752 |volume=38 |number=27 |pages=2819–2823 |date=July 2003 |journal=Economic and Political Weekly}}</ref> and then in the Battle of Kursk in the summer of 1943.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mulligan |first=Timothy P. |title=Spies, Ciphers and 'Zitadelle': Intelligence and the Battle of Kursk, 1943 |jstor=260932 |pages=235–260 |volume=22 |number=2 |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |publisher=SAGE Publishing |date=April 1987 |doi=10.1177/002200948702200203}}</ref> Another German failure was the Siege of Leningrad, in which the city was fully blockaded on land between 1941 and 1944 by German and Finnish forces, and suffered starvation and more than a million deaths, but never surrendered.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Krypton |first=Constantin |title=The Siege of Leningrad |journal=The Russian Review |volume=13 |number=4 |pages=255–265 |publisher=Wiley |doi=10.2307/125859 |jstor=125859 |date=January 1955}}</ref> Soviet forces steamrolled through Eastern and Central Europe in 1944–1945 and captured Berlin in May 1945.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/history-magazine/article/soviet-victory-battle-berlin-finished-nazi-germany |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210320151932/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/history-magazine/article/soviet-victory-battle-berlin-finished-nazi-germany |archive-date=20 March 2021 |title=The Soviet victory in the Battle of Berlin finished Nazi Germany |work=National Geographic |first1=Neil |last1=Kagan |first2=Stephen |last2=Hyslop |date=7 May 2020 |access-date=29 May 2021}}</ref> In August 1945, the Red Army invaded Manchuria and ousted the Japanese from Northeast Asia, contributing to the Allied victory over Japan.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morton |first=Louis |title=Soviet Intervention in the War with Japan |volume=40 |number=4 |date=July 1962 |pages=653–662 |publisher=Council on Foreign Relations |journal=Foreign Affairs |doi=10.2307/20029588 |jstor=20029588}}</ref>

The 1941–1945 period of World War II is known in Russia as the Great Patriotic War.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-s-monumental-tribute-to-the-great-patriotic-war-/30599462.html |title=Russia's Monumental Tributes To The 'Great Patriotic War' |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |date=8 May 2020 |access-date=29 May 2021 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331102407/https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-s-monumental-tribute-to-the-great-patriotic-war-/30599462.html |url-status=live}}</ref> The Soviet Union, along with the United States, the United Kingdom and China were considered the Big Four of Allied powers in World War II, and later became the Four Policemen, which was the foundation of the United Nations Security Council.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gaddis |first=John Lewis |author-link=John Lewis Gaddis |title=The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947 |url=https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesorig0000gadd |publisher=Columbia University Press |date=1972 |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-12239-9}}</ref>{{rp|27}} During the war, Soviet civilian and military death were about 26–27 million,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ellman |first1=Michael |last2=Maksudov |first2=S. |author1-link=Michael Ellman |title=Soviet Deaths in the Great Patriotic War: A Note |journal=Europe-Asia Studies |year=1994 |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=671–680 |doi=10.1080/09668139408412190 |pmid=12288331 |jstor=152934}}</ref> accounting for about half of all World War II casualties.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Cumins |first=Keith |title=Cataclysm: The War on the Eastern Front 1941–45 |publisher=Helion and Company |date=2011 |isbn=978-1-907-67723-6}}</ref>{{rp|295}} The Soviet economy and infrastructure suffered massive devastation, which caused the Soviet famine of 1946–1947.<ref>{{cite web |last=Harrison |first=Mark |date=14 April 2010 |title=The Soviet Union after 1945: Economic Recovery and Political Repression |url=https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/mharrison/public/pp2011postprint.pdf |website=University of Warwick |access-date=26 May 2021 |archive-date=21 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021204316/https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/mharrison/public/pp2011postprint.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> However, at the expense of a large sacrifice, the Soviet Union emerged as a superpower.<ref name="Reiman-2016">{{cite book |last=Reiman |first=Michael |title=About Russia, Its Revolutions, Its Development and Its Present |chapter=The USSR as the New World Superpower |date=2016 |publisher=Peter Lang |pages=169–176 |jstor=j.ctv2t4dn7.14 |isbn=978-3-631-67136-8}}</ref>

====Superpower and Cold War==== [[File:Yalta Conference (Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin) (B&W).jpg|thumb|The "Big Three" at the Yalta Conference in February 1945, Winston Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin]] After World War II, according to the Potsdam Conference, the Red Army occupied parts of Eastern and Central Europe, including East Germany and the eastern regions of Austria.<ref>{{cite web |last=Wills |first=Matthew |url=https://daily.jstor.org/potsdam-origins-cold-war/ |title=Potsdam and the Origins of the Cold War |work=JSTOR Daily |date=6 August 2015 |access-date=28 January 2022 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407051631/https://daily.jstor.org/potsdam-origins-cold-war/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Dependent communist governments were installed in the Eastern Bloc satellite states.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bunce |first=Valerie |title=The Empire Strikes Back: The Evolution of the Eastern Bloc from a Soviet Asset to a Soviet Liability |jstor=2706633 |journal=International Organization |volume=39 |number=1 |year=1985 |pages=1–46 |publisher=The MIT Press |doi=10.1017/S0020818300004859 |doi-access=free}}</ref> After becoming the world's second nuclear power,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Holloway |first=David |title=Entering the Nuclear Arms Race: The Soviet Decision to Build the Atomic Bomb, 1939–1945 |publisher=SAGE Publishing |volume=11 |number=2 |date=May 1981 |pages=159–197 |journal=Social Studies of Science |doi=10.1177/030631278101100201}}</ref> the Soviet Union established the Warsaw Pact alliance,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wolfe |first=Thomas W. |title=The Warsaw Pact in Evolution |date=May 1966 |volume=22 |number=5 |pages=191–198 |publisher=Royal Institute of International Affairs (Chatham House) |journal=The World Today |jstor=40393859}}</ref> and entered into a struggle for global dominance, known as the Cold War, with the rivalling United States and NATO.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wagg |first1=Stephen |last2=Andrews |first2=David |title=East Plays West: Sport and the Cold War |year=2007 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-24167-5 |page=11}}</ref>

====Khrushchev Thaw reforms and economic development==== After Stalin's death in 1953 and a short period of collective leadership, the new leader Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin and launched the policy of de-Stalinization, releasing many political prisoners from the Gulag labour camps.<ref>{{cite book |first=Polly |last=Jones |title=The Dilemmas of De-Stalinization: Negotiating Cultural and Social Change in the Khrushchev Era |year=2006 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-28347-7 |pages=2–4}}</ref> The general easement of repressive policies became known later as the Khrushchev Thaw.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Reid |first=Susan E. |year=1997 |title=Destalinization and Taste, 1953–1963 |publisher=Oxford University Press |jstor=1316131 |volume=10 |number=2 |pages=177–201 |journal=Journal of Design History |doi=10.1093/jdh/10.2.177}}</ref> At the same time, Cold War tensions reached its peak when the two rivals clashed over the deployment of the United States Jupiter missiles in Turkey and Soviet missiles in Cuba.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fuelling |first=Cody |url=https://digitalcommons.northgeorgia.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1218&context=issr |title=To the Brink: Turkish and Cuban Missiles during the Height of the Cold War |journal=International Social Science Review |publisher=University of North Georgia |volume=93 |number=1 |access-date=28 May 2021 |archive-date=13 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220313053405/https://digitalcommons.northgeorgia.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1218&context=issr}}</ref>

In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, ''Sputnik 1'', thus starting the Space Age.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/ussr-launches-sputnik/ |title=USSR Launches Sputnik |date=7 July 2021 |work=National Geographic |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-date=6 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220606045341/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/ussr-launches-sputnik/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human to orbit the Earth, aboard the ''Vostok 1'' crewed spacecraft on 12 April 1961.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210409-yuri-gagarin-the-spaceman-who-came-in-from-the-cold |title=Yuri Gagarin: the spaceman who came in from the cold |last=Dowling |first=Stephen |date=12 April 2021 |access-date=15 January 2022 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407051631/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210409-yuri-gagarin-the-spaceman-who-came-in-from-the-cold |url-status=live}}</ref>

====Period of developed socialism or Era of Stagnation==== Following the ousting of Khrushchev in 1964, another period of collective leadership ensued, until Leonid Brezhnev became the leader. The era of the 1970s and the early 1980s was later designated as the Era of Stagnation. The 1965 Kosygin reform aimed for partial decentralisation of the Soviet economy.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kontorovich |first=Vladimir |title=Lessons of the 1965 Soviet Economic Reform |jstor=151112 |date=April 1988 |pages=308–316 |volume=40 |number=2 |journal=Soviet Studies (Europe-Asia Studies) |publisher=Taylor & Francis}}</ref> In 1979, after a communist-led revolution in Afghanistan, Soviet forces invaded the country, ultimately starting the Soviet–Afghan War.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Westad |first=Odd Arne |title=Prelude to Invasion: The Soviet Union and the Afghan Communists, 1978–1979 |jstor=40106851 |journal=The International History Review |volume=16 |number=1 |date=February 1994 |pages=49–69 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |doi=10.1080/07075332.1994.9640668}}</ref> In May 1988, the Soviets started to withdraw from Afghanistan, due to international opposition, persistent anti-Soviet guerrilla warfare, and a lack of support by Soviet citizens.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Daley |first=Tad |title=Afghanistan and Gorbachev's Global Foreign Policy |jstor=2644534 |doi=10.2307/2644534 |journal=Asian Survey |volume=29 |number=5 |date=May 1989 |pages=496–513 |publisher=University of California Press}}</ref>

====Perestroika, democratisation and Russian sovereignty==== [[File:President Ronald Reagan Greets a Young Boy While Touring Red Square During The Moscow Summit in The USSR - DPLA - 8f066efdc87eb23a889a89bd7c39173d.jpg|thumb|Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev and US President Ronald Reagan in Red Square during the Moscow Summit, 31 May 1988]] From 1985 onwards, the last Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, who sought to enact liberal reforms in the Soviet system, introduced the policies of ''glasnost'' (openness) and ''perestroika'' (restructuring) in an attempt to end the period of economic stagnation and to democratise the government.<ref>{{cite journal |last=McForan |first=D. W. J. |title=Glasnost, Democracy, and Perestroika |jstor=41881835 |journal=International Social Science Review |volume=63 |year=1988 |number=4 |pages=165–174 |publisher=Pi Gamma Mu}}</ref> This, however, led to the rise of strong nationalist and separatist movements across the country.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beissinger |first1=Mark R. |title=Nationalism and the Collapse of Soviet Communism |journal=Contemporary European History |date=2009 |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=331–347 |doi=10.1017/S0960777309005074}}</ref> Prior to 1991, the Soviet economy was the world's second-largest, but during its final years, it went into a crisis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shleifer |first1=Andrei |last2=Vishny |first2=Robert W. |title=Reversing the Soviet Economic Collapse |year=1991 |pages=341–360 |journal=Brookings Papers on Economic Activity |volume=1991 |number=2 |doi=10.2307/2534597 |jstor=2534597}}</ref>

By 1991, economic and political turmoil began to boil over as the Baltic states chose to secede from the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Dahlburg |first1=John-Thor |last2=Marshall |first2=Tyler |title=Independence for Baltic States: Freedom: Moscow formally recognizes Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia, ending half a century of control. Soviets to begin talks soon on new relationships with the three nations |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-09-07-mn-1530-story.html |access-date=28 September 2021 |work=Los Angeles Times |date=7 September 1991 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603043522/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-09-07-mn-1530-story.html?_amp=true |archive-date=3 June 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> On 17 March, a referendum was held, in which the vast majority of participating citizens voted in favour of changing the Soviet Union into a renewed federation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-03-19-mn-494-story.html |title=Vote Backs Gorbachev but Not Convincingly: Soviet Union: His plan to preserve federal unity is supported—but so is Yeltsin's for a Russian presidency. |work=Los Angeles Times |first=Michael |last=Parks |date=19 March 1991 |access-date=30 May 2021 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331100735/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1991-03-19-mn-494-story.html |url-status=live}}</ref> In June 1991, Boris Yeltsin became the first directly elected President in Russian history when he was elected President of the Russian SFSR.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1991/06/14/yeltsin-elected-president-of-russia/8b0dc76b-752c-4e28-a525-45ba6120ff24/ |title=Yeltsin Elected President of Russia |newspaper=The Washington Post |first=David |last=Remnick |date=14 June 1991 |access-date=6 June 2021 |archive-date=30 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130025538/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1991/06/14/yeltsin-elected-president-of-russia/8b0dc76b-752c-4e28-a525-45ba6120ff24/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In August 1991, a coup d'état attempt by members of Gorbachev's government, directed against Gorbachev and aimed at preserving the Soviet Union, instead led to the end of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite journal |author1-link=James L. Gibson |last=Gibson |first=James L. |title=Mass Opposition to the Soviet Putsch of August 1991: Collective Action, Rational Choice, and Democratic Values in the Former Soviet Union |journal=The American Political Science Review |publisher=American Political Science Association |date=September 1997 |volume=97 |number=3 |pages=671–684 |doi=10.2307/2952082 |jstor=2952082}}</ref> On 25 December 1991, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, along with contemporary Russia, fourteen other post-Soviet states emerged.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/soviet-union-collapse-timeline/31487661.html |title=The Undoing Of The U.S.S.R.: How It Happened |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |last=Foltynova |first=Kristyna |date=1 October 2021 |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-date=13 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220413175407/https://www.rferl.org/a/soviet-union-collapse-timeline/31487661.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Independent Russian Federation === {{Main|History of Russia (1991–present)}}

{{Further|Presidency of Boris Yeltsin|Russia under Vladimir Putin|Presidency of Dmitry Medvedev}}

====Transition to a market economy and political crises==== [[File:Vladimir Putin taking the Presidential Oath, 7 May 2000.jpg|thumb|upright|Vladimir Putin takes the oath of office as president on his first inauguration, with Boris Yeltsin looking over, 2000]] The economic and political collapse of the Soviet Union led Russia into a deep and prolonged depression. During and after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, wide-ranging reforms including privatisation and market and trade liberalisation were undertaken, including radical changes along the lines of "shock therapy".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shleifer |first1=Andrei |last2=Treisman |first2=Daniel |year=2005 |title=A Normal Country: Russia After Communism |url=https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/shleifer/files/normal_jep.pdf |journal=Journal of Economic Perspectives |volume=19 |number=1 |pages=151–174 |publisher=Harvard University |doi=10.1257/0895330053147949 |access-date=24 November 2021 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112210023/https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/shleifer/files/normal_jep.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> The privatisation largely shifted control of enterprises from state agencies to individuals with inside connections in the government, which led to the rise of Russian oligarchs.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-01-02/rich-russians-the-rise-of-the-oligarchs/10626236 |title=The rise of Russia's oligarchs – and their bid for legitimacy |work=ABC News |first=Joey |last=Watson |date=2 January 2019 |access-date=28 May 2021 |archive-date=21 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321211740/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-01-02/rich-russians-the-rise-of-the-oligarchs/10626236 |url-status=live}}</ref> Many of the newly rich moved billions in cash and assets outside of the country in an enormous capital flight.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tikhomirov |first=Vladimir |title=Capital Flight from Post-Soviet Russia |journal=Europe-Asia Studies |publisher=Taylor & Francis |volume=49 |number=4 |pages=591–615 |date=June 1997 |doi=10.1080/09668139708412462 |jstor=153715}}</ref> The depression of the economy led to the collapse of social services—the birth rate plummeted while the death rate skyrocketed,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hollander |first=D. |title=In Post-Soviet Russia, Fertility Is on the Decline; Marriage and Childbearing are Occurring Earlier |jstor=2953371 |doi=10.2307/2953371 |pages=92–94 |volume=29 |number=2 |year=1997 |journal=Family Planning Perspectives |publisher=Guttmacher Institute}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Lincoln C. |last2=Wittgenstein |first2=Friederike |last3=McKeon |first3=Elizabeth |title=The Upsurge of Mortality in Russia: Causes and Policy Implications |jstor=2137719 |doi=10.2307/2137719 |volume=22 |number=3 |pages=517–530 |date=September 1996 |journal=Population and Development Review |publisher=Population Council}}</ref> and millions plunged into poverty,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Klugman |first1=Jeni |last2=Braithwaite |first2=Jeanine |title=Poverty in Russia during the Transition: An Overview |jstor=3986388 |volume=13 |number=1 |pages=37–58 |date=February 1998 |journal=The World Bank Research Observer |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/wbro/13.1.37}}</ref> while extreme corruption,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shlapentokh |first=Vladimir |title=Corruption, the power of state and big business in Soviet and post-Soviet regimes |journal=Communist and Post-Communist Studies |jstor=48610380 |volume=46 |number=1 |date=March 2013 |pages=147–158 |publisher=University of California Press |doi=10.1016/j.postcomstud.2012.12.010}}</ref> as well as criminal gangs and organised crime rose significantly.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Frisby |first=Tanya |title=The Rise of Organised Crime in Russia: Its Roots and Social Significance |date=January 1998 |volume=50 |number=1 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |journal=Europe-Asia Studies |pages=27–49 |doi=10.1080/09668139808412522 |jstor=153404}}</ref>

In late 1993, tensions between Yeltsin and the Russian parliament culminated in a constitutional crisis which ended violently through military force. During the crisis, Yeltsin was backed by Western governments, and over 100 people were killed.<ref>{{cite web |last=Goncharenko |first=Roman |date=3 October 2018 |title=Russia's 1993 crisis still shaping Kremlin politics, 25 years on |work=DW News |publisher=Deutsche Welle |url=https://www.dw.com/en/russias-1993-crisis-still-shaping-kremlin-politics-25-years-on/a-45733546 |access-date=2 February 2022 |archive-date=14 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414044222/https://www.dw.com/en/russias-1993-crisis-still-shaping-kremlin-politics-25-years-on/a-45733546 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Modern liberal constitution, international cooperation and economic stabilisation ==== In December, a referendum was held and approved, which introduced a new constitution, giving the president enormous powers.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-players-1993-crisis/25125000.html |title=Who Was Who? The Key Players In Russia's Dramatic October 1993 Showdown |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |date=2 October 2018 |access-date=28 May 2021 |archive-date=12 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412235932/https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-players-1993-crisis/25125000.html |url-status=live}}</ref> The 1990s were plagued by armed conflicts in the North Caucasus, both local ethnic skirmishes and separatist Islamist insurrections.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wilhelmsen |first=Julie |year=2005 |title=Between a Rock and a Hard Place: The Islamisation of the Chechen Separatist Movement |journal=Europe-Asia Studies |volume=57 |number=1 |pages=35–37 |doi=10.1080/0966813052000314101 |jstor=30043851}}</ref> From the time Chechen separatists declared independence in the early 1990s, an intermittent guerrilla war was fought between the rebel groups and Russian forces.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1995/12/12/chechen-war-reveals-weaknesses-in-yeltsin-russias-new-democracy/073047c5-d04e-41bd-a2bc-d5e8e192d919/ |title=Chechen War Reveals Weakness in Yektsubm Russia's New Democracy |newspaper=The Washington Post |first=Lee |last=Hockstader |date=12 December 1995 |access-date=6 June 2021}}</ref> Terrorist attacks against civilians were carried out by Chechen separatists, claiming the lives of thousands of Russian civilians.{{efn|Most notably the Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis, the Russian apartment bombings, the Moscow theatre hostage crisis, and the Beslan school siege}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sinai |first=Joshua |title=The Terrorist Threats Against Russia and its Counterterrorism Response Measures |journal=Connections |jstor=26326421 |volume=14 |number=4 |year=2015 |pages=95–102 |publisher=Partnership for Peace Consortium of Defense Academies and Security Studies Institutes |doi=10.11610/Connections.14.4.08 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia assumed responsibility for settling the latter's external debts.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/world/europe/26-years-on-russia-set-to-repay-all-soviet-unions-foreign-debt |title=26 years on, Russia set to repay all Soviet Union's foreign debt |work=The Straits Times |date=26 March 2017 |access-date=11 December 2021 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408173420/https://www.straitstimes.com/world/europe/26-years-on-russia-set-to-repay-all-soviet-unions-foreign-debt |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1992, most consumer price controls were eliminated, causing extreme inflation and significantly devaluing the rouble.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lipton |first1=David |last2=Sachs |first2=Jeffrey D. |last3=Mau |first3=Vladimir |last4=Phelps |first4=Edmund S. |year=1992 |title=Prospects for Russia's Economic Reforms |journal=Brookings Papers on Economic Activity |volume=1992 |issue=2 |page=213 |doi=10.2307/2534584 |issn=0007-2303 |jstor=2534584 |url=https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/1992/06/1992b_bpea_lipton_sachs_mau_phelps.pdf |access-date=24 September 2019 |archive-date=25 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200925170637/https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/1992/06/1992b_bpea_lipton_sachs_mau_phelps.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> High budget deficits coupled with increasing capital flight and inability to pay back debts, caused the 1998 Russian financial crisis, which resulted in a further GDP decline.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chiodo |first1=Abbigail J. |last2=Owyang |first2=Michael T. |url=https://files.stlouisfed.org/files/htdocs/publications/review/02/11/ChiodoOwyang.pdf |title=A Case Study of a Currency Crisis: The Russian Default of 1998 |pages=7–18 |publisher=Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis |journal=Canadian Parliamentary Review |year=2002 |volume=86 |number=6 |access-date=11 December 2021 |archive-date=1 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401061400/https://files.stlouisfed.org/files/htdocs/publications/review/02/11/ChiodoOwyang.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

====Movement towards a modernised economy, political centralisation and democratic backsliding==== {{Further|Putinism}} [[File:Obama and Medvedev sign Prague Treaty 2010.jpeg|thumb|President Dmitry Medvedev with U.S. President Barack Obama after signing the New START treaty on nuclear disarmament in 2010, which was suspended by Putin in 2023<ref>{{cite web |last1=Liang |first1=Xiaodon |last2=Kimball |first2=Daryl G. |title=New START on the Brink |year=2026 |publisher=Arms Control Association (ACA) |location=Washington, D.C. |access-date=16 January 2026 |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/act/2026-01/arms-control-today/new-start-brink}}</ref>]] On 31 December 1999, President Yeltsin unexpectedly resigned,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/1999/dec/31/russia.marktran |title=Yeltsin resigns |website=The Guardian |date=31 December 1999 |access-date=4 April 2023 |archive-date=13 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813133147/https://www.theguardian.com/world/1999/dec/31/russia.marktran |url-status=live}}</ref> handing the post to the recently appointed prime minister and his chosen successor, Vladimir Putin.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/01/01/world/yeltsin-resigns-overview-yeltsin-resigns-naming-putin-acting-president-run-march.html |title=Yeltsin Resigns: The Overview; Yeltsin Resigns, Naming Putin as Acting President To Run in March Election |work=The New York Times |first=Celestine |last=Bohlen |date=1 January 2000 |access-date=30 May 2021 |url-access=limited |archive-date=11 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411205641/https://www.nytimes.com/2000/01/01/world/yeltsin-resigns-overview-yeltsin-resigns-naming-putin-acting-president-run-march.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Putin then won the 2000 presidential election,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/03/27/world/election-russia-overview-putin-wins-russia-vote-first-round-but-his-majority.html |title=Election in Russia: The Overview; Putin Wins Russia Vote in First Round, But His Majority Is Less Than Expected |work=The New York Times |first=Mark |last=Wines |date=27 March 2000 |access-date=30 May 2021 |url-access=limited |archive-date=15 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230715224429/https://www.nytimes.com/2000/03/27/world/election-russia-overview-putin-wins-russia-vote-first-round-but-his-majority.html |url-status=live}}</ref> and defeated the Chechen insurgency in the Second Chechen War.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=O'Loughlin |first1=John |last2=W. Witmer |first2=Frank D. |title=The Localized Geographies of Violence in the North Caucasus of Russia, 1999–2007 |jstor=27980166 |volume=101 |number=1 |date=January 2011 |journal=Annals of the Association of American Geographers |publisher=Taylor & Francis |pages=178–201 |doi=10.1080/00045608.2010.534713 |bibcode=2011AAAG..101..178O}}</ref>

Putin won a second presidential term in 2004.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/15/world/as-expected-putin-easily-wins-a-second-term-in-russia.html |title=As Expected, Putin Easily Wins a Second Term in Russia |work=The New York Times |first=Seth |last=Mydans |date=15 March 2004 |access-date=30 May 2021 |url-access=limited |archive-date=17 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817223858/https://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/15/world/as-expected-putin-easily-wins-a-second-term-in-russia.html |url-status=live}}</ref> High oil prices and a rise in foreign investment saw the Russian economy and living standards improve significantly.<ref name="Ellyatt-2021">{{cite web |last=Ellyatt |first=Holly |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/10/11/russias-economy-under-president-putin-in-charts.html |title=5 charts show Russia's economic highs and lows under Putin |date=11 October 2021 |access-date=19 January 2022 |work=CNBC |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408173641/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/10/11/russias-economy-under-president-putin-in-charts.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Putin's rule increased stability, while transforming Russia into an authoritarian state.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kotkin |first=Stephen |title=The Resistible Rise of Vladimir Putin: Russia's Nightmare Dressed Like a Daydream |jstor=24483492 |volume=94 |number=2 |date=2015 |journal=Foreign Affairs |publisher=Council on Foreign Relations |pages=140–153}}</ref> In 2008, Putin took the post of prime minister, while Dmitry Medvedev was elected President for one term, to hold onto power despite legal term limits;<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/may/08/russia |title=Putin ever present as Medvedev becomes president |work=The Guardian |first=Luke |last=Harding |date=8 May 2008 |access-date=6 June 2021 |archive-date=21 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321211752/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/may/08/russia |url-status=live}}</ref> this period has been described as a "tandemocracy".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Monaghan |first=Andrew |title=The vertikal: power and authority in Russia |volume=88 |number=1 |date=January 2012 |pages=1–16 |publisher=Oxford University Press |journal=International Affairs |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01053.x |jstor=41428537}}</ref>

Following a diplomatic standoff with neighboring Georgia in 2008, Russian forces invaded the country from 1–16 August 2008 and occupied territories that it has since considered as independent states, Abkhazia and South Ossetia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Harzl |first1=B.C. |last2=Petrov |first2=R. |title=Unrecognized Entities: Perspectives in International, European and Constitutional Law |publisher=Brill |series=Law in Eastern Europe |year=2021 |isbn=978-90-04-49910-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ECBXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA246 |access-date=18 December 2022 |page=246 |archive-date=25 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221225095408/https://books.google.com/books?id=ECBXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA246 |url-status=live}}</ref> The conflict marked the first war in Europe in the 21st century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Emerson |first1=Michael |title=Post-Mortem on Europe's First War of the 21st Century |journal=CEPS Policy Briefs |date=2008 |issue=1–12 |pages=1–8 |id={{CEEOL|7160}} |ssrn=1333553}}</ref> The 2008 constitutional amendments saw the terms of the president extend to six years and the lower house (State Duma) to five years.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20081119-moscow-edges-towards-six-year-presidential-terms-russia |title=Moscow edges towards six-year presidential terms |work=France 24 |date=19 November 2008 |access-date=5 March 2025 |archive-date=6 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250606181520/https://www.france24.com/en/20081119-moscow-edges-towards-six-year-presidential-terms-russia |url-status=live }}</ref> Putin then went on to win the 2012 presidential election, which fuelled the "Snow Revolution" protests.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Black |first1=Phil |last2=Doughtery |first2=Jill |title=Observers slam Russian vote as Putin declares victory |work=CNN |date=5 March 2012 |access-date=5 March 2025 |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2012/03/05/world/europe/russia-election/index.html |archive-date=1 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250401013503/https://edition.cnn.com/2012/03/05/world/europe/russia-election/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

====Russo-Ukrainian war and 2022 invasion==== {{Main|Russo-Ukrainian war}}

[[File:2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Map of Ukraine {{As of|2025|December|lc=y}}{{Leftlegend|#FDE182|Continuously controlled by Ukraine}}{{Leftlegend|#EBC0B3|Currently occupied or controlled by Russia}}{{Leftlegend|#ABD4DD|Formerly occupied by Russia}}]]

In 2014, following a pro-Western revolution in Ukraine, Russia invaded and annexed Crimea.<ref>{{cite book |last=Yekelchyk |first=Serhy |title=Ukraine: What Everyone Needs to Know |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-19-753213-3 |edition=2nd |location=New York |page=117 |oclc=1190722543}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=DeBenedictis |first1=Kent |title=Russian 'Hybrid Warfare' and the Annexation of Crimea: The Modern Application of Soviet Political Warfare |date=2022 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |pages=1–7 |isbn=978-0-7556-4003-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CkaIEAAAQBAJ}}</ref> It also supported an insurgency in the Donbas region of eastern Ukraine,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Galeotti |first1=Mark |title=Putin Takes Crimea 2014: Grey-zone Warfare Opens the Russia-Ukraine Conflict |date=2023 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |page=4 |isbn=978-1-4728-5385-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EmnGEAAAQBAJ}}</ref> and aided pro-Russian separatists waging a war against the Ukrainian government.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR1400/RR1498/RAND_RR1498.pdf |title=Lessons from Russia's Operations in Crimea and Eastern Ukraine |last1=Kofman |first1=Michael |last2=Migacheva |first2=Katya |publisher=RAND Corporation |location=Santa Monica |pages=xii, xiii, 33–34, 48 |last3=Nichiporuk |first3=Brian |last4=Radin |first4=Andrew |last5=Tkacheva |first5=Olesya |last6=Oberholtzer |first6=Jenny |year=2017 |archive-date=17 February 2022 |access-date=30 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217091710/http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/research_reports/RR1400/RR1498/RAND_RR1498.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> The frozen conflict<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Grossman |first1=Erik J. |title=Russia's Frozen Conflicts and the Donbas |volume=48 |number=2 |year=2018 |doi=10.55540/0031-1723.2944 |journal=Parameters |publisher=United States Army War College (AWC)}}</ref> escalated into a full-scale Russian invasion of the remainder of Ukraine on 24 February 2022,<ref name="Kofman 101">{{cite book |last1=Kofman |first1=Michael |editor1-last=Brands |editor1-first=Hal |title=War in Ukraine: Conflict, Strategy, and the Return of a Fractured World |date=2024 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |isbn=978-1-4214-4986-9 |page=101 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/oa_edited_volume/chapter/3881920 |access-date=25 September 2025 |chapter=Chapter Six The Russia-Ukraine War Military Operations and Battlefield Dynamics |archive-date=2 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240402050635/https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/oa_edited_volume/chapter/3881920 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="u538">{{cite web | last=Rosenberg | first=Steve | title=Four years into its full-scale war in Ukraine, Russia is feeling the effects | website=BBC| date=23 February 2026 | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c4gj20xzw39o | access-date=2 May 2026}}</ref> initiating the largest conventional war in Europe since World War II.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Herb |first1=Jeremy |last2=Starr |first2=Barbara |author-link2=Barbara Starr |last3=Kaufman |first3=Ellie |date=24 February 2022 |title=US orders 7,000 more troops to Europe following Russia's invasion of Ukraine |publisher=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/02/24/politics/us-military-ukraine-russia/index.html |access-date=27 February 2022 |archive-date=27 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227052443/https://edition.cnn.com/2022/02/24/politics/us-military-ukraine-russia/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref> The invasion met with international condemnation,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/02/united-nations-russia-ukraine-vote |title=UN votes to condemn Russia's invasion of Ukraine and calls for withdrawal |work=The Guardian |last=Borger |first=Julian |location=Washington, D.C. |date=2 March 2022 |access-date=5 April 2022 |archive-date=2 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302171009/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/02/united-nations-russia-ukraine-vote |url-status=live}}</ref> and expanded sanctions against Russia.<ref name="Walsh-2022">{{cite web |url=https://www.vox.com/22968949/russia-sanctions-swift-economy-mcdonalds |title=The unprecedented American sanctions on Russia, explained |work=Vox |date=9 March 2022 |last=Walsh |first=Ben |access-date=31 March 2022 |archive-date=11 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411000846/https://www.vox.com/22968949/russia-sanctions-swift-economy-mcdonalds |url-status=live}}</ref> Russia was expelled from the Council of Europe in March 2022,<ref>{{cite press release |url=https://www.coe.int/en/web/portal/-/the-russian-federation-is-excluded-from-the-council-of-europe |title=The Russian Federation is excluded from the Council of Europe |publisher=Council of Europe |date=16 March 2022 |access-date=5 May 2022 |archive-date=10 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510214508/https://www.coe.int/en/web/portal/-/the-russian-federation-is-excluded-from-the-council-of-europe |url-status=live}}</ref> and subsequently suspended from the United Nations Human Rights Council the following month.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/04/1115782 |title=UN General Assembly votes to suspend Russia from the Human Rights Council |website=United Nations |date=7 April 2022 |access-date=18 June 2022 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407164712/https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/04/1115782 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Russia initially made rapid advances in the northern and eastern fronts, yet failed to capture Kyiv and overthrow the Ukrainian government, leading to a subsequent withdrawal from the north.<ref name=BBC19Dec>{{cite web |website=BBC News |date=19 December 2025 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/c0l0k4389g2o |title=Ukraine in maps: Tracking the war with Russia |access-date=24 December 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251219063323/https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c0l0k4389g2o |archive-date=19 December 2025}}</ref><ref name=BBC13Aug>{{cite web |last=Kirby |first=Paul |website=BBC News |date=13 August 2025 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/cj0q964851po |title=Why did Putin's Russia invade Ukraine? |access-date=24 December 2025}}</ref> In September 2022, Russia proclaimed the annexation of four partially-occupied Ukrainian regions, which was internationally denounced as illegal.<ref name="Landay-2022">{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/putin-host-kremlin-ceremony-annexing-parts-ukraine-2022-09-29/ |title=Defiant Putin proclaims Ukrainian annexation as military setback looms |website=Reuters |date=30 September 2022 |access-date=6 October 2022 |last=Landay |first=Jonathan |archive-date=6 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006084106/https://www.reuters.com/world/putin-host-kremlin-ceremony-annexing-parts-ukraine-2022-09-29/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Following the annexations, the conflict has settled into a war of attrition in the southern and eastern fronts, with Russian forces making slow, limited advances and suffering heavy casualties.<ref name=BBC19Dec/><ref name=BBC13Aug/> Russian forces have been accused of committing war crimes during the invasion,<ref name="n377">{{cite web |last=Cumming-Bruce |first=Nick |title='Welcome to Hell': U.N. Panel Says Russian War Crimes Are Widespread |website=The New York Times |date=15 March 2024 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/15/world/europe/russia-war-crimes.html |access-date=30 November 2024 |archive-date=3 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241203214557/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/15/world/europe/russia-war-crimes.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="p453">{{cite web |last=Sauer |first=Pjotr |title=UN finds further evidence of Russian war crimes in Ukraine |website=The Guardian |date=21 October 2023 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/oct/21/un-finds-further-evidence-of-russian-war-crimes-in-ukraine |access-date=30 November 2024 |archive-date=21 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231021153206/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/oct/21/un-finds-further-evidence-of-russian-war-crimes-in-ukraine |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="o970">{{cite web |title=Ukraine: Russian strikes amounting to war crimes continue to kill and injure children |website=Amnesty International |date=18 November 2024 |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/11/ukraine-russian-strikes-amounting-to-war-crimes-continue-to-kill-and-injure-children/ |access-date=30 November 2024 |archive-date=1 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241201101727/https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2024/11/ukraine-russian-strikes-amounting-to-war-crimes-continue-to-kill-and-injure-children/ |url-status=live}}</ref> and occupied about a fifth of Ukraine's territory at the end of 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Russia-Ukraine War Report Card, Dec. 23, 2025 |url=https://www.russiamatters.org/news/russia-ukraine-war-report-card/russia-ukraine-war-report-card-dec-23-2025 |access-date=24 December 2025 |website=Russia Matters |publisher=Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs |location=Harvard Kennedy School |archive-date=24 December 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251224015908/https://www.russiamatters.org/news/russia-ukraine-war-report-card/russia-ukraine-war-report-card-dec-23-2025 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Geography == {{Main|Geography of Russia}}

[[File:Russian Federation Relief Map.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Topographic map of Russia]] Russia's vast landmass stretches over the easternmost part of Europe and the northernmost part of Asia.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=125–135|loc=Physical Environment}}<ref name="natgeo">{{cite web |url=https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/geography/countries/article/russia |title=Russia |website=National Geographic Kids |date=21 March 2014 |access-date=26 May 2021 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408173647/https://kids.nationalgeographic.com/geography/countries/article/russia |url-status=live}}</ref> It spans the northernmost edge of Eurasia and has the world's fourth-longest coastline, of over {{convert|comma=5|37653|km|mi|abbr=on}}.{{efn|Russia has an additional {{convert|comma=5|850|km|mi|abbr=on}} of coastline along the Caspian Sea, which is the world's largest inland body of water, and has been variously classified as a sea or a lake.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2018/08/16/is-the-caspian-a-sea-or-a-lake |title=Is the Caspian a sea or a lake? |newspaper=The Economist |date=16 August 2018 |access-date=27 June 2021 |archive-date=19 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180819221847/https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2018/08/16/is-the-caspian-a-sea-or-a-lake |url-status=live}}</ref>}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/coastline/ |title=Coastline – The World Factbook |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=27 June 2021 |archive-date=12 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412194038/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/coastline |url-status=dead}}</ref> Russia lies between latitudes 41° and 82° N, and longitudes 19° E and 169° W, extending some {{convert|9000|km|mi|abbr=on}} east to west, and {{convert|2500 to 4000|km|mi|abbr=on}} north to south.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Russia – Land |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia#ref38573 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=14 December 2021 |archive-date=5 June 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080605093450/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38602/Russia#ref38573 |url-status=live}}</ref> Russia, by landmass, is larger than three continents,{{efn|Russia, by land area, is larger than the continents of Australia, Antarctica, and Europe, although it covers a large part of the latter itself. Its land area could be roughly compared to that of South America.}} and has the same surface area as Pluto.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/across-the-universe/2015/jul/28/pluto-ten-things-we-now-know-about-the-dwarf-planet |title=Pluto: ten things we now know about the dwarf planet |work=The Guardian |first=Stuart |last=Clark |date=28 July 2015 |access-date=20 June 2021 |archive-date=29 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329101742/https://www.theguardian.com/science/across-the-universe/2015/jul/28/pluto-ten-things-we-now-know-about-the-dwarf-planet |url-status=live}}</ref>

Russia has nine major mountain ranges, and they are found along the southernmost regions, which share a significant portion of the Caucasus Mountains (containing Mount Elbrus, which at {{convert|5642|m|0|abbr=on}} is the highest peak in Russia and Europe);<ref name="cia"/> the Altai and Sayan Mountains in Siberia; and in the East Siberian Mountains and the Kamchatka Peninsula in the Russian Far East (containing Klyuchevskaya Sopka, which at {{convert|4750|m|0|abbr=on}} is the highest active volcano in Eurasia).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=300260&vtab |title=Klyuchevskoy |work=Global Volcanism Program |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |access-date=24 July 2021 |archive-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326203017/https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=300260&vtab |url-status=live}}</ref>{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=125–135|loc=Physical Environment}} The Ural Mountains, running north to south through the country's west, are rich in mineral resources, and form the traditional boundary between Europe and Asia.<ref name="urals">{{cite web |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/87198/the-ural-mountains |title=The Ural Mountains |work=NASA Earth Observatory |publisher=NASA |date=13 July 2011 |access-date=27 May 2021 |archive-date=12 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412030222/https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/87198/the-ural-mountains |url-status=live}}</ref> The lowest point in Russia and Europe, is situated at the head of the Caspian Sea, where the Caspian Depression reaches some {{convert|29|m|ft|1}} below sea level.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Europe – Land |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe/Land#ref34534 |access-date=4 April 2022 |quote=The lowest terrain in Europe, virtually lacking relief, stands at the head of the Caspian Sea; there the Caspian Depression reaches some {{convert|95|ft|m |abbr=off}} below sea level. |archive-date=15 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315194552/https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe/Land#ref34534 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Lake Baikal in winter.jpg|thumb|left|Frozen Lake Baikal near Olkhon Island, the third-largest lake island in the world]] Russia, as one of the world's only three countries bordering three oceans,<ref name="natgeo"/> has links with a great number of seas.{{efn|Russia borders, clockwise, to its southwest: the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov, to its west: the Baltic Sea, to its north: the Barents Sea (White Sea, Pechora Sea), the Kara Sea, the Laptev Sea, and the East Siberian Sea, to its northeast: the Chukchi Sea and the Bering Sea, and to its southeast: the Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan.}}{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=125–135|loc=Physical Environment}} Its major islands and archipelagos include Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, Severnaya Zemlya, the New Siberian Islands, Wrangel Island, the Kuril Islands (four of which are disputed with Japan), and Sakhalin.<ref name="Arctic">{{cite news |url=https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/countries/russia/ |title=Russia |work=The Arctic Institute – Center for Circumpolar Security Studies |access-date=27 June 2021 |archive-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326203017/https://www.thearcticinstitute.org/countries/russia/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.euronews.com/travel/2021/02/24/island-hopping-in-russia-sakhalin-kuril-islands-and-kamchatka-peninsula |title=Island hopping in Russia: Sakhalin, Kuril Islands and Kamchatka Peninsula |work=Euronews |first=Ziryan |last=Aziz |date=28 February 2020 |access-date=27 June 2021 |archive-date=29 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329101742/https://www.euronews.com/travel/2021/02/24/island-hopping-in-russia-sakhalin-kuril-islands-and-kamchatka-peninsula |url-status=live}}</ref> The Diomede Islands, administered by Russia and the United States, are just {{convert|3.8|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} apart;<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/diomede-islands |title=Diomede Islands – Russia |work=Atlas Obscura |access-date=27 June 2021 |archive-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326203017/https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/diomede-islands |url-status=live}}</ref> and Kunashir Island of the Kuril Islands is merely {{convert|20|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} from Hokkaido, Japan.<ref name="Chapple-2019">{{cite web |last=Chapple |first=Amos |title=The Kurile Islands: Why Russia And Japan Never Made Peace After World War II |date=4 January 2019 |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/the-disputed-islands-where-world-war-2-never-ended/28402307.html |access-date=26 January 2022 |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408173647/https://www.rferl.org/a/the-disputed-islands-where-world-war-2-never-ended/28402307.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

Russia has one of the world's largest surface water resources and is second only to Brazil by total renewable water resources.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/total-renewable-water-resources/ |title=Total renewable water resources |website=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=9 July 2021 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408173647/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/total-renewable-water-resources/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> Its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's liquid fresh water.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=125–135|loc=Physical Environment}} Lake Baikal, the largest and most prominent among Russia's fresh water bodies, is the world's deepest, purest, oldest and most capacious fresh water lake, containing over one-fifth of the world's fresh surface water.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lake Baikal – A Touchstone for Global Change and Rift Studies |publisher=United States Geological Survey |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/baikal/ |access-date=26 December 2007 |archive-date=14 February 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050214200542/http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/baikal/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Ladoga and Onega in northwestern Russia are two of the largest lakes in Europe.<ref name="natgeo" /> Russia has over 100,000 rivers;<ref name="natgeo" /> the Volga in western Russia, which is widely regarded as the national river, is the longest river in Europe and forms the Volga Delta, the largest river delta in the continent.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hartley |first=Janet M. |author-link=Janet M. Hartley |title=The Volga: A History |date=2020 |publisher=Yale University Press |url={{GBurl |id=PasKEAAAQBAJ}} |isbn=978-0-300-25604-8 |pages=5, 316}}</ref> The Siberian rivers of Ob, Yenisey, Lena, and Amur are among the world's longest rivers.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/05/15/russias-largest-rivers-from-the-amur-to-the-volga-a65593 |title=Russia's Largest Rivers From the Amur to the Volga |work=The Moscow Times |date=15 May 2019 |access-date=26 May 2021 |archive-date=26 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326203011/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/05/15/russias-largest-rivers-from-the-amur-to-the-volga-a65593 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Climate === {{Main|Climate of Russia}}

The size of Russia and the remoteness of many of its areas from the sea result in the dominance of the humid continental climate throughout most of the country, except for the tundra and the extreme southwest. Mountain ranges in the south and east obstruct the flow of warm air masses from the Indian and Pacific oceans, while the European Plain spanning its west and north opens it to influence from the Atlantic and Arctic oceans.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=125–135|loc=Physical Environment}} Most of northwest Russia and Siberia have a subarctic climate, with extremely severe winters in the inner regions of northeast Siberia (mostly Sakha, where the Northern Pole of Cold is located with the record low temperature of {{convert|-71.2|°C|°F|1|disp=or}}),<ref name="Arctic"/> and more moderate winters elsewhere. Russia's vast coastline along the Arctic Ocean and the Russian Arctic islands have a polar climate.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=125–135|loc=Physical Environment}} [[File:Russia Köppen.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Köppen climate classification of Russia]] The coastal part of Krasnodar Krai on the Black Sea, most notably Sochi, and some coastal and interior strips of the North Caucasus possess a humid subtropical climate with mild and wet winters.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=125–135|loc=Physical Environment}} In many regions of East Siberia and the Russian Far East, winter is dry compared to summer, while other parts of the country experience more even precipitation across seasons. Winter precipitation in most parts of the country usually falls as snow. The westernmost parts of Kaliningrad Oblast and some parts in the south of Krasnodar Krai and the North Caucasus have an oceanic climate.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=125–135|loc=Physical Environment}} The region along the Lower Volga and Caspian Sea coast, as well as some southernmost slivers of Siberia, possess a semi-arid climate.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beck |first1=Hylke E. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Niklaus E. |last3=McVicar |first3=Tim R. |last4=Vergopolan |first4=Noemi |last5=Berg |first5=Alexis |author6-link=Eric Franklin Wood |last6=Wood |first6=Eric F. |title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution |journal=Scientific Data |date=30 October 2018 |volume=5 |issue=1 |page=180214 |doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214 |pmid=30375988 |pmc=6207062 |issn=2052-4463 |bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B}}</ref>

Throughout much of the territory, there are only two distinct seasons, winter and summer, as spring and autumn are usually brief.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=125–135|loc=Physical Environment}} The coldest month is January (February on the coastline); the warmest is usually July. Great ranges of temperature are typical. In winter, temperatures get colder both from south to north and from west to east. Summers can be quite hot, even in Siberia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Drozdov |first1=V. A. |title=Ecological and Geographical Characteristics of the Coastal Zone of the Black Sea |journal=GeoJournal |year=1992 |doi=10.1007/BF00717701 |volume=27 |page=169 |issue=2 |last2=Glezer |first2=O. B. |last3=Nefedova |first3=T. G. |last4=Shabdurasulov |first4=I. V. |bibcode=1992GeoJo..27..169D}}</ref> Climate change in Russia is causing more frequent wildfires,<ref>{{cite web |date=10 May 2022 |title=Putin urges authorities to take action as wildfires engulf Siberia |url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2022/05/10/as-wildfires-engulf-russian-region-putin-urges-authorities-to-take-stronger-action-to-prev |access-date=24 June 2022 |website=euronews |language=en |archive-date=12 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220612224644/http://www.euronews.com/green/2022/05/10/as-wildfires-engulf-russian-region-putin-urges-authorities-to-take-stronger-action-to-prev |url-status=live}}</ref> and thawing the country's large expanse of permafrost.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/01/22/1075108299/why-russias-thawing-permafrost-is-a-global-problem |title=Why Russia's thawing permafrost is a global problem |work=NPR |date=22 January 2022 |access-date=7 July 2022 |archive-date=6 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706124322/https://www.npr.org/2022/01/22/1075108299/why-russias-thawing-permafrost-is-a-global-problem |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Biodiversity === {{Main|Wildlife of Russia}}

{{See also|List of ecoregions in Russia}} Russia, owing to its gigantic size, has diverse ecosystems, including polar deserts, tundra, forest-tundra, taiga, mixed and broadleaf forest, forest steppe, steppe, semi-desert, and subtropics.<ref name="climate">{{cite web |url=https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/?country=ru |title=Russian Federation – Main Details |work=Convention on Biological Diversity |access-date=27 June 2021 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408173651/https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/?country=ru |url-status=live}}</ref> About half of Russia's territory is forested,<ref name="cia"/> and it has the world's largest area of forest.<ref name="Gardiner-2021">{{cite web |last=Gardiner |first=Beth |date=23 March 2021 |title=Will Russia's Forests Be an Asset or an Obstacle in Climate Fight? |url=https://e360.yale.edu/features/will-russias-forests-be-an-asset-or-obstacle-in-the-climate-fight |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221211140422/https://e360.yale.edu/features/will-russias-forests-be-an-asset-or-obstacle-in-the-climate-fight |archive-date=11 December 2022 |access-date=11 December 2022 |website=Yale University}}</ref> [[File:Саблинский хребет.jpg|thumb|Yugyd Va National Park in the Komi Republic is the largest national park in Europe.<ref name="urals"/>]] Russian biodiversity includes 12,500 species of vascular plants, 2,200 species of bryophytes, about 3,000 species of lichens, 7,000–9,000 species of algae, and 20,000–25,000 species of fungi. Russian fauna is composed of 320 species of mammals, over 732 species of birds, 75 species of reptiles, about 30 species of amphibians, 343 species of freshwater fish (high endemism), approximately 1,500 species of saltwater fishes, 9 species of cyclostomata, and approximately 100–150,000 invertebrates (high endemism).<ref name="climate"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://education.rec.org/ru/en/biodiversity/in_russia/04-04-02.shtml |title=Species richness of Russia |publisher=REC |access-date=27 June 2021 |archive-date=9 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509102841/http://education.rec.org/ru/en/biodiversity/in_russia/04-04-02.shtml}}</ref> Approximately 1,100 rare and endangered plant and animal species are included in the Russian Red Data Book.<ref name="climate"/>

Russia's entirely natural ecosystems are conserved in nearly 15,000 specially protected natural territories of various statuses, occupying more than 10% of the country's total area.<ref name="climate"/> They include 45 biosphere reserves,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves/europe-north-america/russian-federation/ |title=Russian Federation |publisher=UNESCO |date=June 2017 |access-date=7 June 2021 |archive-date=10 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710161647/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere-reserves/europe-north-america/russian-federation/ |url-status=live}}</ref> 64 national parks, and 101 nature reserves.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/russia-nature-reserves-year-ecology |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303030416/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/russia%2Dnature%2Dreserves%2Dyear%2Decology |archive-date=3 March 2021 |title=Look Inside Russia's Wildest Nature Reserves – Now Turning 100 |work=National Geographic |date=11 January 2017 |access-date=28 June 2021}}</ref> Although in decline, the country still has many ecosystems which are still considered intact forest, mainly in the northern taiga areas, and the subarctic tundra of Siberia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Danilov-Danil'yan |first1=V.I. |last2=Reyf |first2=I.E. |title=The Biosphere and Civilization: In the Throes of a Global Crisis |publisher=Springer International Publishing |year=2018 |isbn=978-3-319-67193-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NK9SDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 |access-date=6 December 2022 |page=234 |archive-date=25 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221225095407/https://books.google.com/books?id=NK9SDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA234 |url-status=live}}</ref> Russia had a Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 9.02 in 2019, ranking 10th out of 172 countries, and the first ranked major nation globally.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Grantham HS, ''et al''. |title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material |journal=Nature Communications |volume=11 |issue=1 |year=2020 |page=5978 |issn=2041-1723 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3 |pmid=33293507 |pmc=7723057 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Government and politics == {{Main|Politics of Russia}}

{{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 300 | align = right | caption_align = center | image1 = Владимир Путин (2025-09-30).jpg | caption1 = Vladimir Putin President | image2 = Михаил Мишустин (18-11-2025).jpg | caption2 = Mikhail Mishustin Prime Minister }} Russia, by constitution, is a symmetric federal republic with a semi-presidential system, wherein the president is the head of state,<ref name="(Article 80, § 1)">{{cite web |title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation |website=(Article 80, § 1) |url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-05.htm |access-date=27 December 2007 |archive-date=16 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160416081229/http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-05.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> and the prime minister is the head of government.<ref name="cia"/>{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=383–428|loc=Chapter 7. Government and Politics}} It is officially structured as a multi-party representative democracy,{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=383–428|loc=Chapter 7. Government and Politics}} with the federal government composed of three branches:<ref name="DeRouen-2005">{{cite book |first1=Karl R. |last1=DeRouen |first2=Uk |last2=Heo |title=Defense and Security: A Compendium of National Armed Forces and Security Policies |url={{GBurl |id=wdeBgfmZI0cC |p=666}} |year=2005 |publisher=ABC-Clio |isbn=978-1-85109-781-4 |page=666}}</ref> * Legislative: The bicameral Federal Assembly of Russia, made up of the 450-member State Duma and the 170-member Federation Council,<ref name="DeRouen-2005"/> adopts federal law, declares war, approves treaties, has the power of the purse and the power of impeachment of the president.<ref name="constitution.ru.ch5">{{cite web |title=Chapter 5. The Federal Assembly {{!}} The Constitution of the Russian Federation |url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-06.htm |access-date=4 February 2022 |website=www.constitution.ru |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304074020/http://constitution.ru/en/10003000-06.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> * Executive: The president is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces, and appoints the Government of Russia (Cabinet) and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.<ref name="(Article 80, § 1)"/> The president may issue decrees of unlimited scope, so long as they do not contradict the constitution or federal law.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Remington |first1=Thomas F. |title=Presidential Decrees in Russia: A Comparative Perspective |date=2014 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-1-107-04079-3 |page=48 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TK-BAwAAQBAJ&dq=%22russia%2Bdecree%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bpresident%2Binpublisher:university%22&pg=PA48 |access-date=13 August 2022 |archive-date=4 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004180304/https://books.google.com/books?id=TK-BAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA48&dq=%22russia+decree+of+the+president+inpublisher:university%22 |url-status=live}}</ref> * Judiciary: The Constitutional Court, Supreme Court and lower federal courts, whose judges are appointed by the Federation Council on the recommendation of the president,<ref name="DeRouen-2005"/> interpret laws and can overturn laws they deem unconstitutional.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chapter 7. Judicial Power {{!}} The Constitution of the Russian Federation |url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-08.htm |access-date=4 February 2022 |website=www.constitution.ru |archive-date=25 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191025215135/http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-08.htm |url-status=live}}</ref>

The president is elected by popular vote for a six-year term and may be elected no more than twice.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Constitution of the Russian Federation |website=(Article 81, § 3) |url=https://rm.coe.int/constitution-of-the-russian-federation-en/1680a1a237 |access-date=2 February 2022 |archive-date=2 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220202212008/https://rm.coe.int/constitution-of-the-russian-federation-en/1680a1a237 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{efn|In 2020, constitutional amendments were signed into law that limit the president to two terms overall rather than two consecutive terms, with this limit reset for current and previous presidents.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-53255964 |title=Putin strongly backed in controversial Russian reform vote |publisher=BBC |date=2 July 2020 |access-date=18 July 2021 |archive-date=13 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200713115630/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-53255964 |url-status=live}}</ref>}} Ministries of the government are composed of the premier and his deputies, ministers, and selected other individuals; all are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the prime minister (whereas the appointment of the latter requires the consent of the State Duma). United Russia is the dominant political party in Russia and has been described as "big tent" and the "party of power".<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Politics of Dominant Party Formation: United Russia and Russia's Governors |last=Reuter |first=Ora John |jstor=27808691 |volume=62 |number=2 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |pages=293–327 |date=March 2010 |journal=Europe-Asia Studies |doi=10.1080/09668130903506847}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Konitzer |first1=Andrew |last2=Wegren |first2=Stephen K. |title=Federalism and Political Recentralization in the Russian Federation: United Russia as the Party of Power |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume=36 |number=4 |year=2006 |pages=503–522 |journal=Publius |doi=10.1093/publius/pjl004 |jstor=4624765}}</ref>

===Political history=== thumb|upright=1.3|A chart of the political system in the modern Russian Federation While there is scholarly debate over the significance of the ''veche'' in the Middle Ages as a representative political body,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sevastyanova |first1=Olga |title=In Quest of the Key Democratic Institution of Medieval Rus': Was the "Veche" an Institution that Represented Novgorod as a City and a Republic? |journal=Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas |year=2010 |volume=58 |issue=1 |article-number=1 |jstor=41052379 |publisher=Franz Steiner Verlag |doi=10.25162/jgo-2010-0001}}</ref> Russian society has historically been ruled by various forms of autocracy.<ref name="u511">{{cite book |last=White |first=Stephen |title=Political Culture and Political Change in Communist States |chapter=The USSR: Patterns of Autocracy and Industrialism |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |publication-place=London |date=1979 |isbn=978-0-333-25609-1 |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-16182-9_2 |chapter-url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-349-16182-9_2 |access-date=16 December 2025 |pages=25–65}}</ref> This pattern of a centralised ruling system has its roots in the late Middle Ages, with a unified Russian state being established as an absolute monarchy in the late 15th century,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Soldat |first=Cornelia |year=2005 |title=The Limits of Muscovite Autocracy. The Relations between the Grand Prince and the boyars in the light of Iosif Volotskii's "Prosvetitel"' |journal=Cahiers du Monde Russe |volume=46 |number=1/2 |pages=265–276 |jstor=20174958 |publisher=School for Advanced Studies in the Social Sciences (EHESS) |doi=10.4000/monderusse.8801}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Raba |first1=Joel |title=The Authority of the Muscovite Ruler at the Dawn of the Modern Era |journal=Jahrbücher für Geschichte Osteuropas |date=1976 |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=321–344 |jstor=41045311}}</ref> a governance structure that was followed until the early 20th century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ragsdale |first1=Hugh |title=The Russian Tragedy: The Burden of History |date=16 September 2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-48079-4 |pages=18–20, 162–163 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WrYYDQAAQBAJ |language=en |quote=The revolution that Ivan accomplished was the great watershed of Russian political tradition. Ivan's statecraft was the great prototype, a classic Russian system of absolutism and militarism under cautious and scrupulous control... Ivan III laid the foundations of Russian absolutism... In a serious break with tradition, Russia entered the constitutional era... Russian autocracy came to an end, and the Revolution of 1905 soon withered and died—not, however, without fateful consequences.}}</ref> Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, the monarchy was abolished, and the Soviet Union was proclaimed as a one-party communist state until its collapse.<ref name="u511"/> Brief periods of non-autocratic rule include the short-lived Provisional Government in 1917 established during the February Revolution, and during the transition of post-Soviet Russia into a flawed democracy during the presidency of Boris Yeltsin in the 1990s.<ref name="w330">{{cite book |last1=Quam |first1=Joel |last2=Campbell |first2=G. Scott |title=The Western World: Daily Readings on Geography |publisher=College of DuPage Digital Press |date=2020 |url=https://cod.pressbooks.pub/westernworlddailyreadingsgeography/chapter/russian-domain-political-geography-ii/#:~:text=The%20political%20history%20of%20the,more%20so%20that%20most%20countries |access-date=16 December 2025 |chapter=97}}</ref><ref name="h185">{{cite web |title=Did Russians Ever Hope for Non-Autocratic Rule? |website=Harvard Ukrainian Studies |date=30 November 2018 |url=https://www.husj.harvard.edu/articles/did-russians-ever-hope-for-non-autocratic-rule |access-date=17 December 2025}}</ref><ref name="Croissant">{{cite book |last1=Croissant |first1=Aurel |last2=Tomini |first2=Luca |title=The Routledge Handbook of Autocratization |date=14 May 2024 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-040-04018-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_RAGEQAAQBAJ |language=en |archive-date=6 June 2025 |access-date=13 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250606181612/https://books.google.com/books?id=_RAGEQAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|page=223}}

In the 21st century, following the presidencies of Vladimir Putin and Dmitry Medvedev, Russia has experienced significant democratic backsliding.<ref name="Croissant"/>{{rp|page=223}}<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UhwiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT48 |title=Russia and Europe: Building Bridges, Digging Trenches |year=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-99200-1 |editor1=Kjell Engelbrekt |pages= |editor2=Bertil Nygren |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=13 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813133217/https://books.google.com/books?id=UhwiAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT48 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Kiyan |first=Olga |title=Russia & Democratic Backsliding: The Future of Putinism |date=9 April 2020 |journal=Harvard International Review |publisher=Harvard International Relations Council |url=https://hir.harvard.edu/russia-democratic-backsliding-the-future-of-putinism/ |access-date=8 July 2022 |archive-date=24 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224213448/https://hir.harvard.edu/russia-democratic-backsliding-the-future-of-putinism/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The political system evolved from electoral authoritarianism into a consolidated authoritarian regime.<ref name="Croissant"/>{{rp|page=323}}<ref name="t305"/> Some political scientists have characterised Putin as the head of a dictatorship,<ref name="Kuzio-2016">{{cite journal |last=Kuzio |first=Taras |title=Nationalism and authoritarianism in Russia |journal=Communist and Post-Communist Studies |year=2016 |volume=49 |number=1 |pages=1–11 |publisher=University of California Press |doi=10.1016/j.postcomstud.2015.12.002 |jstor=48610429}}</ref><ref name="Krzywdzinski">{{cite book |first=Martin |last=Krzywdzinski |year=2020 |title=Consent and Control in the Authoritarian Workplace: Russia and China Compared |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=252 |isbn=978-0-19-252902-2 |url={{GBurl |id=gz5MDwAAQBAJ |p=252}} |quote=''officially a democratic state with the rule of law, in practice an authoritarian dictatorship''}}</ref><ref>{{Cite report |last=Fischer |first=Sabine |date=2022 |title=Russia on the road to dictatorship: Internal political repercussions of the attack on Ukraine |journal=SWP Comment |doi=10.18449/2022C30 |url=https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/256753 |hdl=10419/256753 |access-date=11 September 2022 |archive-date=11 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911191555/https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/256753 |url-status=live}}</ref> or a personalist regime.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chapman |first1=Hannah S. |title=Shocks to the System: Electoral Manipulation, Protests and the Evolution of Political Trust in Russia |journal=Government and Opposition |date=29 October 2024 |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=496–516 |doi=10.1017/gov.2024.18 |quote=Authoritarian regimes, particularly personalist ones such as Russia, frequently justify their rule based on the views of the leading authority. |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Özdamar |first1=Özgür |last2=Yanik |first2=Lerna K |title=Populist hyperpersonalization and politicization of foreign policy institutions |journal=International Affairs |date=9 September 2024 |volume=100 |issue=5 |pages=1835–1856 |doi=10.1093/ia/iiae181 |issn=0020-5850 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="t305">{{cite web |last=Kallmer |first=Brent |title=The Putin Myth |website=Journal of Democracy - Johns Hopkins University Press |date=6 April 2023 |url=https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/the-putin-myth/#f3-text |access-date=4 January 2025 |archive-date=21 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241221070113/https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/the-putin-myth/#f3-text |url-status=live}}</ref> Putin's second tenure as president has led to further autocratization,<ref name="Croissant"/>{{rp|page=512}}<ref name="Mamaev">{{cite book |last1=Mamaev |first1=Bogdan |title=The Evolution of Authoritarianism and Contentious Action in Russia |date=30 June 2024 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-009-56066-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yXIMEQAAQBAJ |language=en |archive-date=6 June 2025 |access-date=13 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250606181615/https://books.google.com/books?id=yXIMEQAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|pages=80–81}} which has been the most significant since the Soviet era,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lindstaedt |first1=Natasha |title=Russia's Descent into Totalitarianism |journal=Political Insight |date=1 June 2024 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=12–15 |doi=10.1177/20419058241260782 |language=en |issn=2041-9058}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Karatnycky |first=Adrian |date=24 March 2024 |access-date=23 March 2025 |title=Russia Is Back to the Stalinist Future |work=Foreign Policy |quote=A recent study by exiled Russian journalists from Proekt Media used data to determine that Russia is more politically repressive today than the Soviet Union under all leaders since Joseph Stalin. |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2024/03/24/russia-putin-stalin-soviet-election-war-repression-political-prisoners/ |archive-date=30 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250330185750/https://foreignpolicy.com/2024/03/24/russia-putin-stalin-soviet-election-war-repression-political-prisoners/ |url-status=live}}</ref> with some authors suggesting a regeneration of totalitarian elements.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kolesnikov |first1=Andrei |title=Putin's War Has Moved Russia From Authoritarianism to Hybrid Totalitarianism |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/posts/2022/04/putins-war-has-moved-russia-from-authoritarianism-to-hybrid-totalitarianism?lang=en |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |language=en |access-date=4 March 2025 |archive-date=7 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250307193757/https://carnegieendowment.org/posts/2022/04/putins-war-has-moved-russia-from-authoritarianism-to-hybrid-totalitarianism?lang=en |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lindstaedt |first1=Natasha |title=Russia's Descent into Totalitarianism |journal=Political Insight |date=June 2024 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=12–15 |doi=10.1177/20419058241260782}}</ref> Putin's ruling policies are generally referred to as Putinism.<ref>{{cite book |author=Brian D. Taylor |date=2018 |title=The Code of Putinism |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=2–7 |isbn=978-0-19-086731-7 |oclc=1022076734}}</ref>

=== Political divisions === {{Main|Political divisions of Russia}}

Russia, by constitution, is a symmetric (with the possibility of an asymmetric configuration) federation. Unlike the Soviet asymmetric model of the RSFSR, where only republics were "subjects of the federation", the current constitution raised the status of other regions to the level of republics and made all regions equal with the title "subject of the federation". The regions of Russia have reserved areas of competence, but regions do not have sovereignty, do not have the status of a sovereign state, do not have the right to indicate any sovereignty in their constitutions and do not have the right to secede from the country. The laws of the regions cannot contradict federal laws.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://base.garant.ru/12119810/ |title=Постановление Конституционного Суда РФ от 07.06.2000 N 10-П "По делу о проверке конституционности отдельных положений Конституции Республики Алтай и Федерального закона "Об общих принципах организации законодательных (представительных) и исполнительных органов государственной власти субъектов Российской Федерации" | ГАРАНТ |website=base.garant.ru |access-date=12 May 2023 |archive-date=10 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410082832/https://base.garant.ru/12119810/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

The federal subjects{{efn|Including bodies on territory disputed between Russia and Ukraine whose annexation has not been internationally recognised: the Republic of Crimea and the federal city of Sevastopol since the annexation of Crimea in 2014,<ref name="Pifer-2020"/> and territories set up following the Russian annexation of Donetsk, Kherson, Luhansk and Zaporizhzhia oblasts in 2022.|name=disputed}} have equal representation—two delegates each—in the Federation Council, the upper house of the Federal Assembly.<ref name="constitution.ru.ch5"/> However, they differ in the degree of autonomy they enjoy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=KARTASHKIN |first1=V.A. |last2=ABASHIDZE |first2=A.KH. |year=2004 |jstor=24675138 |title=Autonomy in the Russian Federation: Theory and Practice |journal=International Journal on Minority and Group Rights |volume=10 |number=3 |pages=203–220 |publisher=Brill |doi=10.1163/1571811031310738}}</ref> The federal districts of Russia were established by Putin in 2000 to facilitate central government control of the federal subjects.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Petrov |first=Nikolai |title=Seven Faces of Putin's Russia: Federal Districts as the New Level of State–Territorial Composition |jstor=26298005 |publisher=SAGE Publishing |journal=Security Dialogue |volume=33 |number=1 |date=March 2002 |pages=73–91 |doi=10.1177/0967010602033001006}}</ref> Originally seven, currently there are eight federal districts, each headed by an envoy appointed by the president.<ref>{{cite book |author1=European Parliament. Directorate General for Parliamentary Research Services. |title=Russia's constitutional structure: Federal in form, unitary in function: In depth analysis |date=2015 |publisher=Publications Office |doi=10.2861/664907 |isbn=978-92-823-8022-2}}</ref> center|600px|frameless {| class="wikitable" |- ! Federal subjects ! Governance |- | {{legend|#FFEC77|46 oblasts}} | The most common type of federal subject with a governor and locally elected legislature. Commonly named after their administrative centres.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hale |first=Henry E. |title=The Makeup and Breakup of Ethnofederal States: Why Russia Survives Where the USSR Fell |journal=Perspectives on Politics |pages=55–70 |volume=3 |number=1 |date=March 2005 |publisher=American Political Science Association |doi=10.1017/S153759270505005X |jstor=3688110}}</ref> |- | {{legend|#00C160|22 republics}} | Each is nominally autonomous—home to a specific ethnic minority, and has its own constitution, language, and legislature, but is represented by the federal government in international affairs.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Orttung |first1=Robert |last2=Lussier |first2=Danielle |last3=Paetskaya |first3=Anna |title=The Republics and Regions of the Russian Federation: A Guide to Politics, Policies, and Leaders |publisher=EastWest Institute |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-7656-0559-7 |location=New York |pages=523–524}}</ref> |- | {{legend|#FF9400|9 krais}} | For all intents and purposes, krais are legally identical to oblasts. The title "krai" ("frontier" or "territory") is historic, related to geographic (frontier) position in a certain period of history. The current krais are not related to frontiers.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shabad |first=Theodore |title=Political-Administrative Divisions of the U.S.S.R., 1945 |journal=Geographical Review |publisher=Taylor & Francis |volume=36 |number=2 |pages=303–311 |date=April 1946 |doi=10.2307/210882 |jstor=210882 |bibcode=1946GeoRv..36..303S}}</ref> |- | {{legend|#006989|4 autonomous okrugs}} | Occasionally referred to as "autonomous district", "autonomous area", and "autonomous region", each with a substantial or predominant ethnic minority.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sharafutdinova |first=Gulnaz |title=When Do Elites Compete? The Determinants of Political Competition in Russian Regions |pages=273–293 |volume=38 |number=3 |date=April 2006 |journal=Comparative Politics |publisher=Comparative Politics, Ph.D. Programs in Political Science, City University of New York |doi=10.2307/20433998 |jstor=20433998}}</ref> |- | {{legend|#FF0037|3 federal cities}} | Major cities that function as separate regions (Moscow and Saint Petersburg, as well as Sevastopol in Russian-occupied Ukraine).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kelesh |first1=Yulia V. |last2=Bessonova |first2=Elena A. |title=Digitalization management system of Russia's federal cities focused on prospective application throughout the country |journal=SHS Web of Conferences |date=2021 |volume=110 |page=05011 |doi=10.1051/shsconf/202111005011}}</ref> |- | {{legend|#C300FF|1 autonomous oblast}} | The only autonomous oblast is the Jewish Autonomous Oblast.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Alessandro |first=Vitale |title=Ethnopolitics as Co-operation and Coexistence: The Case-Study of the Jewish Autonomous Region in Siberia |journal=Politeja |year=2015 |volume=12 |number=31/2 |pages=123–142 |jstor=24919780 |publisher=Księgarnia Akademicka |doi=10.12797/Politeja.12.2015.31_2.09 |doi-access=free}}</ref> |}

=== Foreign relations === {{Main|Foreign relations of Russia}}

[[File:Russian-list-of-unfriendly-countries.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|{{legend2|#3F48CC}} Russia {{legend2|#AA0000}} Countries on Russia's "unfriendly countries and territories list" The list includes Russia's geopolitical rivals—member states of the European Union and NATO and their allies—that have imposed sanctions against it for its invasion of Ukraine.]] Russia has the sixth-largest diplomatic network in the world {{as of|2024|lc=y}}. It maintains diplomatic relations with 187 United Nations member states, two partially-recognised states,<ref>{{cite web |last=Jones |first=Peter N. |title=Russia's Tightening Abkhazian Stranglehold Threatens Western and Georgian Interests |date=15 January 2024 |work=Harvard International Review |publisher=Harvard International Relations Council |access-date=1 March 2025 |url=https://hir.harvard.edu/washington-must-not-idle-as-russia-tightens-its-abkhazian-stranglehold/}}</ref> and two United Nations observer states, along with 143 embassies.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://globaldiplomacyindex.lowyinstitute.org/ |title=Lowy Institute Global Diplomacy Index 2024 |publisher=Lowy Institute |access-date=1 March 2025 |archive-date=26 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200826084025/https://globaldiplomacyindex.lowyinstitute.org/ |url-status=live}}</ref> As the legal successor of the Soviet Union,{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=429–486|loc=Chapter 8. Foreign Relations}} Russia retains its seat as a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kramer |first=Mark |title=The Soviet Legacy in Russian Foreign Policy |journal=Political Science Quarterly |publisher=Academy of Political Science |volume=134 |number=4 |year=2019 |pages=585–609 |doi=10.1002/polq.12988 |jstor=45284691}}</ref> It is generally described by political analysts as a great power.<ref name="gambit">{{cite journal |editor1-last=Bunde |editor1-first=Tobias |editor2-last=Eisentraut |editor2-first=Sophie |editor3-last=Schütte |editor3-first=Leonard |last=Jintro |first=Pauly |title=Russia: The Czar's Gambit |journal=Munich Security Report 2025: Multipolarization |publisher=Munich Security Conference |date=February 2025 |pages=79–85 |doi=10.47342/EZUC8623-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Sweijs |first1=T. |last2=De Spiegeleire |first2=S. |last3=de Jong |first3=S. |last4=Oosterveld |first4=W. |last5=Roos |first5=H. |last6=Bekkers |first6=F. |last7=Usanov |first7=A. |last8=de Rave |first8=R. |last9=Jans |first9=K. |title=Volatility and friction in the age of disintermediation |publisher=The Hague Centre for Strategic Studies |page=43 |year=2017 |isbn=978-94-92102-46-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1EonDwAAQBAJ |quote=We qualify the following states as great powers: China, Europe, India, Japan, Russia and the United States.}}</ref><ref name="l454">{{cite journal |last=Ellman |first=Michael |title=Russia as a great power: from 1815 to the present day. Part II |journal=Journal of Institutional Economics |volume=19 |issue=2 |date=2023 |issn=1744-1374 |doi=10.1017/S1744137422000388 |pages=159–174 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Neumann |first=Iver B |number=11 |title=Russia as a Great Power, 1815–2007 |date=20 May 2008 |journal=Journal of International Relations and Development |volume=11 |pages=128–151 |doi=10.1057/jird.2008.7 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Russia is also a former superpower as the leading constituent of the former Soviet Union.<ref name="Reiman-2016"/> In the 21st century, many scholars view its global influence as being in decline.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=Brian D. |title=Russian Politics: A Very Short Introduction |year=2024 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-751602-7 |chapter=Power, status, and greatness |pages=21–40 |doi=10.1093/actrade/9780197516027.003.0002 |quote=Although the lines sometimes can be blurry, there are only three countries in the world that international relations experts typically classify as having been a great power for the past 300 years: Britain, France, and Russia... Russia's geographic size, nuclear weapons, and permanent UN Security Council seat guarantee its continuing great power status... Yet the greater economic power of the United States, the European Union, and China, as well as rising countries... meant that Russia's future standing in the world remained in doubt even before the Russo-Ukraine War.}}</ref><ref name="f495">{{cite journal |last=Šćepanović |first=Janko |title=Still a great power? Russia's status dilemmas post-Ukraine war |journal=Journal of Contemporary European Studies |publisher=Informa UK Limited |volume=32 |issue=1 |date=22 March 2023 |issn=1478-2804 |doi=10.1080/14782804.2023.2193878 |pages=80–95 |quote=Drezner, as well as others like Dan Depetris, agrees that, on principle, Russia can still be counted among the great powers... At the same time, scholars rightly wonder what rank within the great power club Russia belongs to...}}</ref> Nevertheless, Russia is a member state of the G20, the OSCE, BRICS, WTO, and the APEC; and the leading member state of organisations such as the CIS,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fish |first1=M. Steven |author1-link=Steven Fish |last2=Samarin |first2=Melissa |last3=Way |first3=Lucan Ahmad |title=Russia and the CIS in 2016 |year=2017 |jstor=26367728 |publisher=University of California Press |volume=57 |number=1 |journal=Asian Survey |pages=93–102 |doi=10.1525/as.2017.57.1.93}}</ref> the EAEU,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sadri |first=Houman A. |title=Eurasian Economic Union (Eeu): a good idea or a Russian takeover? |jstor=43580687 |pages=553–561 |volume=81 |number=4 |year=2014 |journal=Rivista di studi politici internazionali |publisher=Maria Grazia Melchionni}}</ref> the CSTO,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2022/01/06/what-is-the-collective-security-treaty-organisation |title=What is the Collective Security Treaty Organisation? |newspaper=The Economist |date=6 January 2022 |access-date=26 January 2022 |archive-date=12 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412224018/https://www.economist.com/the-economist-explains/2022/01/06/what-is-the-collective-security-treaty-organisation |url-status=live}}</ref> and the SCO.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://thediplomat.com/2015/07/russias-pivot-to-asia-and-the-sco/ |last=Tiezzi |first=Shannon |title=Russia's 'Pivot to Asia' and the SCO |work=The Diplomat |date=21 July 2015 |access-date=26 January 2022 |archive-date=4 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190704104451/https://thediplomat.com/2015/07/russias-pivot-to-asia-and-the-sco/ |url-status=live}}</ref> It was also a member state of the G8 (now the G7) and part of the Council of Europe before its expulsion from the two groups in 2014 and 2022, respectively.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2014/03/24/politics/obama-europe-trip/index.html |title=U.S., other powers kick Russia out of G8 |work=CNN |date=24 March 2014 |last=Acosta |first=Jim |access-date=30 March 2025 |archive-date=29 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429124350/https://edition.cnn.com/2014/03/24/politics/obama-europe-trip/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=15 March 2022 |access-date=30 March 2025 |work=DW News |publisher=Deutsche Welle |title=Russia leaves the Council of Europe |url=https://www.dw.com/en/russia-formally-departs-council-of-europe/a-61136962 |archive-date=30 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250330215810/https://www.dw.com/en/russia-formally-departs-council-of-europe/a-61136962 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Russia maintains close relations with neighbouring Belarus, which is a part of the Union State, a supranational confederation of the two states.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Semi-Sovereign State: Belarus and the Russian Neo-Empire |jstor=24907272 |journal=Foreign Policy Analysis |first=Kathleen J. |last=Hancock |volume=2 |number=2 |date=April 2006 |pages=117–136 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1111/j.1743-8594.2006.00023.x |ssrn=1949519}}</ref> Serbia has been a historically close ally of Russia, as both countries share a strong mutual cultural, ethnic, and religious affinity.<ref>{{cite journal |year=1994 |jstor=40202977 |title=Russia and the Balkans: Pan-Slavism, Partnership and Power |journal=International Journal |first=Lenard J. |last=Cohen |volume=49 |number=4 |pages=814–845 |publisher=SAGE Publishing |doi=10.2307/40202977}}</ref> From the 21st century, relations between Russia and China have significantly strengthened bilaterally and economically due to shared political interests.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bolt |first=Paul J. |title=Sino-Russian Relations in a Changing World Order |year=2014 |volume=8 |number=4 |jstor=26270816 |pages=47–69 |publisher=Air University Press |journal=Strategic Studies Quarterly}}</ref> India is the largest customer of Russian military equipment, and the two countries share a strong strategic and diplomatic relationship since the Soviet era.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/07/08/russia-india-relations/ |title=Why India and Russia Are Going to Stay Friends |work=Foreign Policy |first=Emily |last=Tamkin |date=8 July 2020 |access-date=2 February 2021 |archive-date=12 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210112225311/https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/07/08/russia-india-relations/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Russia wields significant political influence across the geopolitically important South Caucasus and Central Asia,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Özkan |first1=Arda |last2=Tüysüzoglu |first2=Göktürk |title=Conflict Areas in the Caucasus and Central Asia |date=April 2024 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |page=312 |isbn=978-1-7936-5127-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KxNhEQAAQBAJ |language=en |quote=Russia holds considerable military, economic, and political power over the Central Asia and Caucasus.}}</ref> described in Russia as the "near abroad",{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=429–486|loc=Chapter 8. Foreign Relations}}<ref name="Kolstø">{{cite journal |last1=Kolstø |first1=Pål |title=Beyond Russia, becoming local: Trajectories of adaption to the fall of the Soviet Union among ethnic Russians in the former Soviet Republics |journal=Journal of Eurasian Studies |date=July 2011 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=153–163 |doi=10.1016/j.euras.2011.03.006 |quote=This is indeed true, Russia does insist that the country has a right and a duty to pose as the protector of all Russians in the so-called 'near abroad'.}}</ref> while foreign political analysts have described the two regions as being part of Russia's "backyard".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Nation |first=R Craig. |title=Russia and the Caucasus |journal=Connections |year=2015 |volume=14 |number=2 |pages=1–12 |jstor=26326394 |publisher=Partnership for Peace Consortium of Defense Academies and Security Studies Institutes |doi=10.11610/Connections.14.2.01 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Swanström |first=Niklas |title=Central Asia and Russian Relations: Breaking Out of the Russian Orbit? |journal=Brown Journal of World Affairs |volume=19 |number=1 |year=2012 |pages=101–113 |id={{ProQuest|1326331335}} |jstor=24590931 |quote=The Central Asian states have been dependent on Russia since they gained independence in 1991, not just in economic and energy terms, but also militarily and politically.}}</ref>

Russia shares a complex strategic, energy, and defence relationship with Turkey.<ref>{{cite web |last=Baev |first=Pavel |work=Russie.Nei.Reports |publisher=Ifri |url=https://www.ifri.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/baev_turkey_russia_2021.pdf |title=Russia and Turkey: Strategic Partners and Rivals |date=May 2021 |access-date=6 January 2022 |number=35 |archive-date=27 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211027233151/https://www.ifri.org/sites/default/files/atoms/files/baev_turkey_russia_2021.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> It maintains cordial relations with Iran, as it is a strategic and economic ally.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tarock |first=Adam |title=Iran and Russia in 'Strategic Alliance' |volume=18 |number=2 |date=June 1997 |pages=207–223 |journal=Third World Quarterly |publisher=Taylor & Francis |doi=10.1080/01436599714911 |jstor=3993220}}</ref> Russia has also significantly developed its relations with North Korea following its invasion of Ukraine in 2022, with increased defence co-operation.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Howell |first=Dr Edward |title=North Korea and Russia's dangerous partnership |journal=Chatham House |location=Westminister, London |date=4 December 2024 |access-date=12 March 2025 |url=https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/2024-12/2024-12-04-north-korea-russia-dangerous-partnership-howell.pdf |isbn=978-1-78413-632-1 |doi=10.55317/9781784136321}}</ref> At the same time, its relations with neighbouring Ukraine and the Western world—specifically the United States and the countries of the European Union and NATO—have collapsed.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/24/ukraine-breaks-diplomatic-ties-with-russia |title=Ukraine cuts diplomatic ties with Russia after invasion |work=Al Jazeera |date=24 February 2022 |access-date=7 October 2022 |quote=Ukraine has cut all diplomatic ties with Russia after President Vladimir Putin authorised an all-out invasion of Ukraine by land, air and sea. |archive-date=5 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305163901/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/2/24/ukraine-breaks-diplomatic-ties-with-russia |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Kanerva |first=Ilkka |title=Russia and the West |jstor=48573515 |number=12 |pages=112–119 |year=2018 |publisher=Center for International Relations and Sustainable Development |journal=Horizons: Journal of International Relations and Sustainable Development}}</ref> [[File:2019 Foto de família dos Líderes do G20.jpg|thumb|Putin with G20 counterparts in Osaka, 2019]] In the 21st century, Russia has pursued an aggressive foreign policy aimed at securing regional dominance in Europe and increasing its international influence, as well as increasing domestic support for the government. It has initiated military interventions in the post-Soviet states of Georgia and Ukraine, as well as in Syria during its prolonged civil war in a bid to increase its influence in the Middle East,<ref>{{cite report |last=Cerulli |first=Rossella |title=Russian Influence in the Middle East: Economics, Energy, and Soft Power |jstor=resrep19825 |date=1 September 2019 |pages=1–21 |publisher=American Security Project}}</ref> and achieve its great power ambitions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rusi.org/explore-our-research/publications/commentary/russias-enduring-grip-syria |title=Russia's Enduring Grip on Syria |last=Kassis |first=Kelly |work=Royal United Services Institute (RUSI) |date=11 November 2025 |access-date=6 January 2026 |location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/after-assad-russias-role-and-leverage-in-the-middle-east-224080 |title=After Assad: Russia's Role and Leverage in the Middle East |work=Institute for International Political Studies (ISPI) |date=8 December 2025 |access-date=6 January 2026 |location=Milan}}</ref> Two-thirds of the global population, specifically the developing countries of the Global South, are either neutral or leaning towards Russia politically.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Stengel |first1=Richard |title=Putin May Be Winning the Information War Outside of the U.S. and Europe |url=https://time.com/6179221/putin-information-war-column/ |magazine=TIME |date=20 May 2022 |access-date=1 July 2023 |archive-date=18 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818141722/https://time.com/6179221/putin-information-war-column/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Russia can count on support from many developing countries |url=https://www.eiu.com/n/russia-can-count-on-support-from-many-developing-countries/ |website=eiu.com |date=30 March 2022 |publisher=Economist Intelligence Unit |access-date=28 July 2024 |archive-date=14 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240714102133/https://www.eiu.com/n/russia-can-count-on-support-from-many-developing-countries/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Russian state-funded Wagner Group has been deployed in Africa (Africa Corps),<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-68322230 |title=Wagner in Africa: How the Russian mercenary group has rebranded |work=BBC |last1=Inwood |first1=Joe |last2=Tacchi |first2=Jake |date=20 February 2024 |access-date=6 January 2026}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=7 May 2020 |title=Russia in Africa: What's behind Moscow's push into the continent? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-45035889 |access-date=6 January 2022 |website=BBC |archive-date=13 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220413235807/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-45035889 |url-status=live}}</ref> and in Syria;<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rusi.org/explore-our-research/publications/commentary/how-wagner-group-lost-syria |title=How the Wagner Group Lost Syria |work=Royal United Services Institute (RUSI) |last=Giustozzi |first=Dr Antonio |date=31 May 2024 |access-date=6 January 2026 |location=London}}</ref> to maintain political stability in failed states through military projection and exploit local natural resources.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/russia-wagner-group-ukraine-war-putin-prigozhin-africa-plundering-resources/ |title=How Russia's Wagner Group funds its role in Putin's Ukraine war by plundering Africa's resources |last1=Patta |first1=Debora |last2=Carter |first2=Sarah |date=16 May 2023 |work=CBS News |access-date=6 January 2026}}</ref> Russia has also increasingly pushed to expand its influence across the Arctic,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2021/03/russia-in-the-arctica-critical-examination?lang=en |title=Russia in the Arctic – A Critical Examination |last1=Rumer |first1=Eugene |last2=Sokolsky |first2=Richard |last3=Stronski |first3=Paul |date=29 March 2021 |access-date=6 January 2022 |publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |archive-date=11 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411145458/https://carnegieendowment.org/2021/03/29/russia-in-arctic-critical-examination-pub-84181 |url-status=live}}</ref> the Asia–Pacific,<ref>{{cite web |last=Hunt |first=Luke |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/russia-tries-to-boost-asia-ties-to-counter-indo-pacific-alliances/6272006.html |title=Russia Tries to Boost Asia Ties to Counter Indo-Pacific Alliances |publisher=Voice of America |date=15 October 2021 |access-date=6 January 2022}}</ref> and Latin America.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Shuya |first=Mason |title=Russian Influence in Latin America: a Response to NATO |jstor=26696258 |volume=12 |number=2 |year=2019 |pages=17–41 |journal=Journal of Strategic Security |publisher=University of South Florida |doi=10.5038/1944-0472.12.2.1727 |doi-access=free}}</ref> It has also continued using subversive tactics in its rival countries to project its geopolitical power,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Feinstein |first1=Scott G. |last2=Pirro |first2=Ellen B. |title=Testing the world order: strategic realism in Russian foreign affairs |journal=International Politics |date=22 February 2021 |volume=58 |issue=6 |pages=817–834 |doi=10.1057/s41311-021-00285-5 |doi-access=free |pmid=40477225 |pmc=7898250}}</ref><ref name="gambit"/> such as cyberwarfare, disinformation campaigns,<ref>{{cite journal |journal=The Cyber Defense Review |last1=Mahairas |first1=Aristedes |last2=Dvilyanski |first2=Mikhail |title=Disinformation – Дезинформация (Dezinformatsiya) |year=2018 |volume=3 |number=3 |pages=21–28 |jstor=26554993}}</ref> sabotage attacks,<ref>{{cite web |last=Jones |first=Seth G. |url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/russias-shadow-war-against-west |title=Russia's Shadow War Against the West |publisher=Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) |date=18 March 2025 |access-date=30 March 2025 |location=Washington, D.C. |archive-date=30 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250330183516/https://www.csis.org/analysis/russias-shadow-war-against-west |url-status=live}}</ref> assassination attempts,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://apnews.com/article/germany-russia-threats-report-rheinmetall-plot-2cee42e9f9f6940eb960b0b052e3e670 |title=Russian assassination plots against those supporting Ukraine uncovered in Europe, official says |last1=Madhani |first1=Aamer |last2=Moulson |first2=Geir |work=Associated Press (AP) |date=13 July 2024 |access-date=30 March 2025 |archive-date=6 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250406230620/https://apnews.com/article/germany-russia-threats-report-rheinmetall-plot-2cee42e9f9f6940eb960b0b052e3e670 |url-status=live}}</ref> airspace violations,<ref>{{cite web |last=Morse |first=Jasper Hufschmidt |url=https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/russias-catch-me-if-you-can-over-the-baltic-sea/ |title=Russia's "Catch Me If You Can" over the Baltic Sea |publisher=Australian Institute of International Affairs (AIIA) |date=26 April 2024 |access-date=30 March 2025 |archive-date=18 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250518163853/https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/russias-catch-me-if-you-can-over-the-baltic-sea/ |url-status=live}}</ref> electoral interferences,<ref>{{cite web |last=Popescu-Zamfir |first=Oana |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/europe/strategic-europe/2025/02/russian-interference-coming-soon-to-an-election-near-you?lang=en |title=Russian Interference: Coming Soon to an Election Near You |publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (CEIP) |date=13 February 2025 |access-date=30 March 2025 |location=Washington, D.C. |archive-date=1 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250401015158/https://carnegieendowment.org/europe/strategic-europe/2025/02/russian-interference-coming-soon-to-an-election-near-you?lang=en |url-status=live}}</ref> nuclear saber-rattling,<ref>{{cite web |last=Williams |first=Heather |url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/why-russia-keeps-rattling-nuclear-saber |title=Why Russia Keeps Rattling the Nuclear Saber |publisher=Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) |date=20 May 2024 |access-date=30 March 2025 |location=Washington, D.C. |archive-date=1 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250401233639/https://www.csis.org/analysis/why-russia-keeps-rattling-nuclear-saber |url-status=live}}</ref> and hybrid warfare.<ref name="r890">{{cite web |title=A Frog in a Pot – Turning Around Russia's Hybrid War |website=Royal United Services Institute |date=22 October 2025 |url=https://www.rusi.org/explore-our-research/publications/commentary/frog-pot-turning-around-russias-hybrid-war |access-date=10 January 2026}}</ref>

=== Military === {{Main|Russian Armed Forces}}

[[File:Sukhoi Design Bureau, 054, Sukhoi T-50 (Su-57 prototype) (49581303977).jpg|thumb|Sukhoi Su-57, a fifth-generation fighter of the Russian Air Force<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rand.org/blog/2020/08/russias-su-57-heavy-fighter-bomber-is-it-really-a-5th.html |title=Russia's Su-57 Heavy Fighter Bomber: Is It Really a Fifth-Generation Aircraft? |work=RAND Corporation |author=Ryan Bauer and Peter A. Wilson |date=17 August 2020 |access-date=28 June 2021 |archive-date=22 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322102224/https://www.rand.org/blog/2020/08/russias-su-57-heavy-fighter-bomber-is-it-really-a-5th.html |url-status=live}}</ref>]] The Russian Armed Forces are divided into the Ground Forces, the Navy, and the Aerospace Forces—and there are also two independent arms of service: the Strategic Missile Troops and the Airborne Troops.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=487–552|loc=Chapter 9. The Armed Forces}}<ref name="cia">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/ |title=Russia – The World Factbook |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=4 March 2022 |archive-date=9 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109173026/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/russia/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> {{As of|2025}}, the military have 1.1 million active-duty personnel, which is the world's fifth-largest, and about 1.5 million reserve personnel.<ref>{{cite book |author=International Institute for Strategic Studies |author-link=International Institute for Strategic Studies |title=The Military Balance |date=2025 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-1-041-049-678 |page=180}}</ref> It is mandatory for all male citizens aged 18–27 to be drafted for a year of service in the Armed Forces.<ref name="cia"/>

Russia is among the five recognised nuclear-weapons states, with the world's largest stockpile of nuclear weapons; over half of the world's nuclear weapons are owned by Russia.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Nuclearweaponswhohaswhat |title=Nuclear Weapons: Who Has What at a Glance |work=Arms Control Association |date=August 2020 |access-date=7 June 2021 |archive-date=24 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124043430/https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Nuclearweaponswhohaswhat |url-status=live}}</ref> Russia possesses the second-largest fleet of ballistic missile submarines,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://power.lowyinstitute.org/data/military-capability/signature-capabilities/ballistic-missile-submarines/ |work=Asia Power Index |publisher=Lowy Institute |year=2021 |title=Ballistic missile submarines data |access-date=25 January 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408173840/https://power.lowyinstitute.org/data/military-capability/signature-capabilities/ballistic-missile-submarines/ |url-status=live}}</ref> and is one of the only three countries operating strategic bombers.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Paul |first1=T. V. |last2=Wirtz |first2=James J. |last3=Fortmann |first3=Michael |url={{GBurl |id=9jy28vBqscQC |p=332}} |title=Balance of power: theory and practice in the 21st century |publisher=Stanford University Press |date=2004 |page=332 |isbn=978-0-8047-5017-2}}</ref> {{As of|2023}}, Russia maintains the world's third-highest military expenditure, spending $109 billion, corresponding to about 5.9% of its GDP.<ref name="SIPRI">{{Cite web |title=Trends in International Arms Transfers, 2023 |url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-03/fs_2403_at_2023.pdf |publisher=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) |date=March 2024 |last1=Wezeman |first1=Pieter D. |last2=Djokic |first2=Katarina |last3=George |first3=Mathew |last4=Hussain |first4=Zain |last5=Wezeman |first5=Siemon T. |access-date=6 March 2025 |archive-date=11 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240311001401/https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2024-03/fs_2403_at_2023.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> It was also the third-largest arms exporter in 2020–2024,<ref>{{Cite journal |first1=Pieter D. |last1=Wezeman |first2=Katarina |last2=Djokic |first3=Mathew |last3=George |first4=Zain |last4=Hussain |first5=Siemon T. |last5=Wezeman |title=Trends in international Arms Transfer 2024 |url=https://www.sipri.org/publications/2025/sipri-fact-sheets/trends-international-arms-transfers-2024 |doi=10.55163/XXSZ9056 |date=March 2025 |website=sipri.org |page=2}}</ref> and has a large and indigenous defence industry, which produces the majority of its military equipment.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cooper |first=Julian |title=Military Production in Russia Before and After the Start of the War With Ukraine |date=29 August 2024 |doi=10.1080/03071847.2024.2392990 |journal=RUSI Journal |publisher=Routledge on behalf of the Royal United Services Institute (RUSI) |volume=169 |number=4 |pages=10–29 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/back-stock-state-russias-defense-industry-after-two-years-war |title=Back in Stock? The State of Russia's Defense Industry after Two Years of the War |work=Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) |location=Washington, D.C. |date=22 April 2024 |access-date=12 March 2025 |last1=Snegovaya |first1=Maria |last2=Bergmann |first2=Max |last3=Dolbaia |first3=Tina |last4=Fenton |first4=Nicholas |last5=Bendett |first5=Samuel |archive-date=10 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250310181645/https://www.csis.org/analysis/back-stock-state-russias-defense-industry-after-two-years-war |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Roth |first=Andrew |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/feb/15/rate-of-russian-military-production-worries-european-war-planners |title='A lot higher than we expected': Russian arms production worries Europe's war planners |work=The Guardian |date=15 February 2024 |access-date=12 March 2024}}</ref>

=== Law, corruption and crime === {{Main|Law of Russia|Law enforcement in Russia|Crime in Russia|Corruption in Russia}}

Post-Soviet Russia under the regime of Vladimir Putin has been governed by a form of crony capitalism.<ref name="crony">{{cite book |last=Åslund |first=Anders |year=2019 |title=Russia's Crony Capitalism: The Path from Market Economy to Kleptocracy |pages=5–7 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-24486-1}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Ledeneva |first=Alena |title=Cronies, Economic Crime and Capitalism in Putin's Sistema |journal=International Affairs |publisher=Chatham House |volume=88 |number=1 |year=2012 |pages=149–157 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01062.x |jstor=41428546}}</ref> Its political system has been variously described as a kleptocracy,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fish |first=M. Steven |author-link=Steven Fish |title=What Has Russia Become? |jstor=26532689 |journal=Comparative Politics |volume=50 |number=3 |date=April 2018 |pages=327–346 |publisher=City University of New York |location=New York City |doi=10.5129/001041518822704872}}</ref> an oligarchy,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Guriev |first1=Sergei |last2=Rachinsky |first2=Andrei |title=The Role of Oligarchs in Russian Capitalism |year=2005 |volume=19 |number=1 |journal=The Journal of Economic Perspectives |pages=131–150 |publisher=American Economic Association |doi=10.1257/0895330053147994 |jstor=4134996 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and a plutocracy.<ref name="crony"/> {{As of|2024}}, it is the lowest rated European country in Transparency International's annual Corruption Perceptions Index, ranking 154th out of the 180 countries listed.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 February 2025 |title=Corruptions Perceptions Index 2024 |url=https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2024 |access-date=28 February 2025 |publisher=Transparency International |archive-date=11 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250211084918/https://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Alexei Navalny marching in 2017.jpg|thumb|Opposition leader Alexei Navalny leading protestors in Moscow in the nationwide anti-corruption protests of 2017–2018]] Corruption has significantly increased following the collapse of the Soviet Union,<ref name="SuharaManabu">{{cite web |author=Suhara, Manabu |title=Corruption in Russia: A Historical Perspective |url=https://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/sympo/03september/pdf/M_Suhara.pdf |publisher=Slavic-Eurasian Research Center |access-date=4 December 2015 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304192618/https://src-h.slav.hokudai.ac.jp/sympo/03september/pdf/M_Suhara.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> and is seen as a significant issue in society.<ref name="markus">{{cite journal |last=Markus |first=Stanislav |title=Oligarchs and Corruption in Putin's Russia: Of Sand Castles and Geopolitical Volunteering |journal=Georgetown Journal of International Affairs |volume=18 |number=2 |year=2017 |pages=26–32 |doi=10.1353/gia.2017.0017 |jstor=26396016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=New Reports Highlight Russia's Deep-Seated Culture of Corruption |url=https://www.voanews.com/europe/new-reports-highlight-russias-deep-seated-culture-corruption |publisher=Voice of America |date=26 January 2020 |access-date=16 March 2020 |archive-date=27 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200127020812/https://www.voanews.com/europe/new-reports-highlight-russias-deep-seated-culture-corruption |url-status=live}}</ref> It affects various sectors, including the economy,<ref name="markus"/> the government,<ref name="SuharaManabu"/> law enforcement,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gerber |first1=Theodore P. |last2=Mendelson |first2=Sarah E. |author2-link=Sarah E. Mendelson |title=Public Experiences of Police Violence and Corruption in Contemporary Russia: A Case of Predatory Policing? |jstor=29734103 |journal=Law & Society Review |volume=42 |number=1 |publisher=Wiley |date=March 2008 |pages=1–44 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-5893.2008.00333.x}}</ref> healthcare,<ref>{{cite web |author1=Klara Sabirianova Peter |first2=Tetyana |last2=Zelenska |year=2010 |title=Corruption in Russian Health Care: The Determinants and Incidence of Bribery |url=http://www.iza.org/conference_files/worldb2010/zelenska_t5300.pdf |publisher=Georgia State University |access-date=4 December 2015 |archive-date=8 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208075733/http://www.iza.org/conference_files/worldb2010/zelenska_t5300.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/corruption-pervades-russias-health-system/ |title=Corruption Pervades Russia's Health System |publisher=CBS News |date=28 June 2007 |access-date=20 November 2021 |archive-date=2 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302213758/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/corruption-pervades-russias-health-system/ |url-status=live}}</ref> education,<ref>{{cite web |first1=Elena |last1=Denisova-Schmidt |first2=Elvira |last2=Leontyeva |first3=Yaroslav |last3=Prytula |year=2014 |title=Corruption at Universities is a Common Disease for Russia and Ukraine |url=http://ethics.harvard.edu/blog/corruption-universities-common-disease-russia-and-ukraine |access-date=4 December 2015 |publisher=Harvard University |archive-date=8 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208155403/http://ethics.harvard.edu/blog/corruption-universities-common-disease-russia-and-ukraine |url-status=live}}</ref> and the military.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://rusi.org/explore-our-research/publications/commentary/corruption-russian-armed-forces |title=Corruption in the Russian Armed Forces |last1=Cranny-Evans |first1=Sam |last2=Ivshina |first2=Olga |date=12 May 2022 |publisher=Royal United Services Institute (RUSI) |location=Westminster |access-date=6 October 2022 |quote=Corruption in the Russian armed forces, and society in general, has been a long-acknowledged truism. |archive-date=6 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006212135/https://rusi.org/explore-our-research/publications/commentary/corruption-russian-armed-forces/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Russia's shadow economy was estimated to be about 44% of the total GDP in 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sauka |first1=Arnis |last2=Putniņš |first2=Tālis J. |title=Shadow Economy Index for Russia |url=https://www.sseriga.edu/shadow-economy-index-russia |publisher=Stockholm School of Economics in Riga |access-date=7 April 2025 |archive-date=2 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250402024333/https://www.sseriga.edu/shadow-economy-index-russia |url-status=live}}</ref> Penal military units have been deployed as storm troops during the ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War since 2022, such as the Storm-Z and Storm-V units.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-recruited-convicts-fierce-assault-units-storm-gladiator-/32806371.html |title=Storm Gladiator: How Russia Uses Recruited Convicts To Fight In 'Fierce' Assault Units In Ukraine |work=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |last1=Belovodyev |first1=Daniil |last2=Systema |date=5 February 2024 |access-date=7 April 2025 |archive-date=17 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250317042718/https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-recruited-convicts-fierce-assault-units-storm-gladiator-/32806371.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-67175566 |title=Ukraine war: Russia goes back to prisons to feed its war machine |work=BBC |last=Shevchenko |first=Vitaly |date=26 October 2023 |access-date=7 April 2025 |archive-date=6 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250606181758/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-67175566 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to estimates by the BBC, around 48,000 prisoners were recruited to fight for the Wagner Group.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c1e7vl01gngo |title=Russia's soldiers bringing wartime violence back home |work=BBC |last=Shevchenko |first=Vitaly |date=17 November 2024 |access-date=7 April 2025 |archive-date=22 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250322105616/https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c1e7vl01gngo |url-status=live}}</ref>

The primary and fundamental statement of laws in Russia is the constitution. Statutes, such as the Russian Civil Code and the Russian Criminal Code, are the predominant legal sources of Russian law.<ref>{{cite web |last=Partlett |first=William |title=Reclassifying Russian Law: Mechanisms, Outcomes, and Solutions for an Overly Politicized Field |website=Search eLibrary |date=7 July 2010 |ssrn=1197762 |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1197762 |access-date=23 May 2023 |archive-date=23 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230523233257/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1197762 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Butler |first1=William E. |title=Criminal Code of the Russian Federation |year=1999 |publisher=Springer}}</ref> Russia has the largest incarcerated population in Europe, and the fifth-largest incarcerated population in the world.<ref name="icjpr">{{cite web |url=https://www.icpr.org.uk/news-events/2024/prison-populations-continue-rise-many-parts-world-115-million-held-prisons |title=Prison populations continue to rise in many parts of the world, with 11.5 million held in prisons worldwide |work=Institute for Crime & Justice Policy Research |publisher=Birkbeck, University of London |date=1 May 2024 |access-date=7 April 2025 |archive-date=9 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241109143338/https://icpr.org.uk/news-events/2024/prison-populations-continue-rise-many-parts-world-115-million-held-prisons |url-status=live}}</ref> Its incarceration rate is among the highest in Europe,<ref>{{cite web |last=Adami |first=Marina |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/europe-prison-population-data-incarceration/ |title=Turkey, Russia lead Europe's incarceration rates |work=Politico |date=8 April 2021 |access-date=7 April 2025 |archive-date=6 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250606181806/https://www.politico.eu/article/europe-prison-population-data-incarceration/ |url-status=live}}</ref> although the number has fallen steadily, by 59% since 2000.<ref name="icjpr" /> {{As of|2021}}, Russia's intentional homicide rate stood at 6.8 per 100,000 people.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://genderdata.worldbank.org/en/indicator/vc-ihr-psrc-p5?gender=total |title=Intentional homicides (per 100,000 people) |work=World Bank |access-date=7 April 2025 |archive-date=16 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250416202920/https://genderdata.worldbank.org/en/indicator/vc-ihr-psrc-p5?gender=total |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2023, Russia had the world's second-largest illegal arms trade market, after the United States, was described as a key hub for human trafficking, and was ranked first in Europe and 19th globally in the Global Organized Crime Index.<ref>{{cite web |title=Criminality in Russia |website=The Organized Crime Index |date=4 May 2023 |url=https://ocindex.net/country/russia |access-date=16 April 2025 |archive-date=24 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250424161408/https://ocindex.net/country/russia |url-status=live}}</ref>

===Human rights=== {{Main|Human rights in Russia}}

Violations of human rights in Russia have been increasingly reported by leading democracy and human rights groups. In particular, Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch say that Russia is not democratic and allows few political rights and civil liberties to its citizens.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/europe-and-central-asia/russian-federation/ |title=Russian Federation |work=Amnesty International |publisher=Amnesty International |access-date=16 March 2020 |archive-date=20 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200320043314/https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/europe-and-central-asia/russian-federation/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/europe/central-asia/russia |title=Russia |publisher=Human Rights Watch |access-date=20 November 2021 |archive-date=13 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220413065628/https://www.hrw.org/europe/central-asia/russia |url-status=live}}</ref>

Since 2004, Freedom House has ranked Russia as "not free" in its ''Freedom in the World'' survey.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/russia/freedom-world/2021 |title=Russia: Freedom in the World 2021 |publisher=Freedom House |access-date=20 November 2021 |archive-date=13 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220413204526/https://freedomhouse.org/country/russia/freedom-world/2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Since 2011, the Economist Intelligence Unit has ranked Russia as an "authoritarian regime" in its Democracy Index, ranking it 150th out of 167 countries in 2024.<ref>{{Cite news |date=27 February 2025 |title=The global democracy index: how did countries perform in 2024? |url=https://www.economist.com/interactive/democracy-index-2024 |access-date=28 February 2025 |newspaper=The Economist |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250227005622/https://www.economist.com/interactive/democracy-index-2024 |archive-date=27 February 2025}}</ref> In regards to media freedom, Russia was ranked 162nd out of 180 countries in Reporters Without Borders' Press Freedom Index for 2024.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://rsf.org/en/russia |title=Russia |work=Reporters Without Borders |access-date=8 June 2022 |archive-date=13 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201213163540/https://rsf.org/en/russia |url-status=live}}</ref> The Russian government has been widely criticised by political dissidents and human rights activists for unfair elections,<ref>{{cite web |last=Simmons |first=Ann M. |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/russias-opposition-candidates-struggle-to-make-a-mark-in-election-11631886631 |title=In Russia's Election, Putin's Opponents Are Seeing Double |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=18 September 2021 |access-date=22 December 2021}}</ref> crackdowns on opposition political parties and protests,<ref>{{cite news |last=Kramer |first=Andrew E. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/10/world/europe/putin-navalny-russian-opposition-crackdown.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/10/world/europe/putin-navalny-russian-opposition-crackdown.html |archive-date=28 December 2021 |url-access=limited |title=In Shadow of Navalny Case, What's Left of the Russian Opposition? |work=The New York Times |date=10 June 2021 |access-date=24 November 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Seddon |first=Max |url=https://www.ft.com/content/e8889644-051c-41f6-a991-6a32091e5c54 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/e8889644-051c-41f6-a991-6a32091e5c54 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |title=Russian crackdown brings pro-Navalny protests to halt |work=Financial Times |date=13 February 2021 |access-date=24 November 2021}}</ref> persecution of non-governmental organisations and enforced suppression and killings of independent journalists,<ref>{{cite web |last=Goncharenko |first=Roman |url=https://www.dw.com/en/ngos-in-russia-battered-but-unbowed/a-41459467 |title=NGOs in Russia: Battered, but unbowed |work=DW News |publisher=Deutsche Welle |date=21 November 2017 |access-date=24 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last=Yaffa |first=Joshua |url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/dispatch/the-victims-of-putins-crackdown-on-the-press |title=The Victims of Putin's Crackdown On The Press |magazine=The New Yorker |date=7 September 2021 |access-date=24 November 2021 |archive-date=23 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123224350/http://www.newyorker.com/news/dispatch/the-victims-of-putins-crackdown-on-the-press |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Simon |first=Scott |title=Why Do Russian Journalists Keep Falling? |url=https://www.npr.org/2018/04/21/604497554/why-do-russian-journalists-keep-falling |date=21 April 2018 |work=NPR |access-date=7 October 2022 |archive-date=3 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003104459/https://www.npr.org/2018/04/21/604497554/why-do-russian-journalists-keep-falling |url-status=live}}</ref> and censorship of mass media and internet.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/06/18/russia-growing-internet-isolation-control-censorship |title=Russia: Growing Internet Isolation, Control, Censorship |publisher=Human Rights Watch |date=18 June 2020 |access-date=24 November 2021 |archive-date=12 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412225449/https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/06/18/russia-growing-internet-isolation-control-censorship |url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Protest against the invasion of Ukraine (Yekaterinburg, February 24, 2022).jpg|thumb|Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, anti-war protests broke out across Russia. The protests have been met with widespread repression, leading to about 15,000 people being arrested.<ref>{{cite web |last=Shevchenko |first=Vitaliy |date=15 March 2022 |title=Ukraine war: Protester exposes cracks in Kremlin's war message |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60749064 |access-date=3 April 2022 |publisher=BBC}}</ref>]]

Muslims, especially Salafis, have faced persecution in Russia.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Herszenhorn |first=David M. |date=1 July 2015 |title=Russia Sees a Threat in Its Converts to Islam |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/02/world/russia-sees-a-threat-in-its-converts-to-islam.html |url-status=live |issn=0362-4331 |url-access=limited |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150703140541/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/02/world/russia-sees-a-threat-in-its-converts-to-islam.html |archive-date=3 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=21 April 2021 |title=U.S. Report Says Russia Among 'Worst Violators' Of Religious Freedom |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-worst-violators-religious-freedom-report-iran-turkmenistan/31215737.html |website=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |language=en |access-date=17 November 2022 |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307100648/https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-worst-violators-religious-freedom-report-iran-turkmenistan/31215737.html |url-status=live}}</ref> To quash the insurgency in the North Caucasus, Russian authorities have been accused of indiscriminate killings,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Clancy Chassay |date=19 September 2009 |title=Russian killings and kidnaps extend dirty war in Ingushetia |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/sep/20/ingushetia-dirty-war-russia |url-status=live |website=The Guardian |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117091935/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/sep/20/ingushetia-dirty-war-russia |archive-date=17 November 2022}}</ref> arrests, forced disappearances, and torture of civilians.<ref>{{Cite web |last=DENIS SOKOLOV |date=20 August 2016 |title=Putin's Savage War Against Russia's 'New Muslims' |url=https://www.newsweek.com/putin-savage-war-against-russia-new-muslims-490783 |access-date=17 November 2022 |website=Newsweek |language=en |archive-date=17 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117091931/https://www.newsweek.com/putin-savage-war-against-russia-new-muslims-490783 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=🇷🇺Ingushetia: A second Chechnya? l People and Power |date=13 October 2010 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0_kHz8bhMFc&t=504s |publisher=Al Jazeera |language=en |access-date=17 November 2022 |archive-date=17 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117091931/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0_kHz8bhMFc&t=504s |url-status=live}}</ref> In Dagestan, some Salafis along with facing government harassment based on their appearance, have had their homes blown up in counterinsurgency operations.<ref>{{Citation |title=Russia's Invisible War: Crackdown on Salafi Muslims in Dagestan |date=17 June 2015 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rfjsgSiBkZQ |publisher=Human Rights Watch |language=en |access-date=17 November 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Associated Press |date=25 November 2015 |title=Russian Crackdown on Muslims Fuels Exodus to IS |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/russian-crackdown-on-muslims-fuels-exodus-to-islamic-state/3073139.html |website=Voice of America |language=en |access-date=17 November 2022 |archive-date=17 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117091931/https://www.voanews.com/a/russian-crackdown-on-muslims-fuels-exodus-to-islamic-state/3073139.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Chechens and Ingush in Russian prisons reportedly take more abuse than other ethnic groups.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Mairbek Vatchagaev |date=9 April 2015 |title=Abuse of Chechens and Ingush in Russian Prisons Creates Legions of Enemies |url=https://jamestown.org/program/abuse-of-chechens-and-ingush-in-russian-prisons-creates-legions-of-enemies-2/ |website=Jamestown Foundation}}</ref> During the 2022 invasion of Ukraine, Russia has set up filtration camps where many Ukrainians are subjected to abuses and forcibly sent to Russia; the camps have been compared to those used in the Chechen Wars.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Marquise Francis |date=7 April 2022 |title=What are Russian 'filtration camps'? |url=https://news.yahoo.com/what-are-russian-filtration-camps-194643731.html |website=Yahoo! News |language=en-US |access-date=17 November 2022 |archive-date=17 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117091931/https://news.yahoo.com/what-are-russian-filtration-camps-194643731.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Katie Bo Lillis, Kylie Atwood and Natasha Bertrand |title=Russia is depopulating parts of eastern Ukraine, forcibly removing thousands into remote parts of Russia |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/05/26/politics/ukraine-filtration-camps-forcibly-remove-russia/index.html |access-date=17 November 2022 |website=CNN |date=26 May 2022 |archive-date=17 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221117091931/https://www.cnn.com/2022/05/26/politics/ukraine-filtration-camps-forcibly-remove-russia/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Political repression also increased following the start of the invasion, with laws adopted that establish punishments for "discrediting" the armed forces.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Weir |first1=Fred |title=In Russia, critiquing the Ukraine war could land you in prison |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2022/1205/In-Russia-critiquing-the-Ukraine-war-could-land-you-in-prison |work=CSMonitor.com |date=5 December 2022 |archive-date=2 June 2023 |access-date=15 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602022102/https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2022/1205/In-Russia-critiquing-the-Ukraine-war-could-land-you-in-prison |url-status=live}}</ref>

Russia has introduced several restrictions on LGBTQ rights. In 2013, an anti-LGBTQ law banning "gay propaganda" was unanimously passed by the State Duma and the Federation Council, later being signed into law by Vladimir Putin.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/11/russia-law-banning-gay-propaganda |title=Russia passes law banning gay 'propaganda' |work=The Guardian |date=11 June 2013 |last=Elder |first=Miriam |access-date=17 April 2025 |archive-date=10 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200410184402/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/11/russia-law-banning-gay-propaganda |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2020, the Russian parliament legalised a constitutional ban on same-sex marriage,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out/russian-voters-back-referendum-banning-same-sex-marriage-n1232802 |title=Russian voters back referendum banning same-sex marriage |work=NBC News |access-date=17 April 2025 |date=3 July 2020 |last=Venkatraman |first=Sakshi |archive-date=9 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200709040916/https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out/russian-voters-back-referendum-banning-same-sex-marriage-n1232802 |url-status=live}}</ref> and in 2021 the Ministry of Justice designated the LGBTQ rights group Russian LGBT Network as a "foreign agent".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2021/11/russia-frontline-group-lgbt-network-and-human-rights-lawyers-branded-foreign-agents/ |title=Russia: Frontline group LGBT-Network and human rights lawyers branded "foreign agents" |date=9 November 2021 |work=Amnesty International |access-date=17 April 2025 |archive-date=6 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250606181757/https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2021/11/russia-frontline-group-lgbt-network-and-human-rights-lawyers-branded-foreign-agents/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2022, further amendments were made to the 2013 anti-LGBTQ law.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2022/12/05/europe/russia-lgbtq-propaganda-law-signed-by-putin-intl/index.html |title=Putin signs expanded anti-LGBTQ laws in Russia, in latest crackdown on rights |work=CNN |date=5 December 2022 |access-date=17 April 2025 |last1=Kottasová |first1=Ivana |last2=Chernova |first2=Anna |archive-date=18 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250318172700/https://edition.cnn.com/2022/12/05/europe/russia-lgbtq-propaganda-law-signed-by-putin-intl/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2023, the Russian parliament passed a bill banning gender reassignment surgery for transgender people and the Supreme Court of Russia banned the international LGBTQ movement as "extremist", outlawing it in the country.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-66200194 |title=Russian parliament bans gender reassignment surgery for trans people |last=Murphy |first=Matt |date=14 July 2023 |access-date=17 April 2025 |work=BBC |archive-date=16 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250416100656/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-66200194 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/11/30/russia-supreme-court-bans-lgbt-movement-extremist |title=Russia: Supreme Court Bans LGBT Movement as "Extremist" |work=Human Rights Watch |date=30 November 2023 |access-date=17 April 2025 |archive-date=23 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250423210144/https://www.hrw.org/news/2023/11/30/russia-supreme-court-bans-lgbt-movement-extremist |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2024, the Supreme Court issued the first convictions from the latter ruling.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/02/15/russia-first-convictions-under-lgbt-extremist-ruling |title=Russia: First Convictions Under LGBT 'Extremist' Ruling |date=15 February 2024 |access-date=17 April 2025 |work=Human Rights Watch |archive-date=13 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250513103618/https://www.hrw.org/news/2024/02/15/russia-first-convictions-under-lgbt-extremist-ruling |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Economy == {{Main|Economy of Russia}}

{{Further|Economic history of the Russian Federation|Taxation in Russia}} Russia has a high-income,<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Bank Country and Lending Groups – World Bank Data Help Desk |url=https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups |access-date=1 July 2024 |website=datahelpdesk.worldbank.org |archive-date=28 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028223324/https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups |url-status=live}}</ref> industrialised,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100002206 |title=Industrial countries |work=Oxford Reference |publisher=Oxford University Press |access-date=3 August 2024 |quote="...and the countries of the former Soviet Union and Central and Eastern Europe, of which several, including Russia and the Czech Republic, are heavily industrialized." |archive-date=3 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240803212051/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100002206 |url-status=live}}</ref> mixed market-oriented economy following a turbulent transition from the Soviet planned model during the 1990s.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=295–382|loc=The Economy}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rutland |first=Peter |title=Neoliberalism and the Russian Transition |journal=Review of International Political Economy |volume=20 |number=2 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2013 |pages=332–362 |doi=10.1080/09692290.2012.727844 |jstor=42003296}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Robinson |first=Neil |title=August 1998 and the Development of Russia's Post-Communist Political Economy |journal=Review of International Political Economy |volume=16 |number=3 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2009 |pages=433–455 |doi=10.1080/09692290802418161 |jstor=27756169}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Charap |first=Samuel |title=No Obituaries Yet for Capitalism in Russia |journal=Current History |volume=108 |number=720 |publisher=University of California Press |year=2009 |pages=333–338 |doi=10.1525/curh.2009.108.720.333 |jstor=45319724}}</ref> According to the International Monetary Fund, it has the ninth-largest economy by nominal GDP and the fourth-largest economy by GDP (PPP).<ref name="IMFWEO.RU"/> {{As of|2023}}, the service sector accounts for roughly 57% of total GDP, followed by the industrial sector (30%), while the agricultural sector is the smallest, at 3% of total GDP.<ref name="cia"/> It has a labour force of about 73 million, which is the eighth-largest in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.TOTL.IN?locations=RU |title=Labor force, total - Russian Federation |work=World Bank |access-date=12 March 2025 |archive-date=28 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328001737/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.TOTL.IN?locations=RU |url-status=live}}</ref> Russia's largest trading partner is China.<ref name="oec">{{cite web |url=https://oec.world/en/profile/country/rus |title=Russia (RUS) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners |work=The Observatory of Economic Complexity |access-date=17 April 2025 |archive-date=13 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250413093848/https://oec.world/en/profile/country/rus |url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Moscow-City 2025.jpg|thumb|The Moscow International Business Center]] Russia's human development is ranked as "very high" in the annual Human Development Index.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/specific-country-data#/countries/RUS |title=Russian Federation |work=United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) |access-date=5 August 2024 |quote=Russian Federation's HDI value for 2022 is 0.821— which put the country in the Very High human development category—positioning it at 56 out of 193 countries and territories. |archive-date=12 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812054834/https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/specific-country-data#/countries/RUS |url-status=live}}</ref> Roughly 70% of Russia's total GDP is driven by final consumption,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.CON.TOTL.ZS?most_recent_value_desc=true&locations=RU |title=Final consumption expenditure (% of GDP) – Russia |work=World Bank |access-date=5 August 2024 |archive-date=5 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240805103324/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.CON.TOTL.ZS?most_recent_value_desc=true&locations=RU |url-status=live}}</ref> and the country has the world's twelfth-largest consumer market.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.CON.PRVT.CD?most_recent_value_desc=true&year_high_desc=true |title=Household final consumption expenditure (current US$) |publisher=World Bank |access-date=5 August 2024 |archive-date=11 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111211439/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.CON.PRVT.CD?most_recent_value_desc=true |url-status=live}}</ref> Russia has the fifth-highest number of billionaires in the world.<ref>{{cite web |title=Forbes Billionaires 2021 |url=https://www.forbes.com/billionaires/ |website=Forbes |access-date=13 April 2021 |archive-date=4 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190104180124/https://www.forbes.com/billionaires/list/3/ |url-status=live}}</ref> However, its income inequality remains comparatively high compared to other developed countries.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ATAG/2018/620225/EPRS_ATA(2018)620225_EN.pdf |title=Socioeconomic inequality in Russia |journal=European Parliamentary Research Service |publisher=European Parliament |date=April 2018 |last=Russell |first=Martin |access-date=25 January 2022 |archive-date=17 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217150505/https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ATAG/2018/620225/EPRS_ATA(2018)620225_EN.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> The variance of natural resources among its federal subjects has also led to regional economic disparities.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Remington |first=Thomas F. |title=Why is interregional inequality in Russia and China not falling? |volume=48 |number=1 |date=March 2015 |publisher=University of California Press |journal=Communist and Post-Communist Studies |pages=1–13 |doi=10.1016/j.postcomstud.2015.01.005 |jstor=48610321}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kholodilin |first1=Konstantin A. |last2=Oshchepkov |first2=Aleksey |last3=Siliverstovs |first3=Boriss |title=The Russian Regional Convergence Process: Where Is It Leading? |year=2012 |volume=50 |number=3 |pages=5–26 |journal=Eastern European Economics |publisher=Taylor & Francis |doi=10.2753/EEE0012-8775500301 |jstor=41719700}}</ref> High levels of corruption,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schulze |first1=Günther G. |last2=Sjahrir |first2=Bambang Suharnoko |last3=Zakharov |first3=Nikita |title=Corruption in Russia |journal=The Journal of Law and Economics |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |volume=59 |number=1 |date=February 2016 |pages=135–171 |doi=10.1086/684844 |jstor=26456942}}</ref> declining oil export revenues,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/russia-oil-surcharge-anticipating-benefits-and-challenges |title=The Russia Oil Surcharge: Anticipating the Benefits and Challenges |last=Seigle |first=Clayton |date=26 August 2025 |access-date=4 September 2025 |work=Center for Strategic and International Studies |location=Washington, D.C. |archive-date=27 August 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250827115304/https://www.csis.org/analysis/russia-oil-surcharge-anticipating-benefits-and-challenges |url-status=live}}</ref> a shrinking labour force,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kapeliushnikov |first=Rostislav I. |title=The Russian labor market: Long-term trends and short-term fluctuations |publisher=Voprosy Ekonomiki |journal=Russian Journal of Economics |volume=9 |number=3 |pages=245–270 |date=3 October 2023 |doi=10.32609/j.ruje.9.113503 |url=https://zenodo.org/records/8409563/files/RUJEC_article_113503.pdf |archive-date=15 December 2024 |access-date=6 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241215195325/https://zenodo.org/records/8409563/files/RUJEC_article_113503.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> human capital flight,<ref>{{cite web |last=Sor |first=Jennifer |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/russia-economy-outlook-ukraine-war-worker-shortage-population-brain-drain-2024-8 |title=Why Russia's brain drain is the biggest problem facing its economy |publisher=Business Insider |date=8 November 2024 |access-date=4 September 2025 |archive-date=25 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250725063450/https://www.businessinsider.com/russia-economy-outlook-ukraine-war-worker-shortage-population-brain-drain-2024-8 |url-status=live}}</ref> and an aging and declining population also remain major barriers to future economic growth.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mikhailova |first1=Olga |last2=Safarova |first2=Gaiane |last3=Safarova |first3=Anna |title=Population ageing and policy responses in the Russian Federation |journal=International Journal on Ageing in Developing Countries |year=2018 |pages=6–26 |number=1 |volume=3 |url=https://inia.org.mt/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/3.2-Mikhailova-et-al..pdf |publisher=International Institute on Aging |archive-date=19 February 2025 |access-date=6 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250219225033/https://inia.org.mt/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/3.2-Mikhailova-et-al..pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/content-series/russia-tomorrow/a-russia-without-russians-putins-disastrous-demographics/ |title=A Russia without Russians? Putin's disastrous demographics |date=7 August 2024 |access-date=9 August 2024 |publisher=Atlantic Council |location=Washington, D.C. |archive-date=8 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240808073201/https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/content-series/russia-tomorrow/a-russia-without-russians-putins-disastrous-demographics/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the country has faced extensive sanctions and other negative financial actions from the Western world and its allies which have the aim of isolating the Russian economy from the Western financial system.<ref name="Walsh-2022"/> However, Russia has completed its transition into a war economy,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy2404 |title=As Russia Completes Transition to a Full War Economy, Treasury Takes Sweeping Aim at Foundational Financial Infrastructure and Access to Third Country Support |date=12 June 2024 |access-date=6 March 2025 |work=United States Department of the Treasury |archive-date=13 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240613110004/https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy2404 |url-status=live}}</ref> and has shown resilience to such measures broadly, maintaining economic stability and growth—driven primarily by high military expenditure,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Luzin |first1=Pavel |last2=Prokopenko |first2=Alexandra |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/russia-eurasia/politika/2023/09/russias-2024-budget-shows-its-planning-for-a-long-war-in-ukraine?lang=en |title=Russia's 2024 Budget Shows It's Planning for a Long War in Ukraine |publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |location=Washington, D.C. |date=11 October 2023 |access-date=3 August 2024 |quote=The war against Ukraine and the West is not only the Kremlin's biggest priority; it is now also the main driver of Russia's economic growth. |archive-date=12 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231012082647/https://carnegieendowment.org/politika/90753 |url-status=live}}</ref> rising household consumption and wages,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kurbangaleeva |first1=Ekaterina |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/russia-eurasia/politika/2024/05/russia-war-income?lang=en |title=Russia's Soaring Wartime Salaries Are Bolstering Working-Class Support for Putin |publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |location=Washington, D.C. |date=28 May 2024 |access-date=4 August 2024 |archive-date=8 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241008010534/https://carnegieendowment.org/russia-eurasia/politika/2024/05/russia-war-income?lang=en |url-status=live}}</ref> low unemployment,<ref name="reutersunem">{{cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/markets/europe/soaring-wages-record-low-unemployment-underscore-russias-labour-squeeze-2024-06-05/ |title=Soaring wages, record-low unemployment underscore Russia's labour squeeze |last1=Marrow |first1=Alexander |last2=Korsunskaya |first2=Darya |work=Reuters |date=5 June 2024 |access-date=4 August 2024 |quote=Russia's unemployment rate dropped to a record-low 2.6% in April and real wages soared in March, data published by the federal statistics service showed on Wednesday, highlighting the extent of Russia's tight labour market.}}</ref> and increased government spending.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c4nn7pej9jyo |title=Russia's economy is growing, but can it last? |last=Rosenberg |first=Steve |work=BBC News |publisher=BBC |date=6 June 2024 |access-date=3 August 2024 |archive-date=3 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240803220205/https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c4nn7pej9jyo |url-status=live}}</ref> Yet, inflation has remained comparatively high,<ref>{{Cite news |title=Russian inflation is too high. Does that matter? |url=https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2025/02/13/russian-inflation-is-too-high-does-that-matter |access-date=24 February 2025 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=26 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250226130959/https://www.economist.com/finance-and-economics/2025/02/13/russian-inflation-is-too-high-does-that-matter |url-status=live}}</ref> with experts predicting the sanctions will have a long-term negative effect on the Russian economy.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gorodnichenko |first1=Yuriy |last2=Korhonen |first2=Likka |last3=Ribakova |first3=Elina |url=https://cepr.org/voxeu/columns/russian-economy-war-footing-new-reality-financed-commodity-exports |title=The Russian economy on a war footing: A new reality financed by commodity exports |publisher=Centre for Economic Policy Research (CEPR) |location=London |date=24 May 2024 |access-date=3 August 2024}}</ref> Additionally, the international sanctions have led Russia to become heavily economically and technologically dependent on China.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Russia becomes China's 'junior partner'|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/08/12/china-russia-power-imbalance-putin-xi-junior-partner/|access-date=28 April 2023|newspaper=The Washington Post|language=en-US|issn=0190-8286|last=Tharoor|first=Ishaan|date=12 August 2022}}</ref><ref name=":152">{{Cite news |date=20 May 2026|title=How China quietly helps Russia in Ukraine|url=https://www.economist.com/china/2026/05/20/how-china-quietly-helps-russia-in-ukraine|url-access=subscription|access-date=2026-05-23|work=The Economist|issn=0013-0613}}</ref>

=== Transport and energy === {{Main|Transport in Russia|Energy in Russia}}

Railway transport in Russia is mostly controlled by the state-run Russian Railways. The total length of common-used railway tracks is the world's third-longest, exceeding {{convert|87000|km|mi|-2|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/railways/country-comparison |title=Railways – The World Factbook |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=15 June 2021 |archive-date=24 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181124012056/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2121rank.html}}</ref> {{As of|2019}}, Russia has the world's fifth-largest road network, with over 1.5 million km of roads.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://government.ru/info/22865/ |title=О развитии дорожной инфраструктуры |trans-title=On the development of road infrastructure |work=Government of Russia |date=29 April 2016 |access-date=14 January 2021 |archive-date=1 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901004438/http://government.ru/info/22865/ |url-status=live}}</ref> However, its road density is among the world's lowest, in part to its vast land area.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://worldroadstatistics.org/europe-central-asia-continue-to-report-the-worlds-highest-road-network-density-followed-by-east-asia-and-pacific/ |title=Europe continues to report the world's highest Road Network Density, followed by East Asia and Pacific. |work=International Road Federation |date=16 December 2020 |access-date=19 May 2021 |archive-date=19 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319083620/https://worldroadstatistics.org/europe-central-asia-continue-to-report-the-worlds-highest-road-network-density-followed-by-east-asia-and-pacific/ |url-status=live}}</ref> Russia's inland waterways are the longest in the world, totalling {{convert|102000|km|0|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/waterways/country-comparison |title=Waterways – The World Factbook |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=15 June 2021 |archive-date=12 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412005407/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/waterways/country-comparison}}</ref> It has over 900 airports,<ref>{{cite web |title=Airports – The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/airports/country-comparison |access-date=22 July 2024 |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |archive-date=3 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220403171702/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/airports/country-comparison/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> ranking seventh in the world, of which the busiest is Sheremetyevo International Airport in Moscow. The largest ports include the Port of Novorossiysk, the Great Port of Saint Petersburg and the Port of Vladivostok.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Korovyakovsky |first1=Eugene |last2=Panova |first2=Yulia |title=Dynamics of Russian dry ports |journal=Research in Transportation Economics |volume=33 |number=1 |year=2011 |publisher=Elsevier |doi=10.1016/j.retrec.2011.08.008 |pages=25–34}}</ref>

{{multiple image | direction = vertical | caption_align = center | align = right | image1 = VL 85-022 container train.jpg | caption1 = {{font|size=100%|text=The Trans-Siberian Railway is the longest railway line in the world, connecting Moscow to Vladivostok.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/trans-siberian-railway-russia-what-its-like-photos-2019-7 |title=I rode the legendary Trans-Siberian Railway on a 2,000-mile journey across 4 time zones in Russia. Here's what it was like spending 50 hours on the longest train line in the world. |work=Business Insider |first=Katie |last=Warren |date=3 January 2020 |access-date=10 June 2021 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331092048/https://www.businessinsider.com/trans-siberian-railway-russia-what-its-like-photos-2019-7 |url-status=live}}</ref>}} | image2 = Airbus A319-112, CSA - Czech Airlines AN2166020.jpg | caption2 = {{font|size=100%|text=Sheremetyevo International Airport is the busiest airport in Russia}}. }}

Russia has one of the world's largest amounts of energy resources throughout its vast landmass, particularly natural gas and oil, which play a crucial role in its energy self-sufficiency and exports.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=295–382|loc=The Economy}} It has been widely described as an energy superpower.<ref>{{cite book |editor=Elizabeth Buchanan |year=2021 |title=Russian Energy Strategy in the Asia-Pacific: Implications for Australia |publisher=Australian National University |page=86 |isbn=978-1-76046-339-7 |oclc=1246214035 |url={{GBurl |id=bdIwEAAAQBAJ |p=86}}}}</ref> Russia has the world's largest proven gas reserves,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/natural-gas-proved-reserves/country-comparison |title=Natural gas – proved reserves |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=15 February 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408174101/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/natural-gas-proved-reserves/country-comparison}}</ref> the second-largest coal reserves,<ref>{{cite web |year=2020 |title=Statistical Review of World Energy 69th edition |url=https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2020-full-report.pdf |access-date=8 November 2020 |website=bp.com |publisher=BP |page=45 |archive-date=19 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919060352/https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2020-full-report.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> the eighth-largest proven oil reserves,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/crude-oil-proved-reserves/country-comparison/ |title=Crude oil – proved reserves |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |access-date=2 July 2021 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326013732/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/crude-oil-proved-reserves/country-comparison/}}</ref> and the largest oil shale reserves in Europe.<ref>{{Cite book |year=2010 |title=2010 Survey of Energy Resources |url=https://www.worldenergy.org/assets/downloads/ser_2010_report_1.pdf |access-date=8 November 2020 |publisher=World Energy Council |page=102 |isbn=978-0-946121-02-1 |archive-date=4 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304064924/http://www.worldenergy.org/documents/ser_2010_report.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> {{As of|2023}}, it is also the second-largest producer<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eia.gov/international/rankings/world?pa=10&u=2&f=A&v=none&y=01%2F01%2F2023&ev=false |title=Dry natural gas production 2023 |work=Energy Information Administration (EIA) |access-date=6 March 2025}}</ref> and the third-largest exporter of natural gas,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.eia.gov/international/rankings/world?pa=89&u=2&f=A&v=none&y=01%2F01%2F2023&ev=false |title=Dry natural gas exports 2023 |work=Energy Information Administration (EIA) |access-date=6 March 2025 |archive-date=6 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250606181838/https://www.eia.gov/international/rankings/world?u=2&f=A&v=none&y=01%2F01%2F2023&ev=false&pa=89 |url-status=live}}</ref> as well as the second-largest producer and exporter of crude oil.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eia.gov/international/rankings/world?pa=173&u=2&f=A&v=none&y=01%2F01%2F2023&ev=false |title=Crude oil including lease condensate production 2023 |work=Energy Information Administration (EIA) |access-date=6 March 2025 |archive-date=16 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250416202922/https://www.eia.gov/international/rankings/world?pa=173&u=2&f=A&v=none&y=01%2F01%2F2023&ev=false |url-status=live}}</ref> Russia's large oil and gas sector accounted for 30% of its federal budget revenues in 2024, down from 50% in the mid-2010s, suggesting economic diversification.<ref>{{cite web |last=Yermakov |first=Vitaly |title=Fiscal Flex: Russia's oil and gas revenues in 2024 |date=February 2025 |publisher=Oxford Institute for Energy Studies |access-date=6 March 2025 |url=https://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Comment-Fiscal-Flex.pdf |archive-date=17 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250217124932/https://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Comment-Fiscal-Flex.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

Russia is the world's third-largest energy producer {{as of|2023|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eia.gov/international/rankings/world?pa=12&u=0&f=A&v=none&y=01%2F01%2F2023 |title=Total energy production 2023 |work=Energy Information Administration (EIA) |access-date=6 March 2025 |archive-date=7 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250207002522/https://www.eia.gov/international/rankings/world?v=none&y=01%2F01%2F2023&pa=12&u=0&f=A |url-status=live}}</ref> Fossil fuels account for over 64% of energy production and 87% of energy consumption.<ref name="energy">{{Cite journal |last1=Ritchie |first1=Hannah |author1-link=Hannah Ritchie |title=Russia: Energy Country Profile |url=https://ourworldindata.org/energy/country/russia |journal=Our World in Data |date=27 October 2022 |access-date=6 March 2025 |archive-date=24 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250224230819/https://ourworldindata.org/energy/country/russia |url-status=live}}</ref> Natural gas is by far the largest source of energy, comprising over half of the energy production and 42% of electricity consumption.<ref name="energy"/> Russia was the first country to develop civilian nuclear power, building the world's first nuclear power plant in 1954, and remains a pioneer in nuclear energy technology and is considered a world leader in fast neutron reactors.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Nuclear Power in Russia |url=https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-o-s/russia-nuclear-power |access-date=22 July 2024 |work=World Nuclear Association}}</ref> Russia is the world's fourth-largest nuclear energy producer. Russian energy policy aims to expand the role of nuclear energy and develop new reactor technology.<ref name=":4" /> Russia is the sole country that builds and operates nuclear-powered icebreakers,<ref name="icebreaker">{{cite journal |last1=Lysenko |first1=Mikhail N. |last2=Alexander N. |first2=Vylegzhanin |last3=Oran R. |first3=Young |title=Nuclear Safety and Security in the Arctic: Crafting an Effective Regional Governance System |journal=Arctic Review on Law and Politics |volume=13 |year=2022 |pages=191–212 |doi=10.23865/arctic.v13.3820 |jstor=48710665 |doi-access=free}}</ref> which ease navigation along the Northern Sea Route,<ref name="icebreaker"/>{{rp|192}} and aid in utilising its Arctic policy in its continental shelf.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rumer |first1=Eugene |last2=Sokolsky |first2=Richard |last3=Stronski |first3=Paul |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2021/03/russia-in-the-arctica-critical-examination |title=Russia in the Arctic—A Critical Examination |journal=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |location=Washington, D.C. |date=29 March 2021 |access-date=14 March 2025 |archive-date=11 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241211134008/https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2021/03/russia-in-the-arctica-critical-examination/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Russia joined the Paris Agreement on climate change in 2015, and ratified the agreement in 2019.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mitrova |first=Tatiana |date=27 July 2021 |title=Is Russia Finally Ready to Tackle Climate Change? |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/posts/2021/07/is-russia-finally-ready-to-tackle-climate-change?lang=en |access-date=6 March 2025 |work=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |location=Washington, D.C. |archive-date=24 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250324223952/https://carnegieendowment.org/posts/2021/07/is-russia-finally-ready-to-tackle-climate-change?lang=en |url-status=live}}</ref> Its greenhouse gas emissions are the fourth-largest in the world {{as of|2023|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/pdfs/news/expert/2018/3/story/20180301STO98928/20180301STO98928_en.pdf |title=Greenhouse gas emissions by country and sector (infographic) |date=12 February 2024 |work=European Parliament |access-date=6 March 2025 |archive-date=20 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250520054810/https://www.europarl.europa.eu/pdfs/news/expert/2018/3/story/20180301STO98928/20180301STO98928_en.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Coal accounts for over 10% of its energy consumption.<ref name="energy"/> Russia is the fifth-largest hydroelectric producer {{as of|2022|lc=y}},<ref>{{cite book |last1=Whiteman |first1=Adrian |last2=Akande |first2=Dennis |last3=Elhassan |first3=Nazik |last4=Escamilla |first4=Gerardo |last5=Lebedys |first5=Arvydas |last6=Arkhipova |first6=Lana |url=https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/Apr/IRENA_RE_Capacity_Statistics_2021.pdf |title=Renewable Energy Capacity Statistics 2021 |access-date=3 January 2022 |location=Abu Dhabi |publisher=International Renewable Energy Agency |date=2021 |isbn=978-92-9260-342-7 |archive-date=27 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210827043106/https://www.irena.org/-/media/Files/IRENA/Agency/Publication/2021/Apr/IRENA_RE_Capacity_Statistics_2021.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> with hydroelectric power contributing almost a fifth to the total energy generation (17%).<ref name="energy"/> Though it is the eighth-largest renewable energy producer {{as of|2023|lc=y}}, the use and development of other renewable energy resources remain negligible,<ref name="energy"/> as Russia is among the few countries without strong governmental or public support for a renewable energy transition.<ref name=":5">{{cite web |date=October 2020 |title=Nuclear Power Today |url=https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx |access-date=8 November 2020 |publisher=World Nuclear Association |archive-date=16 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716094103/https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/current-and-future-generation/nuclear-power-in-the-world-today.aspx |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Agriculture and fishery === {{Main|Agriculture in Russia|Fishing industry in Russia}}

[[File:Wheat Tomsk.jpg|thumb|Wheat in Tomsk Oblast, Siberia]] Agriculture, forestry and fishing contributes about 3.3% of the country's total GDP {{as of|2023|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NV.AGR.TOTL.ZS?locations=RU |title=Agriculture, forestry, and fishing, value added (% of GDP) - Russian Federation |publisher=World Bank |access-date=6 March 2025}}</ref> It has the world's fourth-largest cultivated area, at {{convert|1265267|km2}}. However, due to the harshness of its environment, only about 13.1% of its land is agricultural,<ref name="cia"/> with an additional 7.4% being arable.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS?locations=RU |title=Arable land (% of land area) – Russian Federation |publisher=World Bank |access-date=15 June 2021 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408174313/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS?locations=RU |url-status=live}}</ref> The country's agricultural land is considered part of the "breadbasket" of Europe.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/system-shock-russias-war-and-global-food-energy-and-mineral-supply-chains |title=System Shock: Russia's War and Global Food, Energy, and Mineral Supply Chains |work=Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars |location=Washington, D.C. |date=13 April 2022 |access-date=24 June 2022 |quote=Together, Russia and Ukraine—sometimes referred to as the breadbasket of Europe—account for 29% of global wheat exports, 80% of the world's sunflower oil, and 40% of its barley. |archive-date=28 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220628222413/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/system-shock-russias-war-and-global-food-energy-and-mineral-supply-chains |url-status=live}}</ref> More than one-third of the sown area is devoted to fodder crops, and the remaining farmland is used industrial crops, vegetables, and fruits.<ref name="agriculturebritannica">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Economy |title=Russia – Economy |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=1 July 2021 |archive-date=12 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412055856/https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Economy |url-status=live}}</ref> The main product of Russian farming has always been grain, which occupies well over half the cropland.<ref name="agriculturebritannica"/> Russia is the world's largest exporter of wheat and the largest producer of barley and buckwheat.<ref name="oec"/><ref name="fao">{{cite web |url=https://www.fao.org/3/cb9236en/cb9236en.pdf |title=The importance of Ukraine and the Russian Federation for global agricultural markets and the risks associated with the current conflict |date=25 March 2022 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |location=Rome |access-date=8 July 2022 |archive-date=8 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230508073130/https://www.fao.org/3/cb9236en/cb9236en.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> It is also among the largest exporters of maize and sunflower oil, as well as the leading producer of fertiliser.<ref name="fao"/><ref name="oec"/>

Various analysts of climate change adaptation foresee large opportunities for Russian agriculture during the rest of the 21st century as arability increases in Siberia, which would lead to both internal and external migration to the region.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/12/16/magazine/russia-climate-migration-crisis.html |title=How Russia Wins the Climate Crisis |work=The New York Times |first=Abrahm |last=Lustgarten |date=16 December 2020 |access-date=15 June 2021 |url-access=limited |quote=Across Eastern Russia, wild forests, swamps and grasslands are slowly being transformed into orderly grids of soybeans, corn and wheat. It's a process that is likely to accelerate: Russia hopes to seize on the warming temperatures and longer growing seasons brought by climate change to refashion itself as one of the planet's largest producers of food |archive-date=14 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414034549/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/12/16/magazine/russia-climate-migration-crisis.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Owing to its large coastline along three oceans and twelve marginal seas, Russia maintains the world's sixth-largest fishing industry, capturing nearly 5 million tons of fish in 2018.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.fao.org/3/i9540en/i9540en.pdf |title=The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization |date=2018 |access-date=4 February 2021 |location=Rome |isbn=978-92-5-130562-1 |archive-date=11 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211011147/http://www.fao.org/3/I9540EN/i9540en.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> It is home to the world's finest caviar, the beluga, and produces about one-third of all canned fish and some one-fourth of the world's total fresh and frozen fish.<ref name="agriculturebritannica"/>

=== Science and technology === {{Main|Science and technology in Russia}}

{{See also|Timeline of Russian innovation|List of Russian scientists|List of Russian inventors}}  Russia spent about 1% of its GDP on research and development in 2019, with the world's tenth-highest budget.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://data.oecd.org/rd/gross-domestic-spending-on-r-d.htm |title=Gross domestic spending on R&D |website=OECD Data |date=2017 |doi=10.1787/d8b068b4-en |access-date=4 April 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170114013730/https://data.oecd.org/rd/gross-domestic-spending-on-r-d.htm |url-access=subscription}}</ref> It also ranked tenth worldwide in the number of scientific publications in 2020, with roughly 1.3 million papers.<ref>{{cite web |year=2020 |title=SJR – International Science Ranking |url=https://www.scimagojr.com/countryrank.php?year=2020 |access-date=3 February 2022 |publisher=SCImago Journal Rank |archive-date=7 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230607031448/https://www.scimagojr.com/countryrank.php?year=2020 |url-status=live}}</ref> Since 1904, Nobel Prize were awarded to 26 Soviets and Russians in physics, chemistry, medicine, economy, literature and peace.<ref>{{cite news |date=10 December 2019 |script-title=ru:Кто из российских и советских ученых и литераторов становился лауреатом Нобелевской премии |trans-title=Which of the Russian and Soviet scientists and writers became the Nobel Prize laureate |url=https://tass.ru/info/7308739 |access-date=8 November 2020 |script-website=ru:ТАСС |agency=TASS |language=ru |newspaper=Tacc |archive-date=16 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116173301/https://tass.ru/info/7308739 |url-status=live}}</ref> Russia ranked 60th in the Global Innovation Index in 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025 |url=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en/russian-federation |access-date=16 October 2025 |website=WIPO}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2025/en/index.html |title=Global Innovation Index 2025: Innovation at a Crossroads |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |year=2025 |isbn=978-92-805-3797-0 |page=19 |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.58864 |access-date=17 October 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_gii_2021/ru.pdf |title=RUSSIAN FEDERATION |work=World Intellectual Property Organization |publisher=United Nations |access-date=17 November 2021 |archive-date=14 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240114054921/https://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo_pub_gii_2021/ru.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

Since the times of Nikolay Lobachevsky, who pioneered the non-Euclidean geometry, and Pafnuty Chebyshev, a prominent tutor, Russian mathematicians became among the world's most influential.<ref name="math">{{cite journal |last=Vucinich |first=Alexander |title=Mathematics in Russian Culture |jstor=2708192 |doi=10.2307/2708192 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |volume=21 |number=2 |year=1960 |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |pages=161–179}}</ref> Dmitry Mendeleev invented the Periodic table, the main framework of modern chemistry.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Leicester |first=Henry M. |title=Factors Which Led Mendeleev to the Periodic Law |jstor=27757115 |doi=10.2307/27757115 |year=1948 |pages=67–74 |publisher=University of California Press |journal=Chymia |volume=1}}</ref> Nine Soviet and Russian mathematicians have been awarded with the Fields Medal. Grigori Perelman was offered the first ever Clay Millennium Prize Problems Award for his final proof of the Poincaré conjecture in 2002, as well as the Fields Medal in 2006.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Morgan |first=Frank |title=Manifolds with Density and Perelman's Proof of the Poincaré Conjecture |jstor=27642690 |volume=116 |number=2 |pages=134–142 |date=February 2009 |journal=The American Mathematical Monthly |publisher=Taylor & Francis |doi=10.1080/00029890.2009.11920920}}</ref> [[File:M.V. Lomonosov by L.Miropolskiy after G.C.Prenner (1787, RAN).jpg|thumb|upright|Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765), polymath scientist, inventor, poet and artist]] Alexander Popov was among the inventors of radio,<ref>{{cite web |author1-link=Allison Marsh |last=Marsh |first=Allison |url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/who-invented-radio-guglielmo-marconi-or-aleksandr-popov |title=Who Invented Radio: Guglielmo Marconi or Aleksandr Popov? |work=IEEE Spectrum |publisher=Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers |date=30 April 2020 |access-date=12 July 2021 |archive-date=16 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416082156/https://spectrum.ieee.org/tech-history/dawn-of-electronics/who-invented-radio-guglielmo-marconi-or-aleksandr-popov |url-status=live}}</ref> while Nikolai Basov and Alexander Prokhorov were co-inventors of laser and maser.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shampo |first1=Marc A. |last2=Kyle |first2=Robert A. |last3=Steensma |first3=David P. |title=Nikolay Basov – Nobel Prize for Lasers and Masers |journal=Mayo Clinic Proceedings |date=January 2012 |volume=87 |issue=1 |article-number=e3 |doi=10.1016/j.mayocp.2011.11.003 |pmid=22212977 |pmc=3498096}}</ref> Oleg Losev made crucial contributions in the field of semiconductor junctions, and discovered light-emitting diodes.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Zheludev |first=Nikolay |title=The life and times of the LED – a 100-year history |date=April 2007 |volume=1 |pages=189–192 |doi=10.1038/nphoton.2007.34 |journal=Nature Photonics |issue=4 |bibcode=2007NaPho...1..189Z}}</ref> Vladimir Vernadsky is considered one of the founders of geochemistry, biogeochemistry, and radiogeology.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ghilarov |first=Alexej M. |title=Vernadsky's Biosphere Concept: An Historical Perspective |jstor=3036242 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |volume=70 |number=2 |journal=The Quarterly Review of Biology |date=June 1995 |pages=193–203 |doi=10.1086/418982}}</ref> Élie Metchnikoff is known for his groundbreaking research in immunology.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gordon |first=Siamon |title=Elie Metchnikoff, the Man and the Myth |journal=Journal of Innate Immunity |pmid=26836137 |date=3 February 2016 |volume=8 |number=3 |pages=223–227 |doi=10.1159/000443331 |pmc=6738810 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ivan Pavlov is known chiefly for his work in classical conditioning.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Anrep |first=G. V. |title=Ivan Petrovich Pavlov. 1849–1936 |jstor=769124 |publisher=Royal Society |volume=2 |number=5 |date=December 1936 |pages=1–18 |journal=Obituary Notices of Fellows of the Royal Society |doi=10.1098/rsbm.1936.0001 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Lev Landau made fundamental contributions to many areas of theoretical physics.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gorelik |first=Gennady |title=The Top-Secret Life of Lev Landau |jstor=24995874 |journal=Scientific American |volume=277 |number=2 |pages=72–77 |date=August 1997 |publisher=Scientific American, a division of Nature America, Inc. |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0897-72 |bibcode=1997SciAm.277b..72G}}</ref>

Nikolai Vavilov was best known for having identified the centres of origin of cultivated plants.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Janick |first=Jules |title=Nikolai Ivanovich Vavilov: Plant Geographer, Geneticist, Martyr of Science |doi-access=free |doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.50.6.772 |date=1 June 2015 |url=https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/pdfs/772.full.pdf |volume=50 |number=6 |journal=HortScience |pages=772–776 |archive-date=2 April 2022 |access-date=20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220402131158/https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/pdfs/772.full.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> Trofim Lysenko was known mainly for Lysenkoism.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Zhengrong |last2=Liu |first2=Yongsheng |year=2017 |title=Lysenko and Russian genetics: an alternative view |journal=European Journal of Human Genetics |volume=25 |number=10 |pages=1097–1098 |doi=10.1038/ejhg.2017.117 |issn=1476-5438 |pmc=5602018 |pmid=28905876}}</ref> Many famous Russian scientists and inventors were émigrés. Igor Sikorsky was an aviation pioneer.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hunsaker |first=Jerome C. |title=A Half Century of Aeronautical Development |jstor=3143642 |publisher=American Philosophical Society |volume=98 |number=2 |pages=121–130 |date=15 April 1954 |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society}}</ref> Vladimir Zworykin was the inventor of the iconoscope and kinescope television systems.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://lemelson.mit.edu/resources/vladimir-zworykin |title=Vladimir Zworykin |work=Lemelson–MIT Prize |access-date=12 July 2021 |archive-date=29 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329042251/https://lemelson.mit.edu/resources/vladimir-zworykin |url-status=live}}</ref> Theodosius Dobzhansky was the central figure in the field of evolutionary biology for his work in shaping the modern synthesis.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ford |first=Edmund Brisco |author-link=E. B. Ford |doi=10.1098/rsbm.1977.0004 |title=Theodosius Grigorievich Dobzhansky, 25 January 1900 – 18 December 1975 |date=November 1977 |journal=Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society |volume=23 |issue=23 |pages=58–89 |pmid=11615738 |doi-access=free |issn=1748-8494}}</ref> George Gamow was one of the foremost advocates of the Big Bang theory.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.colorado.edu/physics/events/outreach/george-gamow-memorial-lecture-series/distinguished-life-and-career-george-gamow |title=The Distinguished Life and Career of George Gamow |date=11 May 2016 |publisher=University of Colorado Boulder |access-date=21 January 2022 |archive-date=19 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319195858/https://www.colorado.edu/physics/events/outreach/george-gamow-memorial-lecture-series/distinguished-life-and-career-george-gamow |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Space exploration ==== [[File:Mir on 12 June 1998edit1.jpg|thumb|Mir, Russian space station that operated in LEO]] Roscosmos is Russia's national space agency. The country's achievements in the field of space technology and space exploration can be traced back to Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, the father of theoretical astronautics, whose works had inspired leading Soviet rocket engineers, such as Sergey Korolyov, Valentin Glushko, and many others who contributed to the success of the Soviet space programme in the early stages of the Space Race and beyond.<ref>{{cite book |last=Siddiqi |first=Asif A. |title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945–1974 |date=2000 |publisher=United States Government Publishing Office |isbn=978-0-160-61305-0}}</ref>{{rp|6–7,333}}

In 1957, the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite, ''Sputnik 1'', was launched. In 1961, the first human trip into space was successfully made by Yuri Gagarin. Many other Soviet and Russian space exploration records ensued. In 1963, Valentina Tereshkova became the first and youngest woman in space, having flown a solo mission on Vostok 6.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1963-023A |title=Vostok 6 |work=NSSDCA |publisher=NASA |access-date=26 January 2022 |archive-date=29 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220429173445/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1963-023A}}</ref> In 1965, Alexei Leonov became the first human to conduct a spacewalk, exiting the space capsule during Voskhod 2.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/2014/newsspec_9035/index.html |title=The First Spacewalk |publisher=BBC |first=Paul |last=Rincon |date=13 October 2014 |access-date=31 May 2021 |archive-date=15 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141015060353/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/special/2014/newsspec_9035/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

In 1957, Laika, a Soviet space dog, became the first animal to orbit the Earth, aboard Sputnik 2.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Wellerstein |first=Alex |url=https://www.newyorker.com/tech/annals-of-technology/remembering-laika-space-dog-and-soviet-hero |title=Remembering Laika, Space Dog and Soviet Hero |magazine=The New Yorker |date=3 November 2017 |access-date=18 January 2022 |archive-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140755/https://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/remembering-laika-space-dog-and-soviet-hero |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1966, Luna 9 became the first spacecraft to achieve a survivable landing on a celestial body, the Moon.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1966-006A |title=Luna 9 |work=NSSDCA |publisher=NASA |access-date=1 June 2021 |archive-date=17 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417154714/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1966-006A}}</ref> In 1968, Zond 5 brought the first Earthlings (two tortoises and other life forms) to circumnavigate the Moon.<ref>{{cite web |last=Betz |first=Eric |url=https://www.discovermagazine.com/the-sciences/the-first-earthlings-around-the-moon-were-two-soviet-tortoises |title=The First Earthlings Around the Moon Were Two Soviet Tortoises |work=Discover |date=19 September 2018 |access-date=18 January 2022 |archive-date=28 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190928192410/http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/crux/2018/09/18/zond-5-soviet-tortises-around-the-moon/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In 1970, Venera 7 became the first spacecraft to land on another planet, Venus.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Avduevsky |first1=V. S. |last2=Ya Marov |first2=M. |last3=Rozhdestvensky |first3=M. K. |last4=Borodin |first4=N. F. |last5=Kerzhanovich |first5=V. V. |date=1 March 1971 |title=Soft Landing of Venera 7 on the Venus Surface and Preliminary Results of Investigations of the Venus Atmosphere |doi=10.1175/1520-0469(1971)028<0263:SLOVOT>2.0.CO;2 |doi-access=free |pages=263–269 |publisher=Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union |location=Moscow |journal=Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences |volume=28 |issue=2 |bibcode=1971JAtS...28..263A}}</ref> In 1971, Mars 3 became the first spacecraft to land on Mars.<ref>{{cite book |last=Perminov |first=V.G. |title=The Difficult Road to Mars – A Brief History of Mars Exploration in the Soviet Union |date=July 1999 |publisher=NASA History Division |isbn=0-16-058859-6 |url=https://history.nasa.gov/monograph15.pdf |access-date=18 January 2022 |archive-date=14 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714111920/https://history.nasa.gov/monograph15.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|34–60}} During the same period, ''Lunokhod 1'' became the first space exploration rover,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/lunokhod-01/in-depth/ |title=Lunokhod 01 |work=NSSDCA |publisher=NASA |access-date=1 June 2021 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331072547/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/lunokhod-01/in-depth/}}</ref> while ''Salyut 1'' became the world's first space station.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/50-years-ago-launch-of-salyut-the-world-s-first-space-station |title=50 Years Ago: Launch of Salyut, the World's First Space Station |work=NSSDCA |publisher=NASA |date=19 April 2021 |access-date=1 June 2021 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331115352/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/50-years-ago-launch-of-salyut-the-world-s-first-space-station |url-status=live}}</ref>

{{As of|2023}}, Russia has 181 active satellites in space, which is the third-highest in the world.<ref>{{cite web |title=Satellite Database |url=https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/satellite-database |access-date=18 August 2022 |website=Union of Concerned Scientists |archive-date=10 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231010074218/https://www.ucsusa.org/resources/satellite-database |url-status=live}}</ref> Between the final flight of the Space Shuttle programme in 2011 and the 2020 SpaceX's first crewed mission, Soyuz rockets were the only launch vehicles capable of transporting astronauts to the ISS.<ref>{{cite news |title=SpaceX successfully launches first crew to orbit, ushering in new era of spaceflight |url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/5/30/21269703/spacex-launch-crew-dragon-nasa-orbit-successful |work=The Verge |date=30 May 2020 |archive-date=15 August 2023 |access-date=15 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230815134623/https://www.theverge.com/2020/5/30/21269703/spacex-launch-crew-dragon-nasa-orbit-successful |url-status=live}}</ref> Luna 25 launched in August 2023, was the first of the Luna-Glob Moon exploration programme.<ref>{{cite news |title=Russia launches Luna-25 moon lander, its 1st lunar probe in 47 years |url=https://www.space.com/russia-luna-25-moon-mission-launch-success |work=Space.com |date=10 August 2023 |language=en |archive-date=11 August 2023 |access-date=15 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811024205/https://www.space.com/russia-luna-25-moon-mission-launch-success |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Tourism === {{Main|Tourism in Russia}}

[[File:Peterhof Palace, Saint Petersburg, Russia (44408938295).jpg|thumb|Peterhof Palace in Saint Petersburg, a UNESCO World Heritage Site]] Most foreign tourists come from China.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Inbound Tourism in Russia Recorded Significant Growth |url=https://www.tourism-review.com/russian-inbound-tourism-benefits-from-chinese-and-german-visitors-news14794 |access-date=7 June 2025 |website=Tourism Review |language=en |archive-date=4 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250704110728/https://www.tourism-review.com/russian-inbound-tourism-benefits-from-chinese-and-german-visitors-news14794 |url-status=live}}</ref> Major tourist routes in Russia include a journey around the Golden Ring of Russia, a theme route of ancient Russian cities; cruises on large rivers such as the Volga; hikes on mountain ranges such as the Caucasus Mountains,<ref>{{cite news |last=Tomb |first=Howard |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/27/travel/getting-to-the-top-in-the-caucasus.html |title=Getting to the Top In the Caucasus |work=The New York Times |date=27 August 1989 |access-date=4 December 2021 |url-access=limited |archive-date=30 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110830154850/http://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/27/travel/getting-to-the-top-in-the-caucasus.html |url-status=live}}</ref> and journeys on the famous Trans-Siberian Railway.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.e-unwto.org/content/r13521/fulltext.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150112082549/http://www.e-unwto.org/content/r13521/fulltext.pdf |archive-date=12 January 2015 |title=Tourism Highlights 2014 |publisher=UNWTO (World Tourism Organization) |year=2014 |access-date=20 January 2015}}</ref> Russia's most visited and popular landmarks include Red Square, the Peterhof Palace, the Kazan Kremlin, the Trinity Lavra of St. Sergius and Lake Baikal.<ref>{{cite web |last=Vlasov |first=Artem |date=17 December 2018 |script-title=ru:Названы самые популярные достопримечательности России |trans-title=The most popular sights of Russia are named |url=https://iz.ru/824446/2018-12-17/nazvany-samye-populiarnye-dostoprimechatelnosti-rossii |access-date=15 December 2020 |website=Izvestia |language=ru |archive-date=17 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217185705/https://iz.ru/824446/2018-12-17/nazvany-samye-populiarnye-dostoprimechatelnosti-rossii |url-status=live}}</ref>

Moscow, the nation's cosmopolitan capital and historic core, is a megacity; it retains classical and Soviet-era architecture while boasting high art, world class ballet, and modern skyscrapers.<ref>{{cite web |last=Sullivan |first=Paul |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/russia/moscow/articles/moscow-travel-guide/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/russia/moscow/articles/moscow-travel-guide/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=48 hours in... Moscow, an insider guide to Russia's mighty metropolis |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=7 March 2021 |access-date=4 December 2021}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Saint Petersburg, the imperial capital, is famous for its classical architecture, cathedrals, museums and theatres, white nights, crisscrossing rivers and numerous canals.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hammer |first=Joshua |work=The New York Times |date=3 June 2011 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/05/travel/russias-white-nights-in-st-petersburg.html |title=White Nights of St. Petersburg, Russia |access-date=4 December 2021 |url-access=limited |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407051659/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/05/travel/russias-white-nights-in-st-petersburg.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Russia is famed worldwide for its rich museums, such as the State Russian, the State Hermitage, and the Tretyakov Gallery, and for theatres such as the Bolshoi and the Mariinsky. The Moscow Kremlin and the Saint Basil's Cathedral are among the cultural landmarks of Russia.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kremlin and Red Square, Moscow |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/545/ |access-date=20 February 2022 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |archive-date=9 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211109165341/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/545/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Demographics == {{Main|Demographics of Russia|Russians|List of cities and towns in Russia|List of cities and towns in Russia by population}}

{{multiple image | direction = vertical | caption_align = center | align = right | total_width = 300 | title = | image1 = Russia Population Density Map 2021.png | caption1 = Population density of Russian municipalities according to the 2021 census | image2 = Ethnic groups in Russia of more than 1 million people 2010 Census English.png | caption2 = {{font|size=100%|text=Ethnic groups in Russia with a population of over one million according to the 2010 census}} }}

Russia had an estimated population of 146.0 million in 2025 (143.6 million excluding Crimea and Sevastopol),<ref name="gks.ru-popul" /> down from 147.2 million in the 2021 census.<ref name="2021census">{{ru-pop-ref|2021Census}}</ref> It is the most populous country in Europe and ninth-most populous country in the world. With a population density of {{convert|8.5|/km2|/mi2|disp=preunit|inhabitants |inhabitants|}},<ref>146,028,325 inhabitants / 17,098,246 km² = 8.5 inhabitants per km²</ref> Russia is one of the world's most sparsely populated countries,<ref name="cia"/> with the vast majority of its people concentrated within its western part.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=153–166|loc=Population}} The country is highly urbanised, with two-thirds of the population living in urban areas. {{As of|2025}}, the total fertility rate across Russia is estimated to be 1.37 children born per woman,<ref>{{cite web | title=Росстат: Суммарный коэффициент рождаемости продолжил снижаться в 2025 году | url=https://www.vedomosti.ru/society/articles/2026/01/23/1171174-summarnii-koeffitsient-rozhdaemosti-prodolzhil-snizhatsya }}</ref> which is below the replacement rate of 2.1 and among the lowest in the world.<ref>{{cite web |date=15 January 2020 |title=Russia's Putin seeks to stimulate birth rate |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-51120165 |access-date=5 January 2022 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407051659/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-51120165 |url-status=live}}</ref> Subsequently, it has one of the oldest populations in the world, with a median age of 41.9 years.<ref name="cia" />

Russia's population peaked at over 148 million in 1993, having subsequently declined due to its death rate exceeding its birth rate, which some analysts have called a demographic crisis.<ref>{{cite web |last=Koehn |first=Jodi |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/russias-demographic-crisis |title=Russia's Demographic Crisis |work=Kennan Institute |date=7 July 2011 |publisher=Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars |access-date=18 July 2021 |archive-date=5 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705223345/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/russias-demographic-crisis |url-status=live}}</ref> In 2009, it recorded annual population growth for the first time in fifteen years, and subsequently experienced annual population growth due to declining death rates, increased birth rates, and increased immigration.<ref>{{cite web |last=Foltynova |first=Kristyna |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/migrants-welcome-is-russia-trying-to-solve-its-demographic-crisis-by-attracting-foreigners-/30677952.html |title=Migrants Welcome: Is Russia Trying To Solve Its Demographic Crisis By Attracting Foreigners? |publisher=Radio Liberty |quote="Russia has been trying to boost fertility rates and reduce death rates for several years now. Special programs for families have been implemented, anti-tobacco campaigns have been organised, and raising the legal age to buy alcohol was considered. However, perhaps the most successful strategy so far has been attracting migrants, whose arrival helps Russia to compensate population losses." |date=19 June 2020 |access-date=9 July 2021 |archive-date=20 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200620034801/https://www.rferl.org/a/migrants-welcome-is-russia-trying-to-solve-its-demographic-crisis-by-attracting-foreigners-/30677952.html |url-status=live}}</ref> However, these population gains have been reversed since 2020, as excessive deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic resulted in the largest peacetime decline in its history.<ref>{{cite web |last=Saver |first=Pjotr |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/oct/13/russias-population-undergoes-largest-ever-peacetime-decline |title=Russia's population undergoes largest ever peacetime decline, analysis shows |work=The Guardian |date=13 October 2021 |access-date=17 November 2021 |quote=Russia's natural population has undergone its largest peacetime decline in recorded history over the last 12 months... |archive-date=13 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211013112949/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/oct/13/russias-population-undergoes-largest-ever-peacetime-decline |url-status=live}}</ref> Following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the demographic crisis has deepened,<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://jamestown.org/program/russias-demographic-collapse-is-accelerating/ |title=Russia's Demographic Collapse Is Accelerating |last=Goble |first=Paul |volume=19 |issue=127 |date=18 August 2022 |location=Washington, D.C. |journal=Eurasia Daily Monitor |publisher=Jamestown Foundation |access-date=6 October 2022 |archive-date=21 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231021105942/https://jamestown.org/program/russias-demographic-collapse-is-accelerating/ |url-status=live}}</ref> owing to high military fatalities<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/oct/22/high-russian-death-toll-fails-shift-opinion-ukraine-war |title='End justifies the means': high Russian death toll fails to shift opinion on Ukraine war |work=The Guardian |date=22 October 2024 |access-date=8 March 2025 |last=Sauer |first=Pjotr}}</ref> and renewed emigration.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ft.com/content/8c576a9c-ba65-4fb1-967a-fc4fa5457c62 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/8c576a9c-ba65-4fb1-967a-fc4fa5457c62 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |title=Ukraine war threatens to deepen Russia's demographic crisis |date=4 April 2022 |last1=Cocco |first1=Federica |last2=Ivanonva |first2=Polina |work=Financial Times |access-date=6 October 2022 |location=London}}</ref>

Russia is a multinational state with many subnational entities associated with different minorities.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=172–201|loc=Ethnic Composition}} There are over 193 ethnic groups nationwide. In the 2010 census, roughly 81% of the population were ethnic Russians, and the remaining 19% of the population were ethnic minorities.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_etn_10.php |title=EAll- Russian population census 2010 – Population by nationality, sex and subjects of the Russian Federation |work=Demoscope Weekly |year=2010 |access-date=7 July 2021 |archive-date=12 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812053430/http://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus_etn_10.php |url-status=live}}</ref> Over four-fifths of Russia's population was of European descent—of whom the vast majority were Slavs,{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=172–201|loc=Ethnic Composition}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38597 |title=Russia – The Indo-European Group |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |quote="East Slavs—mainly Russians but including some Ukrainians and Belarusians—constitute more than four-fifths of the total population and are prevalent throughout the country." |access-date=18 July 2021 |archive-date=12 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112023228/https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38597 |url-status=live}}</ref> with a substantial minority of Finno-Ugric and Germanic peoples.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kowalev |first1=Viktor |last2=Neznaika |first2=Pavel |title=Power and Ethnicity in the Finno-Ugric Republics of the Russian Federation: The Examples of Komi, Mordovia, and Udmurtia |jstor=41103741 |volume=30 |number=3 |pages=81–100 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2000 |journal=International Journal of Political Economy |doi=10.1080/08911916.2000.11644017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Bartlett |first=Roger |title=The Russian Germans and Their Neighbours |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review |volume=73 |number=3 |pages=499–504 |publisher=Modern Humanities Research Association |date=July 1995 |jstor=4211864}}</ref> Russia has the third-largest immigrant population in the world, with over 12 million immigrants residing in the country {{as of|2019|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/publications/migrationreport/docs/MigrationStock2019_TenKeyFindings.pdf |title=International Migrant Stock 2019 |work=United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs |publisher=United Nations |date=September 2019 |access-date=12 March 2025 |archive-date=7 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250307164201/https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/publications/migrationreport/docs/MigrationStock2019_TenKeyFindings.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> The vast majority of the Immigrants hail from post-Soviet states, with about half of them being from Ukraine and Kazakhstan {{as of|2020|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://seeecadata.iom.int/msite/seeecadata/country/russian-federation |title=Russian Federation |work=International Organization for Migration |location=Geneva, Switzerland |access-date=12 March 2025}}</ref> {{Largest cities of Russia}}

=== Language === {{Main|Russian language|Languages of Russia}}

{{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 350 | caption_align = center | align = right | title = Minority languages across Russia | image1 = Linguistic map of the Altaic, Turkic and Uralic languages (en).png | caption1 = Altaic and Uralic languages spoken across Russia | image2 = Caucasus-ethnic en.svg | caption2 = The North Caucasus is ethno-linguistically diverse.<ref>{{cite conference |last1=Lazarev |first1=Vladimir |last2=Pravikova |first2=Ludmila |date=2005 |title=The North Caucasus Bilingualism and Language Identity |url=http://www.lingref.com/isb/4/103ISB4.PDF |editor-first1=James |editor-last1=Cohen |editor-first2=Kara T. |editor-last2=McAlister |editor-first3=Kellie |editor-last3=Rolstad |editor-first4=Jeff |editor-last4=MacSwan |page=1325 |book-title=ISB4: Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Bilingualism |publisher=Cascadilla Press |location=Somerville, MA |quote=The North Caucasus, inhabited by more than 100 of autochthonous and allochthonous peoples, including Russians, is a unique locus for conducting a large-scale research in the area of bilingualism and multilingualism. |access-date=5 January 2022 |archive-date=20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120213143/http://www.lingref.com/isb/4/103ISB4.PDF |url-status=live}}</ref> }}

Russian is the official and the predominantly spoken language in Russia.<ref name="Chevalier-2006"/> It is the most spoken native language in Europe, the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, as well as the world's most widely spoken Slavic language.<ref name="language"/> Russian is one of two official languages aboard the International Space Station,<ref>{{cite web |last=Wakata |first=Koichi |author-link=Koichi Wakata |url=https://global.jaxa.jp/article/special/expedition/wakata01_e.html |title=My Long Mission in Space |publisher=JAXA |quote=The official languages on the ISS are English and Russian... |access-date=18 July 2021 |archive-date=26 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426232353/https://global.jaxa.jp/article/special/expedition/wakata01_e.html |url-status=live}}</ref> as well as one of the six official languages of the United Nations.<ref name="language">{{cite web |url=https://learn.utoronto.ca/programs-courses/languages-and-translation/language-learning/russian |title=Russian |publisher=University of Toronto |quote="Russian is the most widespread of the Slavic languages and the largest native language in Europe. Of great political importance, it is one of the official languages of the United Nations – making it a natural area of study for those interested in geopolitics." |access-date=9 July 2021 |archive-date=28 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190628022427/https://learn.utoronto.ca/programs-courses/languages-and-translation/language-learning/russian |url-status=live}}</ref>

Russia is a multilingual nation: approximately 100–150 minority languages are spoken across the country.<ref>{{cite journal |year=2011 |last=Iryna |first=Ulasiuk |title=Legal protection of linguistic diversity in Russia: past and present |journal=Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development |publisher=European University Institute |volume=32 |number=1 |pages=71–83 |doi=10.1080/01434632.2010.536237 |quote=Russia is unique in its size and ethnic composition. There is a further linguistic complexity of more than 150 co-existing languages.}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38595 |title=Russia – Ethnic groups and languages |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |quote="Although ethnic Russians comprise more than four-fifths of the country's total population, Russia is a diverse, multiethnic society. More than 120 ethnic groups, many with their own national territories, speaking some 100 languages live within Russia's borders." |access-date=8 November 2020 |archive-date=12 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112023228/https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Mixed-and-deciduous-forest#ref38595 |url-status=live}}</ref> According to the Russian Census of 2010, 137.5 million across the country spoke Russian, 3.1 million spoke Tatar, and 1.1 million spoke Ukrainian.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/perepis_itogi1612.htm |script-title=ru:Всероссийской переписи населения 2010 года |trans-title=All-Russian population census 2010 |website=Том 4. Национальный состав и владение языками, гражданство |publisher=Rosstat |language=ru |access-date=24 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307194352/http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/perepis2010/croc/perepis_itogi1612.htm |archive-date=7 March 2022}}</ref> The constitution gives the country's individual republics the right to establish their own state languages in addition to Russian, as well as guarantee its citizens the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-04.htm |title=Chapter 3. The Federal Structure |publisher=Constitution of Russia |quote="2. The Republics shall have the right to establish their own state languages. In the bodies of state authority and local self-government, state institutions of the Republics they shall be used together with the state language of the Russian Federation. 3. The Russian Federation shall guarantee to all of its peoples the right to preserve their native language and to create conditions for its study and development." |access-date=27 December 2007 |archive-date=25 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225132251/http://www.constitution.ru/en/10003000-04.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> However, various experts have claimed Russia's linguistic diversity is rapidly declining due to many languages becoming endangered.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jankiewicz |first1=Szymon |last2=Knyaginina |first2=Nadezhda |last3=Prina |first3=Federic |title=Linguistic rights and education in the republics of the Russian Federation: towards unity through uniformity |date=13 March 2020 |volume=45 |number=1 |pages=59–91 |journal=Review of Central and East European Law |doi=10.1163/15730352-bja10003}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bondarenko |first1=Dmitry V. |last2=Nasonkin |first2=Vladimir V. |last3=Shagieva |first3=Rozalina V. |last4=Kiyanova |first4=Olga N. |last5=Barabanova |first5=Svetlana V. |year=2018 |title=Linguistic Diversity In Russia Is A Threat To Sovereignty Or A Condition Of Cohesion? |url=https://mjltm.org/article-1-146-en.pdf |journal=Modern Journal of Language Teaching Methods |pages=166–182 |volume=8 |number=5 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |access-date=8 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408174607/https://mjltm.org/article-1-146-en.pdf}}</ref>

=== Religion === {{Main|Religion in Russia}}

[[File:День Святой Троицы. Престольный праздник.jpg|thumb|Trinity Sunday in Russia; the Russian Orthodox Church has experienced a great revival since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, a country that had a policy of state atheism.]]

Russia is constitutionally a secular state that officially enshrines freedom of religion.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=202–220|loc=Religion}}<ref name=":2">{{cite web |title=Russia |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2022-report-on-international-religious-freedom/russia/ |access-date=19 July 2024 |website=United States Department of State}}</ref> The largest religion is Eastern Orthodox Christianity, chiefly represented by the Russian Orthodox Church,{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=202–220|loc=Religion}}<ref name="ArenaAtlas2012">{{cite web |title=Арена: Атлас религий и национальностей |trans-title=Arena: Atlas of Religions and Nationalities |year=2012 |publisher=Среда (Sreda) |url=https://docviewer.yandex.com/view/0/?*=rvAv5PGTc%2Fw%2BBFV6QOUZtaf5gYF7InVybCI6InlhLWRpc2stcHVibGljOi8vMWV1aDl5RDFpcnZKeVZNNSswWWFaZktqRFhoOXZDNWhldUlGTU5uQU4zQT0iLCJ0aXRsZSI6IlNyZWRhX2Jsb2tfcHJlc3Nfc20yLnBkZiIsInVpZCI6IjAiLCJub2lmcmFtZSI6ZmFsc2UsInRzIjoxNTI0NDg3NTUzMTcwfQ%3D%3D&page=1 |format=PDF |access-date=1 August 2019 |archive-date=8 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190508195328/https://docviewer.yandex.com/view/0/?*=rvAv5PGTc%2Fw%2BBFV6QOUZtaf5gYF7InVybCI6InlhLWRpc2stcHVibGljOi8vMWV1aDl5RDFpcnZKeVZNNSswWWFaZktqRFhoOXZDNWhldUlGTU5uQU4zQT0iLCJ0aXRsZSI6IlNyZWRhX2Jsb2tfcHJlc3Nfc20yLnBkZiIsInVpZCI6IjAiLCJub2lmcmFtZSI6ZmFsc2UsInRzIjoxNTI0NDg3NTUzMTcwfQ%3D%3D&page=1 |url-status=dead}} See also the results' '''[http://sreda.org/arena main interactive mapping] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012064011/http://sreda.org/arena |date=12 October 2012 }}''' and the static mappings: {{cite map |title=Religions in Russia by federal subject |journal=Ogonek |volume=34 |issue=5243 |date=27 August 2012 |url=http://c2.kommersant.ru/ISSUES.PHOTO/OGONIOK/2012/034/ogcyhjk2.jpg |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170421154615/http://c2.kommersant.ru/ISSUES.PHOTO/OGONIOK/2012/034/ogcyhjk2.jpg |archive-date=21 April 2017}} The Sreda Arena Atlas was realised in cooperation with the [http://sreda.org/arena/maps?mainsection=census All-Russia Population Census 2010 (Всероссийской переписи населения 2010)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612141924/http://sreda.org/arena/maps?mainsection=census |date=12 June 2018 }}, the [http://sreda.org/arena/maps?mainsection=minust Russian Ministry of Justice (Минюста РФ)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612163615/http://sreda.org/arena/maps?mainsection=minust |date=12 June 2018 }}, the Public Opinion Foundation (Фонда Общественного Мнения) and presented among others by the Analytical Department of the Synodal Information Department of the Russian Orthodox Church. See: {{cite journal |title=Проект АРЕНА: Атлас религий и национальностей |trans-title=Project ARENA: Atlas of religions and nationalities |url=http://russ.ru/Mirovaya-povestka/Proekt-ARENA-Atlas-religij-i-nacional-nostej |journal=Russian Journal |date=10 December 2012 |access-date=1 August 2019 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224141716/http://russ.ru/Mirovaya-povestka/Proekt-ARENA-Atlas-religij-i-nacional-nostej}}</ref> which is legally recognised for its "special role" in the country's "history and the formation and development of its spirituality and culture."<ref name=":2" /> Christianity, Islam, Judaism, and Buddhism are recognised by Russian law as the "traditional" religions of the country constituting its "historical heritage".<ref>{{cite book |last=Bourdeaux |first=Michael |chapter=Trends in Religious Policy |chapter-url={{GBurl |id=EPP3ti4hysUC |p=46}} |title=Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia |publisher=Taylor and Francis |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-85743-137-7 |pages=46–52 [47]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Fagan |first=Geraldine |title=Believing in Russia: Religious Policy After Communism |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-415-49002-3}} p. 127.</ref>

Islam is the second-largest religion in Russia and is traditional among the majority of peoples in the North Caucasus and some Turkic peoples in the Volga-Ural region.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=202–220|loc=Religion}}<ref name="ArenaAtlas2012"/> Large populations of Buddhists are found in Kalmykia, Buryatia, Zabaykalsky Krai, and they are the vast majority of the population in Tuva.<ref name="ArenaAtlas2012"/> A negligible population practices other religions—such as Rodnovery (Slavic Neopaganism),<ref>{{cite journal |last=Beskov |first=Andrey |year=2020 |title=Этнорелигиозное измерение современной русской идентичности: православие vs неоязычество |trans-title=Ethno-Religious Dimension of Modern Russian Identity: Orthodoxy vs Neo-Paganism |journal=Studia Culturae |publisher=ANO DPO |location=Saint Petersburg |volume=3 |number=45 |pages=106–122 |issn=2310-1245 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/349573805 |language=ru}}</ref> Assianism (Scythian Neopaganism),<ref>{{cite journal |author-last=Foltz |author-first=Richard |author-link=Richard Foltz |title=Scythian Neo-Paganism in the Caucasus: The Ossetian Uatsdin as a 'Nature Religion' |journal=Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature, and Culture |volume=13 |number=3 |year=2019 |pages=314–332 |doi=10.1558/jsrnc.39114}}</ref> other ethnic Paganisms, and inter-Pagan movements such as Ringing Cedars' Anastasianism,<ref>{{cite book |last=Andreeva |first=Julia Olegovna |year=2012 |chapter=Представления о народных традициях в движении 'Звенящие кедры России' |trans-chapter=Representations of national traditions in the movement 'Ringing Cedars of Russia' |title=Аспекты будущего по этнографическим и фольклорным материалам: сборник научных статей |trans-title=Prospects of the future in ethnographic and folklore materials: Collection of scientific articles |chapter-url=http://www.kunstkamera.ru/files/lib/978-5-88431-204-3/978-5-88431-204-3_14.pdf |editor=T. B. Shchepanskaya |publisher=Kunstkamera |location=Saint Petersburg |pages=231–245 |language=ru |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806200229/https://www.kunstkamera.ru/files/lib/978-5-88431-204-3/978-5-88431-204-3_14.pdf |archive-date=6 August 2020}}</ref> various movements of Hinduism,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tkatcheva |first=Anna |title=Neo-Hindu Movements and Orthodox Christianity in Post-Communist Russia |journal=India International Centre Quarterly |volume=21 |number=2/3 |pages=151–162 |date=1994 |jstor=23003642}}</ref> Siberian shamanism<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kharitonova |first=Valentina |title=Revived Shamanism in the Social Life of Russia |journal=Folklore |volume=62 |pages=37–54 |date=2015 |issn=1406-0949 |doi=10.7592/FEJF2015.62.kharitonova |doi-access=free}}</ref> and Tengrism, various Neo-Theosophical movements such as Roerichism—among other faiths.<ref>{{cite book |year=2006 |editor-surname1=Bourdeaux |editor-given1=Michael |editor-surname2=Filatov |editor-given2=Sergey |title=Современная религиозная жизнь России. Опыт систематического описания |trans-title=Contemporary religious life of Russia. Systematic description of experiences |place=Moscow |publisher=Keston Institute; Logos |volume=4 |language=ru |isbn=5-98704-057-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Menzel |editor-first1=Brigit |editor-last2=Hagemeister |editor-first2=Michael |editor-last3=Glatzer Rosenthal |editor-first3=Bernice |title=The New Age of Russia: Occult and Esoteric Dimensions |publisher=Kubon & Sagner |year=2012 |isbn=978-3-86688-197-6 |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/26681/1003383.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903042320/https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/26681/1003383.pdf |archive-date=3 September 2021}}</ref> Some religious minorities have faced oppression and some have been banned in the country:<ref>{{cite web |last=Sibireva |first=Olga |url=https://www.sova-center.ru/en/religion/publications/2021/04/d44133/ |title=Freedom of Conscience in Russia: Restrictions and Challenges in 2020 |publisher=SOVA Center |date=29 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209154706/https://www.sova-center.ru/en/religion/publications/2021/04/d44133 |archive-date=9 February 2022}}</ref> notably, in 2017 the Jehovah's Witnesses were outlawed in Russia, facing persecution ever since, after having been declared an "extremist" and "nontraditional" faith.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Knox |first1=Zoe |title=Jehovah's Witnesses as Extremists: The Russian State, Religious Pluralism, and Human Rights |journal=The Soviet and Post-Soviet Review |date=2019 |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=128–157 |doi=10.1163/18763324-04602003 |hdl=2381/43756 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>

In 2012, the research organisation Sreda, in cooperation with the Ministry of Justice, published the Arena Atlas, an adjunct to the 2010 census, enumerating in detail the religious populations and nationalities of Russia, based on a large-sample country-wide survey. The results showed that 47.3% of Russians declared themselves Christians—including 41% Russian Orthodox, 1.5% simply Orthodox or members of non-Russian Orthodox churches, 4.1% unaffiliated Christians, and less than 1% Old Believers, Catholics or Protestants—25% were believers without affiliation to any specific religion, 13% were atheists, 6.5% were Muslims,{{efn|name=ArenaAtlasIslam|The Sreda Arena Atlas 2012 did not count the populations of two federal subjects of Russia where the majority of the population is Muslim, namely Chechnya and Ingushetia, which together had a population of nearly 2 million, thus the proportion of Muslims was possibly slightly underestimated.<ref name="ArenaAtlas2012"/>}} 1.2% were followers of "traditional religions honouring gods and ancestors" (Rodnovery, other Paganisms, Siberian shamanism and Tengrism), 0.5% were Buddhists, 0.1% were religious Jews and 0.1% were Hindus.<ref name="ArenaAtlas2012"/>

=== Education === {{Main|Education in Russia}}

[[File:МГУ, вид с воздуха.jpg|thumb|Moscow State University, the most prestigious educational institution in Russia<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/universities/lomonosov-moscow-state-university |title=Lomonosov Moscow State University |work=QS World University Rankings |access-date=28 June 2021}}</ref>]] Russia has a near-universal adult literacy rate,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.ZS?locations=RU |title=Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) – Russian Federation |publisher=World Bank |access-date=21 January 2022 |archive-date=12 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112025746/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.ZS?locations=RU |url-status=live}}</ref> and has compulsory education for a duration of 11 years, exclusively for children aged 7 to 17–18.<ref name="Nuffic-2019"/> It grants free education to its citizens by constitution.<ref name="CEPES">{{cite book |date=1997 |last=Kouptsov |first=Oleg |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000129839 |title=Mutual recognition of qualifications: the Russian Federation and the other European countries |location=Bucharest |publisher=UNESCO-CEPES |page=25 |isbn=929-0-69146-8 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408174930/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000129839 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Ministry of Education of Russia is responsible for primary and secondary education, as well as vocational education, while the Ministry of Education and Science of Russia is responsible for science and higher education.<ref name="Nuffic-2019">{{cite web |url=https://www.nuffic.nl/sites/default/files/2020-08/education-system-russia.pdf |title=Education system Russia |publisher=Nuffic |version=3 |location=The Hague |date=October 2019 |access-date=26 July 2021 |archive-date=26 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726203317/https://www.nuffic.nl/sites/default/files/2020-08/education-system-russia.pdf}}</ref> Regional authorities regulate education within their jurisdictions within the prevailing framework of federal laws. {{As of|2021}}, over 41% of the Russian population has a bachelor's degree or an equivalent—which is among the highest percentages of tertiary-level graduates in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.TER.CUAT.BA.ZS?locations=RU |title=Educational attainment, at least Bachelor's or equivalent, population 25+, total (%) (cumulative) - Russian Federation |publisher=World Bank |access-date=21 October 2025}}</ref>

Russia's pre-school education system is highly developed and optional,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Taratukhina |first1=Maria S. |last2=Polyakova |first2=Marina N. |last3=Berezina |first3=Tatyana A. |last4=Notkina |first4=Nina A. |last5=Sheraizina |first5=Roza M. |last6=Borovkov |first6=Mihail I. |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000149142_eng |title=Early childhood care and education in the Russian Federation |year=2006 |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=4 January 2022 |archive-date=10 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200710134752/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000149142_eng |url-status=live}}</ref> some four-fifths of children aged 3 to 6 attend day nurseries or kindergartens. Primary school is compulsory for eleven years, starting from age 6 to 7, and leads to a basic general education certificate.<ref name="Nuffic-2019"/> An additional two or three years of schooling are required for the secondary-level certificate, and some seven-eighths of Russians continue their education past this level.<ref name="Educationb">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Housing#ref38625 |title=Russia – Education |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=30 July 2021 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408174930/https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Housing#ref38625 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Admission to an institute of higher education is selective and highly competitive:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Prakhov |first1=Ilya |last2=Yudkevich |first2=Maria |title=University admission in Russia: Do the wealthier benefit from standardized exams? |doi=10.1016/j.ijedudev.2017.08.007 |publisher=Higher School of Economics |location=Moscow |year=2019 |journal=International Journal of Educational Development |volume=65 |pages=98–105 |issn=0738-0593}}</ref> first-degree courses usually take five years.<ref name="Educationb"/> The oldest and largest universities in Russia are Moscow State University and Saint Petersburg State University.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ridder-Symoens |first=Hilde de |title=History of the University in Europe: Volume 2, Universities in Early Modern Europe (1500–1800) |url={{GBurl |id=ZHMjzvAxHF0C}} |date=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |series=A History of the University in Europe |pages=80–89 |isbn=978-0-521-36106-4}}</ref> There are ten federal universities across the country.

=== Health === {{Main|Health in Russia}}

{{Further|Healthcare in Russia}} Russia constitutionally guarantees free, universal health care for all Russian citizens through the mandatory medical insurance (OMS) funded by the Federal Compulsory Medical Insurance Fund (FFOMS) created in 1993.<ref>{{cite web |last=Cook |first=Linda |url=https://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BCCF9/(httpAuxPages)/3C45C5A972BF063BC1257DF1004C5420/$file/Cook.pdf |date=February 2015 |work=United Nations Research Institute for Social Development |publisher=United Nations |title=Constraints on Universal Health Care in the Russian Federation |location=Geneva |access-date=3 January 2022 |archive-date=30 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930172133/https://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BCCF9/(httpAuxPages)/3C45C5A972BF063BC1257DF1004C5420/$file/Cook.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="OECDhealth">{{cite book |url=https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2012/05/oecd-reviews-of-health-systems-russian-federation-2012_g1g1971e/9789264168091-en.pdf |title=OECD Reviews of Health Systems: Russian Federation 2012 |year=2012 |publisher=OECD |doi=10.1787/9789264168091-en |isbn=978-92-64-16808-4}}</ref><ref name="thompson">{{cite web |url=https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2007/01/healthcare-reform-in-russia_g17a1924/327014317703.pdf |publisher=OECD |date=15 January 2007 |last=Thompson |first=William |title=Healthcare Reform in Russia: Problems and Prospects |series=OECD Economics Department Working Papers |doi=10.1787/327014317703 |access-date=11 January 2026}}</ref> The Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation oversees national healthcare. Its healthcare system has decentralized since the 1990s, with federal entities having local healthcare departments, shifting from the centralized and hierarchical Soviet system.<ref name="OECDhealth"/> Private healthcare has also seen development, created out of the public healthcare fund.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Skvirskaya |first1=G P |last2=Volnukhin |first2=A P |last3=Reze |first3=A G |title=[The state and private sector of health care system of The Russian Federation: From competition to integration and partnership] |journal=Problems of Social Hygiene, Public Health and History of Medicine |volume=2 |number=30 |year=2022 |pages=275–280 |doi=10.32687/0869-866X-2022-30-2-275-280 |pmid=35439389}}</ref><ref name="thompson"/> [[File:Metallurg Sochi.jpg|thumb|Metallurg, a Soviet-era sanatorium in Sochi<ref>{{cite news |last=Morton |first=Elise |url=https://www.calvertjournal.com/features/show/9981/beyond-the-game-sochi-seaside-walking-guide-soviet-sanatoriums-gardens |work=Calvert 22 Foundation |title=Russian rivieia: from Soviet sanatoriums to lush gardens, your walking guide to seaside Sochi |date=25 May 2018 |access-date=7 January 2022}}</ref>]] Russia spent 7.39% of its GDP on healthcare in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS?locations=RU |title=Current health expenditure (% of GDP) – Russian Federation |publisher=World Bank |access-date=21 April 2021 |archive-date=23 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923225003/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS?locations=RU |url-status=live}}</ref> Its healthcare expenditure is notably lower than other developed nations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reshetnikov |first1=Vladimir |last2=Arsentyev |first2=Evgeny |last3=Bolevich |first3=Sergey |last4=Timofeyev |first4=Yuriy |last5=Jakovljević |first5=Mihajlo |date=24 May 2019 |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |page=1848 |volume=16 |issue=10 |title=Analysis of the Financing of Russian Health Care over the Past 100 Years |doi=10.3390/ijerph16101848 |pmc=6571548 |pmid=31137705 |doi-access=free}}</ref> {{As of|2023}}, the overall life expectancy in Russia at birth is 73 years,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=RU |title=Life expectancy at birth, total (years) - Russian Federation |publisher=World Bank |access-date=6 March 2025 |archive-date=6 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606000827/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=RU |url-status=live}}</ref> an increase of roughly 8 years from 2005.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Russian Federation |url=https://data.who.int/countries/643 |access-date=5 August 2025 |publisher=World Health Organization (WHO)}}</ref> Russia has among the highest gender gaps in life expectancy—78 for females and 68 for males—a gap of 10 years.<ref name="men">{{cite journal |last1=Zasimova |first1=L. |last2=Sheluntcova |first2=M. |last3=Kolosnitsyna |first3=M. |last4=Kossova |first4=T. |last5=Makshanchikov |first5=K. |last6=Biryukova |first6=A. |title=Unhealthy lifestyles and regional differences in life expectancy in Russia |journal=Public Health |publisher=Elsevier |year=2023 |volume=225 |pages=66–71 |doi=10.1016/j.puhe.2023.09.028 |pmid=37922588}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.FE.IN?locations=RU |title=Life expectancy at birth, female (years) - Russian Federation |publisher=World Bank |access-date=6 March 2025 |archive-date=5 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240105102136/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.FE.IN?locations=RU |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.MA.IN?locations=RU |title=Life expectancy at birth, male (years) - Russian Federation |publisher=World Bank |access-date=6 March 2025 |archive-date=16 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250316221604/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.MA.IN?locations=RU |url-status=live}}</ref> It has one of the most female-biased sex ratios in the world, with 0.859 males to every female,<ref name=cia/> due to its high male mortality rate.<ref name="men"/><ref name="su">{{cite journal |last1=Bellman |first1=Val |last2=Namdev |first2=Vaishalee |title=Suicidality Among Men in Russia: A Review of Recent Epidemiological Data |journal=Cureus |publisher=Springer Nature |date=9 March 2022 |number=4 |volume=(3):e22990 |article-number=e22990 |doi=10.7759/cureus.22990 |doi-access=free |pmid=35415026 |pmc=8992693}}</ref><ref name="thompson"/> Russia's infant mortality rate is very low (4 per 1,000 live births).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.IMRT.IN?Locations=RU&locations=RU |title=Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) – Russian Federation |publisher=World Bank |access-date=21 April 2021 |archive-date=19 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200419225532/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.IMRT.IN?Locations=RU&locations=RU |url-status=live}}</ref>

Cardiovascular diseases account for more than half of the yearly mortalities in Russia,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kharlamov |first=Alexander N |title=Cardiovascular burden and percutaneous interventions in Russian Federation: systematic epidemiological update |journal=Cardiovascular Diagnosis and Therapy |date=7 February 2017 |volume=7 |number=1 |pages=60–84 |doi=10.21037/cdt.2016.08.10 |doi-access=free |pmid=28164014 |pmc=5253445}}</ref> which is one of the highest percentages in the world.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lakunchykova |first1=Olena |last2=Averina |first2=Maria |last3=Wilsgaard |first3=Tom |last4=Watkins |first4=Hugh |last5=Malyutina |first5=Sofia |last6=Ragino |first6=Yulia |last7=Keogh |first7=Ruth H |last8=Kudryavtsev |first8=Alexander V |last9=Govorun |first9=Vadim|last10=Cook|first10=Sarah |last11=Schirmer |first11=Henrik |last12=Eggen |first12=Anne Elise |last13=Hopstock |first13=Laila Arnesdatter |last14=Leon |first14=David A |doi=10.1136/jech-2020-213885 |doi-access=free |title=Why does Russia have such high cardiovascular mortality rates? Comparisons of blood-based biomarkers with Norway implicate non-ischaemic cardiac damage |journal=Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health |year=2020 |volume=74 |issue=9 |pages=698–704 |pmid=32414935 |pmc=7577103}}</ref> Its alcohol consumption rate was historically seen as the biggest health issue,<ref>{{cite journal |last=McKee |first=Martin |date=1 November 1999 |title=Alcohol in Russia |journal=Alcohol and Alcoholism |volume=34 |issue=6 |pages=824–829 |doi=10.1093/alcalc/34.6.824 |pmid=10659717 |doi-access=free}}</ref> but has seen a stark decrease since 2008 due to restrictive government measures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Radaev |first1=Vadim |last2=Roschina |first2=Yana |title=Declines in alcohol consumption in Russia, 2008–2020, are accompanied by decreases in alcohol harm |journal=Alcohol: Clinical & Experimental Research |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |date=7 August 2025 |volume=49 |doi=10.1111/acer.70130 |pmid=40776462 |number=9 |pages=2003–2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=The Lancet |date=5 October 2019 |title=Russia's alcohol policy: a continuing success story |journal=The Lancet |volume=394 |issue=10205 |page=1205 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32265-2 |pmid=31591968 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/europe/news/item/01-10-2019-alcohol-related-deaths-drop-in-russian-federation-due-to-strict-alcohol-control-measures-new-report-says |title=Alcohol-related deaths drop in Russian Federation due to strict alcohol control measures, new report says |date=1 October 2019 |access-date=2 January 2026 |publisher=World Bank}}</ref> Obesity is a prevalent health issue, with most adults being overweight or obese,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Russian Federation |url=https://data.worldobesity.org/country/russian-federation-179/ |access-date=27 January 2023 |website=World Obesity Federation Global Obesity Observatory |language=en |archive-date=27 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230127145315/https://data.worldobesity.org/country/russian-federation-179/ |url-status=live}}</ref> alongside smoking—Russia's tobacco consumption rate is among the highest in the world.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shkolnikov |first1=Vladimir M. |display-authors=etal |title=Time trends in smoking in Russia in the light of recent tobacco control measures: synthesis of evidence from multiple sources |date=23 March 2020 |journal=BMC Public Health |doi=10.1186/s12889-020-08464-4 |doi-access=free |volume=20 |number=378 |article-number=378 |pmc=7092419 |pmid=32293365}}</ref> The country's high suicide rate also remains a significant social issue.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/noncommunicable-diseases/mental-health/news/news/2020/9/preventing-suicide-russian-federation-adapts-who-self-harm-monitoring-tool |title=Preventing suicide: Russian Federation adapts WHO self-harm monitoring tool |publisher=World Health Organization |date=9 October 2020 |access-date=3 January 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408174930/https://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/noncommunicable-diseases/mental-health/news/news/2020/9/preventing-suicide-russian-federation-adapts-who-self-harm-monitoring-tool}}</ref><ref name="su"/>

== Culture == {{Main|Russian culture}}

[[File:Moscow-Bolshoi-Theare-1.jpg|thumb|The Bolshoi Theatre in Moscow|alt=classical building at night]] Russian culture reflects a long, gradual, and complex amalgamation of various elements that coincided with centuries of development, expansion, and interaction with different peoples, artistic movements, and cultures.<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 August 2025 |title=Russia - Culture, Traditions, Arts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Cultural-life |access-date=5 August 2025 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=24 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250724055522/https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Cultural-life |url-status=live}}</ref> Russia has heavily influenced classical music,{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=228–230|loc=Music}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Swan |first=Alfred J. |title=The Present State of Russian Music |jstor=738554 |publisher=Oxford University Press |journal=The Musical Quarterly |volume=13 |number=1 |pages=29–38 |date=January 1927 |doi=10.1093/mq/XIII.1.29}}</ref> ballet,{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=230–232|loc=Ballet}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lifar |first=Sergei |title=The Russian Ballet in Russia and in the West |date=October 1969 |jstor=127159 |doi=10.2307/127159 |pages=396–402 |journal=The Russian Review |volume=28 |number=4}}</ref> theatre,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |surname=Senelick |given=Laurence |author-link=Laurence Senelick |title=Historical Dictionary of Russian Theatre |edition=2nd |year=2015 |orig-date=2007 |place=Lanham, Md |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mx5lCgAAQBAJ |isbn=978-1-4422-4926-4 |access-date=8 May 2025 |archive-date=6 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250606181901/https://books.google.com/books?id=mx5lCgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> mathematics,<ref name="math" /> sport,<ref name="Riordan-1993">{{cite journal |last=Riordan |first=Jim |title=Rewriting Soviet Sports History |year=1993 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |jstor=43609911 |volume=20 |number=4 |journal=Journal of Sport History |pages=247–258}}</ref> painting,{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=232–233|loc=Architecture and Painting}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Snow |first=Francis Haffkine |title=Ten Centuries of Russian Art |doi-access=free |doi=10.2307/25587683 |jstor=25587683 |volume=1 |number=2 |pages=130–135 |date=November 1916 |journal=The Art World}}</ref> and cinema.<ref name="Bulgakova-2012">{{cite web |last=Bulgakova |first=Oksana |url=https://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1021&context=russian_culture |title=The Russian Cinematic Culture |year=2012 |pages=1–37 |access-date=13 January 2022 |publisher=University of Nevada, Las Vegas |archive-date=13 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220113183731/https://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1021&context=russian_culture |url-status=live}}</ref> Russian writers and philosophers have played an important role in the development of European literature{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=222–228|loc=Literature}}<ref name="McLean-1962">{{cite journal |last=McLean |first=Hugh |date=September 1962 |title=The Development of Modern Russian Literature |journal=Slavic Review |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=21 |pages=389–410 |doi=10.2307/3000442 |jstor=3000442 |number=3}}</ref> and thought.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Frank |first=S. |date=January 1927 |title=Contemporary Russian Philosophy |journal=The Monist |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume=37 |pages=1–23 |doi=10.5840/monist192737121 |jstor=27901095 |number=1}}</ref> Russia also made pioneering contributions to science, technology, and space exploration.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hachten |first=Elizabeth A. |title=In Service to Science and Society: Scientists and the Public in Late-Nineteenth-Century Russia |jstor=3655271 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |journal=Osiris |year=2002 |volume=17 |pages=171–209 |doi=10.1086/649363}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Ipatieff |first=V.N. |title=Modern Science in Russia |jstor=125254 |doi=10.2307/125254 |year=1943 |pages=68–80 |journal=The Russian Review |publisher=Wiley |volume=2 |number=2}}</ref>

Russia is home to 32 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, 21 of which are cultural, while 31 lie on the tentative list.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/ru |title=Russian Federation |work=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=13 August 2021 |archive-date=7 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170707173059/https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/ru/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The large global Russian diaspora has also played a major role in spreading Russian culture throughout the world. Russia's national symbol, the double-headed eagle, dates back to the Tsardom period and is featured in its coat of arms and heraldry.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}} The Russian Bear and Mother Russia are often used as national personifications of the country.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Platoff |first1=Anne M. |title=The "Forward Russia" Flag: Examining the Changing Use of the Bear as a Symbol of Russia |journal=Raven: A Journal of Vexillology |date=2012 |volume=19 |pages=99–126 |doi=10.5840/raven2012197}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Riabov |first=Oleg |title=The Symbol of the Motherland in the Legitimation and Delegitimation of Power in Contemporary Russia |journal=Nationalities Papers |issn=0090-5992 |year=2020 |doi=10.1017/nps.2019.14 |pages=752–767 |volume=48 |number=4}}</ref> Matryoshka dolls are a cultural icon of Russia.<ref>{{cite book |title=Mother Russia: The Feminine Myth in Russian Culture |page=19 |first=Hubbs |last=Joanna |year=1993 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-20842-2}}</ref>

=== Holidays === {{main|Public holidays in Russia}}

Russia has eight official holidays spanning public, patriotic, and religious commemorations.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbr.ru/eng/other/holidays/ |title=Public Holidays in Russia |publisher=Central Bank of Russia |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132439/https://www.cbr.ru/eng/other/holidays/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The year starts with New Year's Day on 1 January, soon followed by Russian Orthodox Christmas on 7 January; the two are the country's most popular holidays.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lagunina |first1=Irina |last2=O'Connor |first2=Coilin |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-christmas-new-near-traditions-food-customs/31010307.html |title=Russian New Year: At The Heart Of A Wide Tapestry Of Winter Traditions |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |date=30 December 2020 |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=13 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220413102919/https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-christmas-new-near-traditions-food-customs/31010307.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Defender of the Fatherland Day, dedicated to men, is celebrated on 23 February.<ref>{{cite news |date=23 February 2011 |script-title=ru:День защитника Отечества. История праздника |trans-title=Defender of the Fatherland Day. history of the holiday |url=https://ria.ru/20110223/336868820.html |access-date=19 December 2021 |script-website=ru:РИА Новости |agency=RIA Novosti |language=ru |newspaper=Риа Новости |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132439/https://ria.ru/20110223/336868820.html |url-status=live}}</ref> International Women's Day on 8 March, gained momentum in Russia during the Soviet era. The annual celebration of women has become so popular, especially among Russian men, that the flower vendors of Moscow often see profits "fifteen times" more compared to other holidays.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20190307-russians-splurge-flowers-international-womens-day |title=Russians splurge on flowers for International Women's Day |publisher=France 24 |date=7 March 2019 |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132440/https://www.france24.com/en/20190307-russians-splurge-flowers-international-womens-day |url-status=live}}</ref> Spring and Labour Day, originally a Soviet era holiday dedicated to workers, is celebrated on 1 May.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.euronews.com/2020/05/01/in-pictures-may-day-through-history |title=In pictures: May Day through history |work=Euronews |date=1 May 2020 |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132439/https://www.euronews.com/2020/05/01/in-pictures-may-day-through-history |url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Алые паруса.jpg|thumb|The Scarlet Sails being celebrated along the Neva in Saint Petersburg]] Victory Day, which honours Soviet victory over Nazi Germany and the End of World War II in Europe, is celebrated on 9 May as an annual large parade in Moscow's Red Square<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ilyushina |first1=Maria |last2=Hodge |first2=Nathan |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/06/24/europe/victory-day-moscow-parade-coronavirus-2020-intl/index.html |title=Russia kicks off lavish Victory Day parade following coronavirus delay |publisher=CNN |date=24 June 2020 |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132439/https://edition.cnn.com/2020/06/24/europe/victory-day-moscow-parade-coronavirus-2020-intl/index.html |url-status=live}}</ref> and marks the famous Immortal Regiment civil event.<ref>{{cite web |last=Prokopyeva |first=Svetlana |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-immortal-regiment-grassroots-to-quasi-religious-cult/28482905.html |title=Russia's Immortal Regiment: From Grassroots To 'Quasi-Religious Cult' |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |date=12 May 2017 |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=13 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220413194915/https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-immortal-regiment-grassroots-to-quasi-religious-cult/28482905.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Other patriotic holidays include Russia Day on 12 June, celebrated to commemorate Russia's declaration of sovereignty from the collapsing Soviet Union,<ref>{{cite web |last=Yegorov |first=Oleg |url=https://www.rbth.com/lifestyle/330502-russia-day-holiday |title=What do Russians celebrate on June 12? |work=Russia Beyond |date=12 June 2019 |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132440/https://www.rbth.com/lifestyle/330502-russia-day-holiday |url-status=live}}</ref> and Unity Day on 4 November, commemorating the 1612 uprising that marked the end of the Polish occupation of Moscow.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://tass.com/society/1357591 |title=Russia celebrates National Unity Day |agency=TASS |date=3 November 2021 |access-date=9 January 2022 |archive-date=29 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329215330/https://tass.com/society/1357591 |url-status=live}}</ref>

There are many popular non-public holidays. Old New Year is celebrated on 14 January.<ref>{{cite web |last=Guzeva |first=Alexandra |url=https://www.rbth.com/lifestyle/333267-old-new-year-russia |title=Why Russians celebrate New Year TWICE |work=Russia Beyond |date=13 January 2021 |access-date=10 January 2022 |archive-date=11 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411054149/https://www.rbth.com/lifestyle/333267-old-new-year-russia |url-status=live}}</ref> Maslenitsa is an ancient and popular East Slavic folk holiday.<ref>{{cite web |last=Godoy |first=Maria |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2013/03/14/174097702/its-russian-mardi-gras-bring-on-the-pancakes-and-butter |date=14 March 2013 |access-date=10 January 2022 |title=It's Russian Mardi Gras: Time For Pancakes, Butter And Fistfights |publisher=NPR |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132439/https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2013/03/14/174097702/its-russian-mardi-gras-bring-on-the-pancakes-and-butter |url-status=live}}</ref> Cosmonautics Day on 12 April, in tribute to the first human trip into space.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dambach |first=Kai |url=https://www.dw.com/en/russia-marks-cosmonautics-day-in-pictures/g-57175251 |title=Russia marks Cosmonautics Day – in pictures |work=DW News |publisher=Deutsche Welle |date=12 April 2020 |access-date=10 January 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132621/https://www.dw.com/en/russia-marks-cosmonautics-day-in-pictures/g-57175251 |url-status=live}}</ref> Two major Christian holidays are Easter and Trinity Sunday.<ref>{{cite web |last=Leonov |first=Tatyana |title=Celebrate: Russian Orthodox Easter |url=https://www.sbs.com.au/food/article/2013/04/04/celebrate-russian-orthodox-easter |work=Special Broadcasting Service |date=5 April 2018 |access-date=12 January 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132621/https://www.sbs.com.au/food/article/2013/04/04/celebrate-russian-orthodox-easter |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Art and architecture === {{Main|Russian artists|Architecture of Russia|List of Russian architects}}

Early Russian painting is represented in icons and vibrant frescos. In the early 15th century, master icon painter Andrei Rublev created some of Russia's most treasured religious art.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=232–233|loc=Architecture and Painting}} The Russian Academy of Arts, which was established in 1757 to train Russian artists, brought Western techniques of secular painting to Russia.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|loc=Chapter 1–2. Historical Setting}} In the 18th century, academicians Ivan Argunov, Dmitry Levitzky, Vladimir Borovikovsky became influential.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Grover |first=Stuart R. |title=The World of Art Movement in Russia |jstor=128091 |doi=10.2307/128091 |pages=28–42 |volume=32 |number=1 |journal=The Russian Review |publisher=Wiley |date=January 1973}}</ref> The early 19th century saw many prominent paintings by Karl Briullov and Alexander Ivanov, both of whom were known for Romantic historical canvases.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dianina |first1=Katia |title=The Making of an Artist as National Hero: The Great Karl Briullov and His Critical Fortunes |journal=Slavic Review |date=2018 |volume=77 |pages=122–150 |doi=10.1017/slr.2018.13}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Sibbald |first=Balb |title=If the soul is nourished ... |journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal |date=5 February 2002 |volume=166 |number=3 |pages=357–358 |pmc=99322}}</ref> Ivan Aivazovsky, another Romantic painter, is considered one of the greatest masters of marine art.<ref>{{cite book |last=Leek |first=Peter |year=2012 |title=Russian Painting |publisher=Parkstone International |isbn=978-1-780-42975-5 |page=178}}</ref>

{{multiple image | direction = vertical | perrow = 2 | total_width = 230 | caption_align = center | align = right | image_style = border:none; | image1 = Karl Brullov - The Last Day of Pompeii - Google Art Project.jpg | caption1 = {{font|size=100%|text=Karl Bryullov, ''The Last Day of Pompeii'' (1833)}} | image2 = Winter Palace Panorama 3.jpg | caption2 = {{font|size=100%|text=The Winter Palace served as the official residence of the Emperor of Russia}}. }}

In the 1860s, a group of critical realists (Peredvizhniki), led by Ivan Kramskoy, Ilya Repin and Vasiliy Perov broke with the academy, and portrayed the many-sided aspects of social life in paintings.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Valkenier |first=Elizabeth Kridl |title=The Peredvizhniki and the Spirit of the 1860s |journal=The Russian Review |year=1975 |volume=34 |number=3 |pages=247–265 |publisher=Wiley |doi=10.2307/127973 |jstor=127973}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |jstor=10.7591/j.ctv177td37 |title=Russian Realisms |last1=Brunson |first1=Molly |date=2016 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-1-60909-199-6}}</ref> The turn of the 20th century saw the rise of symbolism, represented by Mikhail Vrubel and Nicholas Roerich.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Reeder |first=Roberta |title=Mikhail Vrubel': A Russian Interpretation of "fin de siècle" Art |jstor=4207296 |publisher=Modern Humanities Research Association |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review |volume=54 |number=3 |date=July 1976 |pages=323–334}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Archer |first=Kenneth |title=Nicholas Roerich and His Theatrical Designs: A Research Survey |jstor=1478046 |doi=10.2307/1478046 |volume=18 |number=2 |publisher=Dance Studies Association |journal=Dance Research Journal |pages=3–6 |year=1986}}</ref> The Russian avant-garde flourished from approximately 1890 to 1930; globally influential artists from this era were El Lissitzky,<ref>{{cite journal |publisher=CAA |pages=437–439 |doi=10.2307/3049132 |jstor=3049132 |journal=The Art Bulletin |date=September 1973 |volume=55 |number=3 |last=Birnholz |first=Alan C. |title=Notes on the Chronology of El Lissitzky's Proun Compositions}}</ref> Kazimir Malevich, Natalia Goncharova, Wassily Kandinsky, and Marc Chagall.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Salmond |first=Wendy |title=The Russian Avant-Garde of the 1890s: The Abramtsevo Circle |journal=The Journal of the Walters Art Museum |volume=60/61 |year=2002 |pages=7–13 |publisher=The Walters Art Museum |jstor=20168612}}</ref>

The history of Russian architecture begins with early woodcraft buildings of ancient Slavs and the church architecture of Kievan Rus'.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=232–233|loc=Architecture and Painting}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Conant |first=Kenneth John |title=Novgorod, Constantinople, and Kiev in Old Russian Church Architecture |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review |doi=10.2307/3020237 |jstor=3020237 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=3 |number=2 |date=August 1944 |pages=75–92}}</ref> The Christianization of Kievan Rus' brought centuries Byzantine architecture.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=232–233|loc=Architecture and Painting}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Voyce |first=Arthur |year=1957 |title=National Elements in Russian Architecture |journal=Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=6–16 |doi=10.2307/987741 |issn=0037-9808 |jstor=987741}}</ref> Following Mongol occupation, Kievan Rus' cut its ties with the Byzantine Empire, and Russian architecture saw native innovations, such as the invention of the iconostasis.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=232–233|loc=Architecture and Painting}} Aristotle Fioravanti and other Italian architects brought Renaissance trends to the Grand Principality of Moscow, which influenced the reconstruction of the Moscow Kremlin.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=232–233|loc=Architecture and Painting}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jarzombek |first1=Mark M. |last2=Prakash |first2=Vikramaditya |last3=Ching |first3=Frank |title=A Global History of Architecture |edition=2nd |date=2010 |page=544 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-40257-3}}</ref> The 16th century saw the development of the unique tent-like churches and the onion dome design, which is a distinctive feature of Russian architecture.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lidov |first=Alexei |title=The Canopy over the Holy Sepulchre. On the Origin of Onion-Shaped Domes |url=https://www.academia.edu/2694753 |journal=Academia.edu |year=2005 |pages=171–180 |archive-date=29 March 2022 |access-date=29 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329115442/https://www.academia.edu/2694753 |url-status=live}}</ref> In the 17th century, the "fiery style" of ornamentation flourished in Moscow and Yaroslavl, gradually paving the way for the Naryshkin baroque of the 1680s.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Hughes |first=Lindsey A. J. |title=Western European Graphic Material as a Source for Moscow Baroque Architecture |volume=55 |number=4 |date=October 1977 |pages=433–443 |jstor=4207533 |publisher=Modern Humanities Research Association |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review}}</ref>

After the reforms of Peter the Great, Russia's architecture became influenced by Western European styles.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=232–233|loc=Architecture and Painting}} The 18th-century taste for Rococo architecture led to the works of Bartolomeo Rastrelli and his followers. The most influential Russian architects of the eighteenth century, Vasily Bazhenov, Matvey Kazakov, and Ivan Starov, created lasting monuments in Moscow and Saint Petersburg and established a base for the more Russian forms that followed.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=232–233|loc=Architecture and Painting}} During the reign of Catherine the Great, Saint Petersburg was transformed into an outdoor museum of Neoclassical architecture.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Most Intentional City: St. Petersburg in the Reign of Catherine the Great |last=Munro |first=George |publisher=Farleigh Dickinson University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8386-4146-0 |location=Cranbury, NJ |page=233}}</ref> Under Alexander I, Empire style became the ''de facto'' architectural style.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ivask |first=George |title=The "Empire" Period |journal=The Russian Review |year=1954 |volume=13 |number=3 |pages=167–175 |publisher=Wiley |doi=10.2307/125968 |jstor=125968}}</ref> The second half of the 19th century was dominated by the Neo-Byzantine and Russian Revival style.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=232–233|loc=Architecture and Painting}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wortman |first1=Richard S. |last2=Marker |first2=Gary |title=Visual Texts, Ceremonial Texts, Texts of Exploration: Collected Articles on the Representation of Russian Monarchy |date=2014 |section=The "Russian Style" in Church Architecture as Imperial Symbol after 1881 |isbn=978-1-618-11347-4 |publisher=Academic Studies Press |jstor=j.ctt21h4wkb.15 |doi=10.2307/j.ctt21h4wkb.15 |doi-access=free |pages=208–237}}</ref> In the early 20th century, Russian neoclassical revival became a trend.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brumfield |first=William C. |title=Anti-Modernism and the Neoclassical Revival in Russian Architecture, 1906–1916 |publisher=University of California Press |journal=Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians |pages=371–386 |volume=48 |number=4 |date=December 1989 |doi=10.2307/990455 |jstor=990455}}</ref> Prevalent styles of the late 20th century were Art Nouveau,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brumfield |first=William |title=The Decorative Arts in Russian Architecture: 1900-1907 |jstor=1503933 |doi=10.2307/1503933 |volume=5 |pages=12–27 |journal=The Journal of Decorative and Propaganda Arts |publisher=Florida International University Board of Trustees |year=1987}}</ref> Constructivism,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fer |first=Briony |title=Metaphor and Modernity: Russian Constructivism |jstor=1360263 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=14–30 |volume=12 |number=1 |year=1989 |journal=Oxford Art Journal |doi=10.1093/oxartj/12.1.14}}</ref> and Socialist Classicism.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://iseees.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/shared/doc/2013_8-eady.pdf |title=To the New Shore: Soviet Architecture's Journey from Classicism to Standardization |last=Zubovich-Eady |first=Katherine |year=2013 |publisher=University of California |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-date=20 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120150146/https://iseees.berkeley.edu/sites/default/files/shared/doc/2013_8-eady.pdf}}</ref>

=== Music === {{Main|Music of Russia}}

[[File:Tchaikovsky by Reutlinger (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840–1893), {{Circa|1888}}]] Until the 18th century, music in Russia consisted mainly of church music and folk songs and dances.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=228–230|loc=Music}} In the 19th century, it was defined by the tension between classical composer Mikhail Glinka along with other members of The Mighty Handful, who were later succeeded by the Belyayev circle,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Carpenter |first=Ellon D. |year=2002 |title=Review of A History of Russian Music: From Kamarinskaya to Babi Yar |jstor=900748 |journal=Notes |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=74–77 |doi=10.1353/not.2002.0113}}</ref> and the Russian Musical Society led by composers Anton and Nikolay Rubinstein.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Garden |first=Edward |title=Classic and Romantic in Russian Music |jstor=732909 |volume=50 |number=1 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=153–157 |date=January 1969 |journal=Music & Letters |doi=10.1093/ml/L.1.153}}</ref> The later tradition of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, one of the greatest composers of the Romantic era, was continued into the 20th century by Sergei Rachmaninoff. World-renowned composers of the 20th century include Alexander Scriabin, Alexander Glazunov,{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=228–230|loc=Music}} Igor Stravinsky, Sergei Prokofiev and Dmitri Shostakovich, and later Edison Denisov, Sofia Gubaidulina,<ref name="music2"/> Georgy Sviridov,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gillies |first=Richard Louis |title=Otchalivshaia Rus': Georgii Sviridov and the Soviet Betrayal of Rus' |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review |volume=97 |number=2 |publisher=Modern Humanities Research Association |pages=227–265 |date=April 2019 |doi=10.5699/slaveasteurorev2.97.2.0227}}</ref> and Alfred Schnittke.<ref name="music2"/>

During the Soviet era, popular music also produced a number of renowned figures, such as the two balladeers—Vladimir Vysotsky and Bulat Okudzhava,<ref name="music2">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Music |title=Russia – Music |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=7 July 2021 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407043936/https://www.britannica.com/place/Russia/Music |url-status=live}}</ref> and performers such as Alla Pugacheva.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/02/28/nyregion/superstar-evokes-superpower-diva-s-voice-adoring-fans-hear-echoes-soviet-days.html?scp=5&sq=pugacheva&st=cse |title=A Superstar Evokes a Superpower; In Diva's Voice, Adoring Fans Hear Echoes of Soviet Days |work=The New York Times |first=Alison |last=Smale |date=28 February 2000 |access-date=7 July 2021 |url-access=limited |archive-date=28 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328231350/https://www.nytimes.com/2000/02/28/nyregion/superstar-evokes-superpower-diva-s-voice-adoring-fans-hear-echoes-soviet-days.html?scp=5&sq=pugacheva&st=cse |url-status=live}}</ref> Jazz, even with sanctions from Soviet authorities, flourished and evolved into one of the country's most popular musical forms.<ref name="music2"/> By the 1980s, rock music became popular across Russia, and produced bands such as Aria, Aquarium,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20141013-meet-the-bob-dylan-of-russia |title=Boris Grebenshikov: 'The Bob Dylan of Russia' |publisher=BBC |first=Sally |last=McGrane |date=21 October 2014 |access-date=7 July 2021 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331091042/https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20141013-meet-the-bob-dylan-of-russia |url-status=live}}</ref> DDT,<ref>{{cite news |last=Pellegrinelli |first=Lara |url=https://www.npr.org/2008/02/06/18752518/ddt-notes-from-russias-rock-underground |title=DDT: Notes from Russia's Rock Underground |publisher=NPR |date=6 February 2008 |access-date=10 July 2021 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331101353/https://www.npr.org/2008/02/06/18752518/ddt-notes-from-russias-rock-underground |url-status=live}}</ref> and Kino;<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/leningrad-rock-club-scorpions-meine-soviet-union-wind-of-change-tsoi/31157285.html |title='Crazy Pirates': The Leningrad Rockers Who Rode A Wind Of Change Across The U.S.S.R. |publisher=Radio Liberty |first=Coilin |last=O'Connor |date=23 March 2021 |access-date=7 July 2021 |archive-date=13 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220413053633/https://www.rferl.org/a/leningrad-rock-club-scorpions-meine-soviet-union-wind-of-change-tsoi/31157285.html |url-status=live}}</ref> the latter's leader Viktor Tsoi, was in particular, a gigantic figure.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-music-kino-tsoi/27185480.html |title=Musician, Songwriter, Cultural Force: Remembering Russia's Viktor Tsoi |publisher=Radio Liberty |date=12 August 2015 |access-date=19 July 2021 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331102434/https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-music-kino-tsoi/27185480.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Pop music has continued to flourish in Russia since the 1960s, with globally famous acts such as t.A.T.u.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theage.com.au/entertainment/music/tatu-bad-to-be-true-20030614-gdvvq0.html |title=Tatu bad to be true |work=The Age |date=14 June 2003 |access-date=7 July 2021 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331103131/https://www.theage.com.au/entertainment/music/tatu-bad-to-be-true-20030614-gdvvq0.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Literature and philosophy === {{Main|Russian literature|Russian philosophy}}

[[File:Novgorod Codex - colour.jpg|thumb|left|First page of the Novgorod Codex {{circa|1000}}, the oldest surviving book of Kievan Rus']] Russian literature is among the world's most influential and developed.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=222–228|loc=Literature}}<ref name="McLean-1962"/> It can be traced to the Early Middle Ages, when Old Church Slavonic was introduced as a liturgical language and came to be used as a literary language, creating a situation of diglossia.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|p=222|loc=Literature}}<ref name="Cornwell">{{cite book |last1=Cornwell |first1=Neil |last2=Christian |first2=Nicole |title=Reference Guide to Russian Literature |date=1998 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-884964-10-7 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Reference_Guide_to_Russian_Literature/ehaZrlRY_YgC |language=en}}</ref>{{rp|4}} The Russian vernacular remained in use for oral literature and chancery writing; it gradually supplanted Church Slavonic in secular works, contributing to the standardisation of the modern Russian literary language in the 18th and early 19th centuries.<ref name="Cornwell"/>{{rp|5}}

By the Age of Enlightenment, literature had grown in importance, with works from Mikhail Lomonosov, Denis Fonvizin, Gavrila Derzhavin, and Nikolay Karamzin.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=222–228|loc=Literature}} From the early 1830s, during the Golden Age of Russian Poetry, literature underwent an astounding golden age in poetry, prose and drama.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Prose |first1=Francine |last2=Moser |first2=Benjamin |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/30/books/review/what-makes-the-russian-literature-of-the-19th-century-so-distinctive.html |title=What Makes the Russian Literature of the 19th Century So Distinctive? |work=The New York Times |date=25 November 2014 |access-date=19 July 2021 |url-access=limited |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331103449/https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/30/books/review/what-makes-the-russian-literature-of-the-19th-century-so-distinctive.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Romantic literature permitted a flowering of poetic talent: Vasily Zhukovsky and later his protégé Alexander Pushkin came to the fore.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Emerson |first=Caryl |jstor=20057504 |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Press |volume=29 |number=4 |year=1998 |pages=653–672 |journal=New Literary History |title=Pushkin, Literary Criticism, and Creativity in Closed Places |doi=10.1353/nlh.1998.0040}}</ref> Following Pushkin's footsteps, a new generation of poets were born, including Mikhail Lermontov, Nikolay Nekrasov, Aleksey Konstantinovich Tolstoy, Fyodor Tyutchev, and Afanasy Fet.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=222–228|loc=Literature}}

The first great Russian novelist was Nikolai Gogol.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=222–228|loc=Literature}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Strakhovsky |first=Leonid I. |title=The Historianism of Gogol |jstor=2491790 |doi=10.2307/2491790 |volume=12 |number=3 |date=October 1953 |pages=360–370 |journal=The American Slavic and East European Review (Slavic Review) |publisher=Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies}}</ref> Then, during the Age of Realism,{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=222–228|loc=Literature}} came Ivan Turgenev, who mastered both short stories and novels.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Henry Chamberlin |first=William |title=Turgenev: The Eternal Romantic |jstor=125154 |publisher=Wiley |doi=10.2307/125154 |volume=5 |number=2 |pages=10–23 |journal=The Russian Review |year=1946}}</ref> Fyodor Dostoevsky and Leo Tolstoy soon became internationally renowned.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=222–228|loc=Literature}} Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin wrote prose satire,{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=222–228|loc=Literature}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Neuhäuser |first=Rudolf |title=The Early Prose of Saltykov-Shchedrin and Dostoevskii: Parallels and Echoes |journal=Canadian Slavonic Papers |jstor=40867755 |volume=22 |number=3 |year=1980 |pages=372–387 |doi=10.1080/00085006.1980.11091635}}</ref> while Nikolai Leskov is best remembered for his shorter fiction.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Muckle |first=James |title=Nikolay Leskov: educational journalist and imaginative writer |publisher=Australia and New Zealand Slavists' Association |year=1984 |pages=81–110 |journal=New Zealand Slavonic Journal |jstor=40921231}}</ref> In the second half of the century Anton Chekhov excelled in short stories and became a leading dramatist.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=222–228|loc=Literature}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2004/jul/03/classics |title=A Chekhov lexicon |last=Boyd |first=William |date=3 July 2004 |access-date=15 January 2022 |work=The Guardian |archive-date=29 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329082810/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2004/jul/03/classics |url-status=live}}</ref> Other important 19th-century developments included the fabulist Ivan Krylov,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pirie |first1=Gordon |last2=Chandler |first2=Robert |title=Eight Tales from Ivan Krylov |journal=Translation and Literature |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |jstor=40340118 |volume=18 |number=1 |year=2009 |pages=64–85 |doi=10.3366/E096813610800037X}}</ref> non-fiction writers such as the critic Vissarion Belinsky,{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=222–228|loc=Literature}}<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gifford |first=Henry |title=Belinsky: One Aspect |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review |jstor=4204011 |volume=27 |number=68 |year=1948 |pages=250–258}}</ref> and playwrights such as Aleksandr Griboyedov and Aleksandr Ostrovsky.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brintlinger |first=Angela |title=The Persian Frontier: Griboedov as Orientalist and Literary Hero |journal=Canadian Slavonic Papers |jstor=40870888 |volume=45 |number=3/4 |year=2003 |pages=371–393 |doi=10.1080/00085006.2003.11092333}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Beasly |first=Ina |title=The Dramatic Art of Ostrovsky. (Alexander Nikolayevich Ostrovsky, 1823–86) |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review |jstor=4202212 |volume=6 |number=18 |year=1928 |pages=603–617}}</ref> The beginning of the 20th century ranks as the Silver Age of Russian Poetry.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=222–228|loc=Literature}} This era had poets such as Alexander Blok, Anna Akhmatova, Boris Pasternak, Vladimir Mayakovsky,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Helen |first1=Muchnic |title=Vladimir Mayakovsky |journal=The Russian Review |volume=76 |number=3 |year=1958 |pages=115–127 |publisher=Wiley |jstor=126027}}</ref> Sergei Yesenin,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=McVay |first1=Gordon |title=The Centenary of Sergei Esenin: A Survey of Publications |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review |volume=17 |number=2 |year=1998 |pages=494–528 |publisher=Modern Humanities Research Association |jstor=4212688}}</ref> and Konstantin Balmont.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Markov |first=Vladimir |title=Balmont: A Reappraisal |jstor=2493225 |journal=Slavic Review |volume=28 |number=2 |year=1969 |pages=221–264 |doi=10.2307/2493225}}</ref> It also produced some first-rate novelists and short-story writers, such as Aleksandr Kuprin, Nobel Prize winner Ivan Bunin, Leonid Andreyev, Yevgeny Zamyatin, Dmitry Merezhkovsky, and Andrei Bely.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=222–228|loc=Literature}}

After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Russian literature split into Soviet and white émigré parts. In the 1930s, socialist realism became the predominant trend in Russia.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=222–228|loc=Literature}} Its leading figure was Maxim Gorky, who laid the foundations of this style.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tikhonov |first=Nikolay |author-link=Nikolai Tikhonov (writer) |title=Gorky and Soviet Literature |date=November 1946 |pages=28–38 |volume=25 |number=64 |publisher=Modern Humanities Research Association |jstor=4203794 |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review}}</ref> Mikhail Bulgakov was one of the leading writers of the Soviet era.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=4212557 |last=Lovell |first=Stephen |title=Bulgakov as Soviet Culture |volume=76 |number=1 |pages=28–48 |journal=The Slavonic and East European Review |year=1998 |publisher=Modern Humanities Research Association}}</ref> Nikolay Ostrovsky's novel ''How the Steel Was Tempered'' has been among the most successful works of Russian literature.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=222–228|loc=Literature}} Influential émigré writers include Vladimir Nabokov,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Grosshans |first=Henry |title=Vladimir Nabokov and the Dream of Old Russia |jstor=40753878 |publisher=University of Texas Press |pages=401–409 |year=1966 |journal=Texas Studies in Literature and Language |volume=7 |number=4}}</ref> Joseph Brodsky,{{sfn|Curtis|1998|p=227|loc=Literature}} and Isaac Asimov, who was considered one of the "Big Three" science fiction writers.<ref>{{cite book |last=Freedman |first=Carl |title=Critical Theory and Science Fiction |author-link=Carl Freedman (writer) |date=2000 |publisher=Wesleyan University Press |page=71 |isbn=978-0-819-56399-6}}</ref> Some writers dared to oppose Soviet ideology, such as Nobel Prize-winning novelist Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, who wrote about life in the Gulag camps,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rowley |first=David G. |title=Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Russian Nationalism |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |jstor=260964 |publisher=SAGE Publishing |pages=321–337 |volume=32 |number=3 |date=July 1997 |doi=10.1177/002200949703200303}}</ref> and Andrey Sinyavsky.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|p=227|loc=Literature}} {{multiple image | perrow = 2 | total_width = 300 | image_style = border:none; | caption_align = center | align = right | image1 = Ilya Efimovich Repin (1844-1930) - Portrait of Leo Tolstoy (1887).jpg | caption1 = {{font|size=100%|text=Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910) is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time, with works such as ''War and Peace''.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thirlwell |first=Adam |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2005/oct/08/classics.leonikolaevichtolstoy |title=A masterpiece in miniature |work=The Guardian |date=8 October 2005 |access-date=25 July 2021 |archive-date=9 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171109005856/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2005/oct/08/classics.leonikolaevichtolstoy |url-status=live}}</ref>}} | image2 = Vasily Perov - Портрет Ф.М.Достоевского - Google Art Project.jpg | caption2 = {{font|size=100%|text=Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821–1881), one of the great novelists of all time, whose masterpieces include ''Crime and Punishment''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Dahlkvist |first=Tobias |date=October 2015 |title=The Epileptic Genius: The Use of Dostoevsky as Example in the Medical Debate over the Pathology of Genius |jstor=43948762 |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |volume=76 |number=4 |pages=587–608 |doi=10.1353/jhi.2015.0028 |pmid=26522713}}</ref>}} }}

Russian literature faced rapid and difficult changes during the turbulent 1990s, with writers and publishers struggling to adjust to new economic and political developments.{{sfn|Curtis|1998|pp=227–228|loc=Literature}}<ref name="Cornwell"/>{{rp|65}} Domestic literature subsequently declined in influence among most Russians,{{sfn|Curtis|1998|p=228|loc=Literature}} who now had sudden and rapid access to a wide volume of previously suppressed Western literary movements.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web |title=Russian literature - Stalin, Soviet, Realism {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Russian-literature/The-Stalin-era |access-date=5 August 2025 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=25 August 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250825132028/https://www.britannica.com/art/Russian-literature/The-Stalin-era |url-status=live}}</ref> Nevertheless, this environment fostered experimental and postmodern literature and satire.<ref name="auto"/> At the beginning of the 21st century, the most discussed figures, postmodernists Victor Pelevin and Vladimir Sorokin, remained the leading Russian writers.<ref>{{cite web |last=Aslanyan |first=Anna |title=Revolutions and resurrections: How has Russia's literature changed? |work=The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/features/revolutions-and-resurrections-how-has-russias-literature-changed-2264690.html |date=8 April 2011 |access-date=18 May 2024 |archive-date=4 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004234441/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/features/revolutions-and-resurrections-how-has-russias-literature-changed-2264690.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Cornwell"/>{{rp|65–67}}

Russian philosophy has been influential. Religious and spiritual philosophy is represented by Vladimir Solovyov, Nikolai Berdyaev, Pavel Florensky, Semyon Frank, Nikolay Lossky, Vasily Rozanov, and others.<ref>{{cite book |surname=Lossky |given=N. O. |author-link=Nikolai Lossky |title=History of Russian Philosophy |year=1952 |orig-date=1951 |place=London |publisher=George Allen & Unwin |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.90432/page/n5/mode/1up}}</ref> Mystic Helena Blavatsky gained an international following as the leading theoretician of Theosophy and the co-founder of the Theosophical Society.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bevir |first=Mark |title=The West Turns Eastward: Madame Blavatsky and the Transformation of the Occult Tradition |jstor=1465212 |pages=747–767 |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume=62 |number=3 |journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion |date=1994 |doi=10.1093/jaarel/LXII.3.747}}</ref> Alexander Herzen is known as one of the fathers of agrarian populism.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kelly |first=Aileen |title=The Destruction of Idols: Alexander Herzen and Francis Bacon |jstor=2709278 |doi=10.2307/2709278 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |year=1980 |volume=41 |number=4 |pages=635–662}}</ref> Mikhail Bakunin is referred to as the father of anarchism.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rezneck |first=Samuel |title=The Political and Social Theory of Michael Bakunin |jstor=1945179 |doi=10.2307/1945179 |pages=270–296 |volume=21 |number=2 |journal=The American Political Science Review |year=1927 |publisher=American Political Science Association}}</ref> Peter Kropotkin was the most important theorist of anarcho-communism.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Adams |first=Matthew S. |title=Rejecting the American Model: Peter Kropotkin's Radical Communalism |jstor=26227268 |pages=147–173 |volume=35 |number=1 |journal=History of Political Thought |publisher=Imprint Academic |year=2014}}</ref> Mikhail Bakhtin's writings have significantly inspired scholars in various fields.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schuster |first=Charles I. |title=Mikhail Bakhtin as Rhetorical Theorist |jstor=377158 |doi=10.2307/377158 |volume=47 |number=6 |pages=594–607 |journal=College English |year=1985 |publisher=National Council of Teachers of English}}</ref> Vladimir Lenin, a major revolutionary, developed a variant of communism known as Leninism.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brinkley |first=George |year=1998 |editor-last=Harding |editor-first=Neil |editor2-last=Pipes |editor2-first=Richard |title=Leninism: What It Was and What It Was Not |journal=The Review of Politics |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=151–164 |doi=10.1017/S0034670500043965 |jstor=1408333}}</ref> Leon Trotsky, Lenin's contemporary and co-revolutionary, founded his own strain of Marxism known as Trotskyism.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Day |first1=Richard B. |title=Leon Trotsky and the Politics of Economic Isolation |chapter=The myth of Trotskyism |date=1973 |pages=3–16 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511524028.002 |isbn=978-0-521-20089-9}}</ref> Alexander Zinoviev was a prominent philosopher and writer in the second half of the 20th century.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Brom |first=Libor |title=Dialectical Identity and Destiny: A General Introduction to Alexander Zinoviev's Theory of the Soviet Man |jstor=1347433 |doi=10.2307/1347433 |volume=42 |number=1/2 |year=1988 |pages=15–27 |publisher=Rocky Mountain Modern Language Association |journal=Rocky Mountain Review of Language and Literature}}</ref>

=== Mass media and cinema === {{Main|Media of Russia|Cinema of Russia}}

[[File:Останкинская башня вечером.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Ostankino Tower in Moscow, the tallest freestanding structure in Europe<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rbth.com/arts/2017/08/08/the-high-life-how-to-get-to-ostankino-tower-and-what-to-do-there_818720 |title=The high life: How to get to Ostankino Tower and what to do there |work=Russia Beyond |last=Sinelschikova |first=Yekaterina |date=8 August 2017 |access-date=23 December 2021}}</ref>]] There are 400 news agencies in Russia, among which the largest internationally operating are TASS, RIA Novosti, Sputnik, and Interfax.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ejc.net/media_landscapes/russia#link_312 |title=Russia – Media Landscape |work=European Journalism Centre |first=Natalya |last=Krasnoboka |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180320003807/http://ejc.net/media_landscapes/russia#link_312 |archive-date=20 March 2018 |access-date=15 May 2021}}</ref> Television is the most popular medium in Russia.<ref name="bbcmedia">{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17840134 |title=Russia profile – Media |publisher=BBC |date=8 June 2021 |access-date=25 November 2021 |archive-date=24 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324030150/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17840134 |url-status=live}}</ref> Among the 3,000 licensed radio stations nationwide, notable ones include Radio Rossii, Vesti FM, Echo of Moscow, Radio Mayak, and Russkoye Radio. Of the 16,000 registered newspapers, {{Lang|ru-latn|Argumenty i Fakty}}, {{lang|ru-latn|Komsomolskaya Pravda}}, {{Lang|ru-latn|Rossiyskaya Gazeta}}, ''Izvestia'', and {{lang|ru-latn|Moskovskij Komsomolets}} are popular. State-run Channel One and Russia-1 are the leading news channels, while RT is the flagship of Russia's international media operations.<ref name="bbcmedia"/>

Russian and later Soviet cinema was a hotbed of invention, resulting in world-renowned films such as ''Battleship Potemkin'', which was named the greatest film of all time at the Brussels World's Fair in 1958.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Miller |first=Jamie |jstor=20451166 |title=Soviet Cinema, 1929–41: The Development of Industry and Infrastructure |journal=Europe-Asia Studies |volume=58 |number=1 |year=2006 |pages=103–124 |doi=10.1080/09668130500401715}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Hodgson |first=Jonathan |url=https://www.play.mdx.ac.uk/media/EISENSTEIN%2C+Sergei+-+BATTLESHIP+POTEMKIN+-+1925+Russia/1_sub9wj41 |title=Eisenstein, Sergei – Battleship Potemkin – 1925 Russia |publisher=Middlesex University |date=4 December 2020 |access-date=10 July 2021 |archive-date=29 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329091227/https://www.play.mdx.ac.uk/media/EISENSTEIN%2C+Sergei+-+BATTLESHIP+POTEMKIN+-+1925+Russia/1_sub9wj41 |url-status=live}}</ref> Soviet-era filmmakers, most notably Sergei Eisenstein and Andrei Tarkovsky, would go on to become among of the world's most innovative and influential directors.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.inverse.com/article/40392-sergei-eisenstein-google-doodle |title=Sergei Eisenstein: How the "Father of Montage" Reinvented Cinema |work=Inverse |first=Mike |last=Brown |date=22 January 2018 |access-date=27 May 2021 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331100137/https://www.inverse.com/article/40392-sergei-eisenstein-google-doodle |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bfi.org.uk/features/where-begin-with-andrei-tarkovsky |title=Where to begin with Andrei Tarkovsky |work=British Film Institute |quote=He made only seven features, but Russian director Andrei Tarkovsky is widely regarded as one of cinema's true masters. |first=Carmen |last=Gray |date=27 October 2015 |access-date=27 May 2021 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331091343/https://www.bfi.org.uk/features/where-begin-with-andrei-tarkovsky |url-status=live}}</ref> Eisenstein was a student of Lev Kuleshov, who developed the groundbreaking Soviet montage theory of film editing at the world's first film school, the All-Union Institute of Cinematography.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/All-Union-State-Institute-of-Cinematography |title=All-Union State Institute of Cinematography |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=29 June 2021 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331092540/https://www.britannica.com/topic/All-Union-State-Institute-of-Cinematography |url-status=live}}</ref> Dziga Vertov's "Kino-Eye" theory had a large effect on the development of documentary filmmaking and cinema realism.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.yale.edu/2019/08/12/yale-film-scholar-dziga-vertov-enigma-movie-camera |title=Yale film scholar on Dziga Vertov, the enigma with a movie camera |work=Yale University |first=Kendall |last=Teare |date=12 August 2019 |access-date=21 June 2021 |archive-date=19 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220419004549/https://news.yale.edu/2019/08/12/yale-film-scholar-dziga-vertov-enigma-movie-camera |url-status=live}}</ref> Many Soviet socialist realism films were artistically successful, including ''Chapaev'', ''The Cranes Are Flying'', and ''Ballad of a Soldier''.<ref name="Bulgakova-2012"/>

The 1960s and 1970s saw a greater variety of artistic styles in Soviet cinema.<ref name="Bulgakova-2012"/> The comedies of Eldar Ryazanov and Leonid Gaidai were immensely popular, with many of their catchphrases still in use today.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/eldar-ryazanov-films/27398408.html |title=Eldar Ryazanov And His Films |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |date=30 November 2015 |access-date=27 May 2021 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331102410/https://www.rferl.org/a/eldar-ryazanov-films/27398408.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Prokhorova |first1=Elena |last2=Beumers |first2=Birgit |title=A History of Russian Cinema |date=2008 |section=The Man Who Made Them Laugh: Leonid Gaidai, the King of Soviet Comedy |isbn=978-1-84520-215-6 |publisher=Berg Publishers |pages=519–542}}</ref> In 1961–68 Sergey Bondarchuk directed an Oscar-winning film adaptation of Leo Tolstoy's epic ''War and Peace'', which was the most expensive film made in the Soviet Union.<ref name="Bulgakova-2012"/> In 1969, Vladimir Motyl's ''White Sun of the Desert'' was released, a very popular film in a genre of ostern; the film is traditionally watched by cosmonauts before any trip into space.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://filmlinc.com/wrt/onsale08/russian08/whitesunofthedesert.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905102633/http://filmlinc.com/wrt/onsale08/russian08/whitesunofthedesert.html |archive-date=5 September 2008 |publisher=Film at Lincoln Center |title=White Sun of the Desert |access-date=18 January 2008}}</ref> After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the Russian cinema industry suffered large losses; however, since the late 2000s, it has seen growth once again, and continues to expand.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/01/18/the-revival-of-russias-cinema-industry-a64197 |title=The Revival of Russia's Cinema Industry |work=The Moscow Times |first=Ben |last=Aris |date=18 January 2019 |access-date=25 May 2021 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331103222/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/01/18/the-revival-of-russias-cinema-industry-a64197 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{Obsolete source|date=February 2026}}

=== Cuisine === {{Main|Russian cuisine}}

[[File:Mint bread kvas.jpg|thumb|Kvass is an ancient and traditional Russian beverage.]] Russian cuisine has been formed by the country's diverse climate, cultural and religious traditions, and vast geography; it shares similarities with neighbouring countries. Crops of rye, wheat, barley, and millet provide the ingredients for various breads, pancakes and cereals, as well as for many drinks. Bread, of many varieties,<ref>{{cite web |last=Azhnina |first=Maria |url=https://www.rbth.com/russian_kitchen/2017/07/13/7-kinds-of-russian-bread-youll-want-to-bite-the-crust-off-of_801997 |title=7 kinds of Russian bread you'll want to bite the crust off of |work=Russia Beyond |date=13 July 2017 |access-date=5 December 2021 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132439/https://www.rbth.com/russian_kitchen/2017/07/13/7-kinds-of-russian-bread-youll-want-to-bite-the-crust-off-of_801997 |url-status=live}}</ref> is very popular across Russia.<ref>{{cite web |last=Thatcher |first=Gary |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/1985/0916/obread.html |title=When it comes to bread, Russians don't loaf |work=The Christian Science Monitor |date=16 September 1985 |access-date=7 August 2021 |archive-date=29 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329054125/https://www.csmonitor.com/1985/0916/obread.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Flavourful soups and stews include shchi, borsch, ukha, solyanka, and okroshka. Smetana (a heavy sour cream) and mayonnaise are often added to soups and salads.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2021/05/15/spotlight-on-smetana-russias-sour-cream-a73909 |title=Spotlight on Smetana: Russia's Sour Cream |work=The Moscow Times |first=Jennifer |last=Eremeeva |date=15 May 2021 |access-date=18 May 2021 |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407152416/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2021/05/15/spotlight-on-smetana-russias-sour-cream-a73909 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Shearlaw |first=Maeve |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/21/-sp-understanding-russias-obsession-with-mayonnaise |title=Understanding Russia's obsession with mayonnaise |work=The Guardian |date=21 November 2014 |access-date=5 December 2021 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132439/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/nov/21/-sp-understanding-russias-obsession-with-mayonnaise |url-status=live}}</ref> Pirozhki,<ref>{{cite book |last=Goldstein |first=Darra |author-link=Darra Goldstein |title=A Taste of Russia: A Cookbook of Russian Hospitality |date=1999 |edition=2nd |page=54 |publisher=Russian Information Service |isbn=978-1-880-10042-4}}</ref> blini,<ref>{{cite book |last=Curtis |first=Michele |title=In the Kitchen: The New Bible of Home Cooking |date=2018 |isbn=978-1-743-58555-9 |publisher=Hardie Grant Publishing |page=66}}</ref> and syrniki are native types of pancakes.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sacharow |first=Alla |title=Classic Russian Cuisine: A Magnificent Selection of More Than 400 Traditional Recipes |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |year=1993 |page=281 |isbn=978-1-628-72079-2}}</ref> Beef Stroganoff,<ref name="Volokh-1983">{{cite book |last1=Volokh |first1=Anne |last2=Manus |first2=Mavis |title=The Art of Russian Cuisine |date=1983 |publisher=Macmillan Publishers |location=New York |isbn=978-0-026-22090-3}}</ref>{{rp|266}} Chicken Kiev,<ref name="Volokh-1983"/>{{rp|320}} pelmeni,<ref>{{cite book |last=Grigson |first=Jane |author-link=Jane Grigson |title=Jane Grigson's Vegetable Book |date=2007 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |page=144 |isbn=978-0-803-25994-2}}</ref> and shashlyk are popular meat dishes.<ref>{{cite web |last=Naylor |first=Tony |url=https://www.theguardian.com/food/2020/jul/22/from-sizzling-shashlik-to-spicy-seekh-kebabs-barbecue-recipes-from-around-the-world |title=From sizzling shashlik to spicy seekh kebabs: barbecue recipes from around the world |work=The Guardian |date=22 July 2020 |access-date=5 January 2021 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132439/https://www.theguardian.com/food/2020/jul/22/from-sizzling-shashlik-to-spicy-seekh-kebabs-barbecue-recipes-from-around-the-world |url-status=live}}</ref> Other meat dishes include stuffed cabbage rolls (golubtsy) usually filled with meat.<ref>{{cite web |last=Eremeeva |first=Jennifer |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2021/02/06/north-meets-south-in-mini-golubtsy-a72851 |title=North Meets South in Mini Golubtsy |work=The Moscow Times |date=10 February 2021 |access-date=5 January 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132439/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2021/02/06/north-meets-south-in-mini-golubtsy-a72851 |url-status=live}}</ref> Salads include Olivier salad,<ref>{{cite web |last=Cloake |first=Felicity |url=https://www.theguardian.com/food/2020/aug/05/how-to-make-the-perfect-russian-salad-felicity-cloake |title=How to make the perfect Russian salad |work=The Guardian |date=5 August 2020 |access-date=5 January 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132500/https://www.theguardian.com/food/2020/aug/05/how-to-make-the-perfect-russian-salad-felicity-cloake |url-status=live}}</ref> vinegret,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rbth.com/russian-kitchen/326159-russian-vinegret-salad-super-easy |title=Russian Vinegret salad: Super-easy and super-traditional |work=Russia Beyond |date=13 September 2017 |access-date=5 January 2022 |archive-date=13 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220413071134/https://www.rbth.com/russian-kitchen/326159-russian-vinegret-salad-super-easy |url-status=live}}</ref> and dressed herring.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dw.com/en/global-snack-herring-under-a-fur-coat/av-55811920 |title=Global Snack: Herring under a fur coat |work=DW News |publisher=Deutsche Welle |date=12 April 2020 |access-date=5 January 2022 |archive-date=4 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201204154653/https://www.dw.com/en/global-snack-herring-under-a-fur-coat/av-55811920 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Russia's national non-alcoholic drink is kvass,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2020/07/04/kvas-russias-national-tipple-a70784 |title=Kvas: Russia's National Tipple |work=The Moscow Times |first=Jennifer |last=Eremeeva |date=4 July 2020 |access-date=19 May 2021 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331103222/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2020/07/04/kvas-russias-national-tipple-a70784 |url-status=live}}</ref> and the national alcoholic drink is vodka; its production in Russia (and elsewhere) dates back to the 14th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/how-to-drink-vodka-like-a-russian |title=How To Drink Vodka Like a Russian |work=Atlas Obscura |first=Dan |last=Nosowitz |date=7 April 2016 |access-date=19 May 2021 |archive-date=29 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329141007/https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/how-to-drink-vodka-like-a-russian |url-status=live}}</ref> The country has the world's highest vodka consumption,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://qz.com/179708/map-where-the-worlds-biggest-vodka-drinkers-are/ |title=Map: Where the world's biggest vodka drinkers are |work=Quartz |first=Roberto A. |last=Ferdman |date=23 February 2014 |access-date=18 May 2021 |archive-date=29 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329091227/https://qz.com/179708/map-where-the-worlds-biggest-vodka-drinkers-are/ |url-status=live}}</ref> while beer is the most popular alcoholic beverage.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://ac.gov.ru/uploads/2-Publications/alcogol/al%D1%81o.2020.4.pdf |script-title=ru:Обзор российского рынка алкогольной продукции. IV квартал 2020 |title=Obzor rossiyskogo rynka alkogol'noy produktsii. IV kvartal 2020 |publisher=Analytical Center for the Government of the Russian Federation |page=11 |lang=ru |date=February 2021 |access-date=10 February 2022 |archive-date=22 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422110728/http://www.ac.gov.ru/uploads/2-Publications/alcogol/al%D1%81o.2020.4.pdf}}</ref> Wine has become increasingly popular in Russia in the 21st century.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/Report/DownloadReportByFileName?fileName=Russia%20Wine%20Market%20Overview_Moscow%20ATO_Russian%20Federation_04-21-2021 |title=Russia Wine Market Overview |work=Foreign Agricultural Service |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |date=22 April 2021 |access-date=7 January 2022 |archive-date=7 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107192624/https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/Report/DownloadReportByFileName?fileName=Russia%20Wine%20Market%20Overview_Moscow%20ATO_Russian%20Federation_04-21-2021 |url-status=live}}</ref> Tea has been popular in Russia for centuries.<ref>{{cite web |last=Teslova |first=Elena |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/russian-samovars-make-tea-time-distinctive-tradition/1720329 |publisher=Anadolu Agency |title=Russian samovars make tea-time distinctive tradition |date=31 January 2021 |access-date=17 November 2021 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132439/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/russian-samovars-make-tea-time-distinctive-tradition/1720329 |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Sports === {{Main|Sport in Russia}}

Football is the most popular sport in Russia.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gorokhov |first=Vitalii Aleksandrovich |title=Forward Russia! Sports Mega-Events as a Venue for Building National Identity |journal=Nationalities Papers |year=2015 |volume=43 |issue=2 |page=278 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1080/00905992.2014.998043}}</ref> The Soviet Union national football team became the first European champions by winning Euro 1960,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro-2020/news/025a-0eb0ecf360cc-a9532565e049-1000--euro-1960-all-you-need-to-know/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615002408/https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro-2020/news/025a-0eb0ecf360cc-a9532565e049-1000--euro-1960-all-you-need-to-know/ |archive-date=15 June 2020 |title=EURO 1960: all you need to know |work=UEFA Champions League |date=13 February 2020 |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> and reached the finals of Euro 1988.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro-2020/news/025d-0f859f66fcba-c8d3aa08dfa3-1000--classics-ussr-vs-netherlands-1988/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200607134732/https://www.uefa.com/uefaeuro-2020/news/025d-0f859f66fcba-c8d3aa08dfa3-1000--classics-ussr-vs-netherlands-1988/ |archive-date=7 June 2020 |title=Classics: Soviet Union vs Netherlands, 1988 |work=UEFA Champions League |date=29 May 2020 |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref> Russian clubs CSKA Moscow and Zenit Saint Petersburg won the UEFA Cup in 2005 and 2008.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.uefa.com/uefachampionsleague/news/0253-0d806e352f9f-e83f37a18d8b-1000--sporting-cska-moskva-watch-their-2005-final/ |title=Sporting-CSKA Moskva: watch their 2005 final |work=UEFA Champions League |date=7 August 2015 |access-date=31 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://thesefootballtimes.co/2019/11/18/how-a-brilliant-zenit-saint-petersburg-lifted-the-uefa-cup-in-2008/ |title=How a brilliant Zenit Saint Petersburg lifted the UEFA Cup in 2008 |work=These Football Times |first=Joe |last=Terry |date=18 November 2019 |access-date=31 May 2021 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132621/https://thesefootballtimes.co/2019/11/18/how-a-brilliant-zenit-saint-petersburg-lifted-the-uefa-cup-in-2008/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The Russian national football team reached the semi-finals of Euro 2008.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2008/jun/26/russiaspainlive |title=Euro 2008: Russia v Spain – as it happened |work=The Guardian |first=Sean |last=Ingle |date=26 June 2008 |access-date=31 May 2021 |archive-date=12 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210812004724/https://www.theguardian.com/football/2008/jun/26/russiaspainlive |url-status=live}}</ref> Russia was the host nation for the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/confederationscup/ |title=2018 FIFA Confederations Cup Russia 2017 |publisher=FIFA |access-date=31 May 2021 |archive-date=12 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312140436/https://www.fifa.com/confederationscup/ |url-status=live}}</ref> and the 2018 FIFA World Cup.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/archive/russia2018/ |title=2018 FIFA World Cup Russia |publisher=FIFA |access-date=31 May 2021 |archive-date=24 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200224033040/https://www.fifa.com/worldcup/archive/russia2018/}}</ref> However, Russian teams are currently suspended from FIFA and UEFA competitions.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/russia-fifa-world-cup-uefa/ |title=FIFA and UEFA suspend Russian national teams and clubs from all competitions "until further notice" |last=Brito |first=Christopher |work=CBS News |date=28 February 2022 |access-date=13 June 2022 |archive-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609222215/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/russia-fifa-world-cup-uefa/ |url-status=live}}</ref> [[File:Maria Sharapova (18405201199).jpg|thumb|Maria Sharapova, former world No. 1 tennis player, was the world's highest-paid female athlete for 11 consecutive years.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/kurtbadenhausen/2016/03/08/how-maria-sharapova-earned-285-mill-during-her-tennis-career/ |title=How Maria Sharapova Earned $285 Million During Her Tennis Career |work=Forbes |first=Kurt |last=Badenhausen |date=8 March 2016 |access-date=15 February 2020}}</ref>]] Ice hockey is very popular in Russia, and the Soviet national ice hockey team dominated the sport internationally throughout its existence.<ref name="Riordan-1993"/> Bandy is Russia's national sport, and it has historically been the highest-achieving country in the sport.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rbth.com/arts/sport/2013/02/14/bandy_a_concise_history_of_the_extreme_sport_22867.html |title=Bandy: A concise history of the extreme sport |work=Russia Beyond |first=Ilya |last=Trisvyatsky |date=14 February 2013 |access-date=7 July 2021 |archive-date=29 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220329091226/https://www.rbth.com/arts/sport/2013/02/14/bandy_a_concise_history_of_the_extreme_sport_22867.html |url-status=live}}</ref> The Russian national basketball team won EuroBasket 2007,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.euroleague.net/news/i/15364/eurobasket-2007-final-september-16-2007 |title=EuroBasket 2007 final: September 16, 2007 |work=EuroLeague |first=Javier |last=Gancedo |date=16 September 2007 |access-date=31 May 2021 |archive-date=16 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211116171531/https://www.euroleague.net/news/i/15364/eurobasket-2007-final-september-16-2007 |url-status=live}}</ref> and the Russian basketball club PBC CSKA Moscow is among the most successful European basketball teams.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Burks |first1=Tosten |last2=Woo |first2=Jeremy |url=http://grantland.com/features/euroleague-basketball-cska-moscow-andrei-kirilenko-sonny-weems-kyle-hines-demetris-nichols/ |title=Follow the Bouncing Ball |work=Grantland |date=4 August 2015 |access-date=13 August 2021 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331085523/https://grantland.com/features/euroleague-basketball-cska-moscow-andrei-kirilenko-sonny-weems-kyle-hines-demetris-nichols/ |url-status=live}}</ref> The annual Formula One Russian Grand Prix was held at the Sochi Autodrom in the Sochi Olympic Park, until its termination following the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.formula1.com/en/information.russia-sochi-autodrom.3nDdZPizsnPEtlHysv115Y.html |title=Russia – Sochi |publisher=Formula One |access-date=31 May 2021 |archive-date=21 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321211802/https://www.formula1.com/en/information.russia-sochi-autodrom.3nDdZPizsnPEtlHysv115Y.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/formula1/60601632 |last=Benson |first=Andrew |title=Formula 1 terminates contract with Russian Grand Prix |work=BBC |date=3 March 2022 |access-date=7 July 2022 |archive-date=28 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528020322/https://www.bbc.com/sport/formula1/60601632 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Historically, Russian athletes have been one of the most successful contenders in the Olympic Games.<ref name="Riordan-1993" /> Russia is the leading nation in rhythmic gymnastics, and Russian synchronised swimming is considered to be the world's best.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/olympics/2016/08/19/russian-mastery-in-synchronized-swimming-yields-double-gold/89000222/ |title=Russian mastery in synchronized swimming yields double gold |work=USA Today |date=19 August 2016 |access-date=21 June 2021 |archive-date=8 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210208003710/https://www.usatoday.com/story/sports/olympics/2016/08/19/russian-mastery-in-synchronized-swimming-yields-double-gold/89000222/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> Figure skating is another popular sport in Russia, especially pair skating and ice dancing.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.vox.com/the-goods/22276736/figure-skating-olympics-winter-2022-lessons |title=Figure skating is on thin ice. Here's how to fix it. |work=Vox |first=Rebecca |last=Jennings |date=18 February 2021 |access-date=21 June 2021 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132621/https://www.vox.com/the-goods/22276736/figure-skating-olympics-winter-2022-lessons |url-status=live}}</ref> Russia has produced numerous prominent tennis players.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://thewest.com.au/sport/tennis/rublev-dominates-second-round-open-match-ng-s-2049116 |title=Russian domination at the Australian Open |date=11 February 2021 |work=The West Australian |last=Caffrey |first=Oliver |access-date=26 January 2022 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408175101/https://thewest.com.au/sport/tennis/rublev-dominates-second-round-open-match-ng-s-2049116 |url-status=live}}</ref> Chess is also a widely popular pastime in the nation, with many of the world's top chess players being Russian for decades.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2009/09/how-did-russians-get-so-good-at-chess.html |title=Why are the Russians so good at chess? |work=Slate |first=Christopher |last=Beam |date=25 September 2009 |access-date=21 June 2021 |archive-date=31 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331071732/https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2009/09/how-did-russians-get-so-good-at-chess.html |url-status=live}}</ref> The 1980 Summer Olympic Games were held in Moscow,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/moscow-1980 |title=Moscow 1980 Summer Olympics – Athletes, Medals & Results |newspaper=Olympics.com |publisher=International Olympic Committee |date=24 April 2018 |access-date=31 May 2021 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132625/https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/moscow-1980 |url-status=live}}</ref> and the 2014 Winter Olympics and the 2014 Winter Paralympics were hosted in Sochi.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/sochi-2014 |title=Sochi 2014 Winter Olympics – Athletes, Medals & Results |publisher=International Olympic Committee |date=23 April 2018 |access-date=31 May 2021 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408132652/https://olympics.com/en/olympic-games/sochi-2014 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.paralympic.org/sochi-2014 |title=Sochi 2014 |work=International Paralympic Committee |publisher=International Paralympic Committee |access-date=31 May 2021 |archive-date=6 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180806054846/https://www.paralympic.org/sochi-2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> However, Russia has also had 43 Olympic medals stripped from its athletes due to doping violations, which is the most of any country, and nearly a third of the global total.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Keh |first1=Andrew |last2=Panja |first2=Tariq |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/08/sports/olympics/Wada-Russing-doping.html |title=Will Russia Be Thrown Out of the Olympics on Monday? A Primer |work=The New York Times |date=8 December 2019 |access-date=9 January 2022 |url-access=limited |archive-date=7 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407171349/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/08/sports/olympics/Wada-Russing-doping.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also== {{portal|Russia|Countries}} * Outline of Russia{{-}}

== Notes == {{notelist}}

== References ==

=== Citations === {{reflist}}

=== Sources === * {{Free-content attribution | title = Frequently Asked Questions on Energy Security | author = International Energy Agency | publisher = the International Energy Agency | documentURL = https://www.iea.org/articles/frequently-asked-questions-on-energy-security | license statement URL = https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/af2ef37e-cbf5-49ce-b05a-ecb5725f9769/ListordescriptionofCC-licensedContent_20220406.pdf | license = CC BY 4.0 }}

* {{cite book |last1=Bushkovitch |first1=Paul |title=A Concise History of Russia |date=5 December 2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-50444-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/A_Concise_History_of_Russia.html?id=Le-n7ZYjGWkC |language=en}}

* {{cite book |last1=Channon |first1=John |last2=Hudson |first2=Robert |title=The Penguin Historical Atlas of Russia |date=1995 |publisher=Viking |isbn=978-0-670-86461-4 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Penguin_Historical_Atlas_of_Russia/kewWAQAAIAAJ?hl=en |language=en}}

* {{cite book |editor1-last=Curtis |editor1-first=Glenn E. |title=Russia: A Country Study |series=Area Handbook |date=1998 |publisher=Federal Research Division, Library of Congress |isbn=978-0-8444-0866-8 |lccn=97007563 |hdl=2027/uc1.31822023563547 |url=https://archive.org/details/russiacountrystu00curt/mode/2up}}

* {{cite book |last1=Dukes |first1=Paul |author-link=Paul Dukes (historian) |title=A History of Russia: Medieval, Modern, Contemporary C. 882–1996 |date=1998 |publisher=Macmillan Education UK |isbn=978-0-333-66066-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/A_History_of_Russia.html?id=QZkiAQAAIAAJ |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-26080-5 |language=en}}

* {{cite book |last1=Galeotti |first1=Mark |author-link=Mark Galeotti |title=Forged in War: A Military History of Russia from Its Beginnings to Today |date=5 November 2024 |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |isbn=978-1-4728-6251-8 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Forged_in_War/iw0wEQAAQBAJ |language=en}}

* {{cite book |last1=Ward |first1=Christopher J. |last2=Thompson |first2=John M. |title=Russia: A Historical Introduction from Kievan Rus' to the Present |date=20 July 2021 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-000-41539-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Russia.html?id=2AwxEAAAQBAJ |language=en}}

==Further reading== {{main|Bibliography of the history of the Early Slavs and Rus'|Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613)|Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)}}

{{refbegin|30em}} * Bartlett, Roger P. (2005). ''A history of Russia'' [https://archive.org/details/historyofrussia00bart online] * {{cite book |editor-surname=Bartlett |editor-given=Rosamund |editor2-surname=Benn |editor2-given=Anna |editor-link=Rosamund Bartlett |year=1997 |title=Literary Russia. A Guide |place=London |publisher=Picador |isbn=0-333-71197-1}} * {{cite book |surname=Borrero |given=Mauricio |title=Russia: A Reference Guide from the Renaissance to the Present |series=European Nations |place=New York |publisher=Facts on File |year=2004 |isbn=0-8160-4454-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dhm0cGdrTOIC}} * Breslauer, George W.; Colton, Timothy J. (2017). ''Russia Beyond Putin'' (Daedalus) [https://www.amacad.org/daedalus/russia-beyond-putin online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121032944/https://www.amacad.org/daedalus/russia-beyond-putin |date=21 January 2022 }} * Brown, Archie, ed. (1982). ''The Cambridge encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union'' [https://archive.org/details/cambridgeencyclo00brow online] * {{cite book |last=Cox |first=Michael |editor-first1=Michael |editor-last1=Cox |title=Ukraine: Russia's War and the Future of the Global Order |year=2023 |publisher=LSE Press |doi=10.31389/lsepress.ukr |isbn=978-1-911712-15-2}} * {{cite book |last1=Dutkiewicz |first1=P. |last2=Richard |first2=S. |last3=Vladimir |first3=K. |title=The Social History of Post-Communist Russia |publisher=Taylor & Francis |series=Routledge Contemporary Russia and Eastern Europe Series |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-317-32846-9 |url={{GBurl |id=vo7DCwAAQBAJ |pg=PP1}} |access-date=11 April 2022}} * Frye, Timothy. ''Weak Strongman: The Limits of Power in Putin's Russia'' (2021) [https://www.amazon.com/Weak-Strongman-Limits-Putins-Russia/dp/0691212465/ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331074724/https://www.amazon.com/Weak-Strongman-Limits-Putins-Russia/dp/0691212465 |date=31 March 2022 }} * Greene, by Samuel A. and Graeme B. Robertson. ''Putin v. the People: the Perilous Politics of a Divided Russia'' (Yale UP, 2019) [https://www.amazon.com/Putin-v-People-Perilous-Politics/dp/0300238398/ excerpt] * Hosking, Geoffrey A. ''Russia and the Russians: a history'' (2011) [https://archive.org/details/russiarussianshi2ndehosk online] * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Russia | volume= 23 |last1= Kropotkin |first1= Peter Alexeivitch |author1-link=Peter Kropotkin|last2= Bealby |first2=John Thomas|last3=Phillips|first3=Walter Alison |author3-link=Walter Alison Phillips|pages = 869–912}} * {{cite book |last=Pynnöniemi |first=Katri |editor-first1=Katri |editor-last1=Pynnöniemi |title=Nexus of Patriotism and Militarism in Russia: A Quest for Internal Cohesion |year=2021 |isbn=978-952-369-035-6 |url=https://hup.fi/books/e/10.33134/HUP-9 |publisher=Helsinki University Press |doi=10.33134/HUP-9}} * {{cite book |last=Rancour-Laferriere |first=Daniel |title=The Slave Soul of Russia: Moral Masochism and the Cult of Suffering |year=1995 |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-6940-9 |url=https://opensquare.nyupress.org/books/9780814769409/}} * {{cite book |surname=Reiman |given=Michael |title=About Russia, Its Revolutions, Its Development and Its Present |year=2016 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-3-631-67136-8 |jstor=j.ctv2t4dn7}} * Riasanovsky, Nicholas V., and Mark D. Steinberg. ''A History of Russia'' (9th ed. 2018) [https://archive.org/details/historyofrussia0000rias 9th edition 1993 online] * Rosefielde, Steven. ''Putin's Russia: Economy, Defence and Foreign Policy'' (2020) [https://www.amazon.com/Putins-Russia-Economy-Defense-Foreign/dp/9811212678/ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210527160046/https://www.amazon.com/Putins-Russia-Economy-Defense-Foreign/dp/9811212678/ |date=27 May 2021 }} * {{cite book |last=Shadrina |first=Anna |title=The Babushka Phenomenon: Older women and the political sociology of ageing in Russia |publisher=UCL Press |year=2025 |isbn=978-1-80008-909-9 |url=https://uclpress.co.uk/book/the-babushka-phenomenon/}} * Smorodinskaya, Tatiana, and Karen Evans-Romaine, eds. ''Encyclopedia of Contemporary Russian Culture'' (2014) [https://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Contemporary-Russian-Culture-Encyclopedias/dp/0415758629/ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220330023255/https://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Contemporary-Russian-Culture-Encyclopedias/dp/0415758629 |date=30 March 2022 }}; 800 pp covering art, literature, music, film, media, crime, politics, business, and economics. * Walker, Shauin. ''The Long Hangover: Putin's New Russia and the Ghosts Of the Past'' (2018, Oxford UP) [https://www.amazon.com/Long-Hangover-Putins-Russia-Ghosts/dp/0190659246 excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408020656/https://www.amazon.com/Long-Hangover-Putins-Russia-Ghosts/dp/0190659246/ |date=8 April 2022 }} {{refend}}

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