Absolute monarchy

{{Short description|Government where the monarch has absolute power}} {{Multiple image | total_width = 300 | image1 = الصورة الرسمية لخادم الحرمين الشريفين الملك سلمان بن عبدالعزيز آل سعود.jpg | image2 = Haitham bin Tariq Al Said in 2024 ( هَيْثَم بْن طَارِق آل سَعِيد ) (cropped).jpg | footer = King Salman bin Abdulaziz and Sultan Haitham bin Tariq are the current absolute monarchs of Saudi Arabia and Oman, respectively. }} {{Monarchism|expanded = types}} {{Basic forms of government}}'''Absolute monarchy''' is a form of monarchy in which the sovereign is the sole source of political power, unconstrained by constitutions, legislatures or other checks on their authority.<ref name="Harris 2009">{{Cite book |last=Harris |first=Nathanial |year=2009 |title=Systems of Government Monarchy |publisher=Evans Brothers |isbn=978-0-237-53932-0 |lang=en |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o5SKJanyblIC}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1=Konnert | first1=Mark | title=Early Modern Europe: The Age of Religious War, 1559-1715 | date=23 August 2008 | publisher=University of Toronto Press | isbn=978-1-4426-0004-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t6TXB9RbwbYC&dq=absolute%20monarchy&pg=PA165 }}</ref> Throughout history, there have been many examples of absolute monarchs, with some famous examples including Louis XIV and Frederick the Great.<ref>{{cite web | last1=Beik | first1=William | title=The Absolutism of Louis XIV as Social Collaboration | journal=Past & Present | date=2005 | issue=188 | pages=195–224 | doi=10.1093/pastj/gti019 | url=https://doi.org/10.1093/pastj/gti019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1=Wilson | first1=Peter | title=Absolutism in Central Europe | date=November 2002 | publisher=Routledge | isbn=978-1-134-74805-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QuOEAgAAQBAJ&dq=frederick%20the%20great%20absolute%20monarch&pg=PA98 }}</ref>

The number of absolute monarchies in the world vary but some datasets agree that Brunei, Eswatini, Oman, Qatar, and Saudi Arabia are absolute monarchies, while others include Bahrain, Bhutan, Jordan, Kuwait, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Morocco, Tonga, Vatican City and the United Arab Emirates.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Inata |first=Kana |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/9780198967132.003.0003 |title=Monarchies in the Contemporary World: Born to Rule or Bound to Fade? |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2025 |chapter=3. Measuring the Powers of Monarchs |pages=43–134 |doi=10.1093/9780198967132.003.0003 |isbn=978-0-19-896711-8 }}</ref>

Though absolute monarchies are sometimes supported by legal documents (such as the King's Law of Denmark-Norway), they are distinct from constitutional monarchies, in which the authority of the monarch is restricted (e.g. by legislature or unwritten customs) or balanced by that of other officials, such as a prime minister, as is in the case of the United Kingdom, or the Nordic countries.<ref name="Harris 2009" />

Absolute monarchies are distinct from hereditary dictatorships such as North Korea, Duvalier Haiti or Ba'athist Syria.<ref>https://muse.jhu.edu/article/228912</ref>

==Historical examples of absolute monarchies== {{Systems of government}}

=== Outside Europe === In the Ottoman Empire, the Sultan wielded absolute power over the state and was considered a Padishah, meaning "Great King" by his people. Many sultans wielded absolute power through heavenly mandates reflected in their titles, such as "Shadow of God on Earth". In ancient Mesopotamia, many rulers of Assyria, Babylonia and Sumer were absolute monarchs as well.{{cn|date=January 2026}}

Throughout Imperial China, many emperors and one empress (Wu Zetian) wielded absolute power through the Mandate of Heaven. In pre-Columbian America, the Inca Empire was ruled by a Sapa Inca, who was considered the son of Inti, the sun god and absolute ruler over the people and nation. Korea under the Joseon dynasty<ref>{{cite book |first=Sang-hun |last=Choi |date=27 October 2017 |title=Interior Space and Furniture of Joseon Upper-class Houses |publisher=Ewha Womans University Press |page=16 |quote=Joseon was an absolute monarchy |isbn=9788973007202 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWNNWVwaUpMC&q=joseon+dynasty+absolute+monarchy&pg=PA16 |via=Google Books |access-date=8 November 2020 |archive-date=7 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407111606/https://books.google.com/books?id=vWNNWVwaUpMC&q=joseon+dynasty+absolute+monarchy&pg=PA16 |url-status=live }}</ref> and short-lived empire was also an absolute monarchy.

===Europe=== {{Main|Absolutism (European history)}} Throughout much of European history, the divine right of kings was the theological justification for absolute monarchy. Many European monarchs claimed supreme autocratic power by divine right, and that their subjects had no rights to limit their power.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Burgess | first1=Glenn | title=The Divine Right of Kings Reconsidered | journal=The English Historical Review | date=1992 | volume=107 | issue=425 | pages=837–861 | doi=10.1093/ehr/CVII.CCCCXXV.837 | jstor=574219 | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/574219 }}</ref>

====Kingdoms of England and Scotland==== James VI and I and his son Charles I tried to import the principle of divine right into Scotland and England. Charles I's attempt to enforce episcopal polity on the Church of Scotland led to rebellion by the Covenanters and the Bishops' Wars, then fears that Charles I was attempting to establish absolutist government along European lines was a major cause of the English Civil War, although he did rule this way for 11 years starting in 1629, after dissolving the Parliament of England for a time.<ref>{{cite news |title=Charles I of England |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Charles_I_of_England/ |access-date=17 April 2023 |work=World History Encyclopedia |archive-date=4 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230904043102/https://www.worldhistory.org/Charles_I_of_England/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Denmark–Norway==== {{Further|Denmark–Norway|King's Law}}

Absolutism was underpinned by a written constitution for the first time in Europe in 1665 {{langx|da|Kongeloven|lit=King's Law|label=none}} of Denmark–Norway, which ordered that the Monarch: {{Blockquote|...shall from this day forth be revered and considered the most perfect and supreme person on the Earth by all his subjects, standing above all human laws and having no judge above his person, neither in spiritual nor temporal matters, except God alone.<ref>{{cite web |title=Kongeloven af 1665 |publisher=Danske konger |language=da |url=http://danskekonger.dk/kilder/kongeloven |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330135036/http://danskekonger.dk/kilder/kongeloven |archive-date=2012-03-30}}</ref><ref>A partial English translation of the law can be found in<br/>{{cite journal |first=Ernst |last=Ekman |year=1957 |title=The Danish Royal Law of 1665 |journal=The Journal of Modern History |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=102–107|doi=10.1086/237987 |s2cid=145652129 }}</ref>}} This law consequently authorized the king to abolish all other centers of power. Most important was the abolition of the Council of the Realm in Denmark. Absolute monarchy lasted until 1814 in Norway, and 1848 in Denmark.

====Habsburgs==== [[File: Anton von Maron 006.png|thumb|left|200px|Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor]] {{See|House of Habsburg}} The House of Habsburg is currently extinct in its male line, due to the death of the childless Charles II of Spain in 1700. However, the House of Habsburg-Lorraine still carries the female line of the House of Habsburg.{{cn|date=May 2025}}

The first member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine to rule over the Holy Roman Empire was Joseph II, a sovereign raised during the Enlightenment. Joseph II extended full legal freedom to serfs in 1781. Franz Joseph I of Austria was Emperor of Austria from 1848 until his death in 1916 and was succeeded by Charles I of Austria. Charles I was the last Emperor of Austria and abdicated on 12 November 1918 due to Austria-Hungary losing World War I.

====Hungary==== {{See|King of Hungary|Kingdom of Hungary}}

====France==== [[File:Louis XIV of France.jpg|thumb|200px|Louis XIV of France]] {{Main|Absolute monarchy in France}} Louis XIV (1638–1715) is said to have proclaimed {{langx|fr|L'état, c'est moi!|lit=I am the State!|label=none}}.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.history.com/topics/france/louis-xiv|title=Louis XIV|work=HISTORY|access-date=2018-10-05|language=en}}</ref> Although often criticized for his extravagances, such as the Palace of Versailles, he reigned over France for a long period.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Holberg | first1=Ludvig | title=Ludvig Holberg's memoirs: An eighteenth century Danish contribution to international understanding | date=2 April 2024 | publisher=BRILL | isbn=978-90-04-59508-8 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4jT-EAAAQBAJ&dq=louis+xiv+longest+reign&pg=PA75 }}</ref>

The king of France concentrated legislative, executive, and judicial powers in his person. He was the supreme judicial authority. He could condemn people to death without the right of appeal. It was both his duty to punish offenses and stop them from being committed. From his judicial authority followed his power both to make laws and to annul them.<ref>Mousnier, R. ''The Institutions of France under the Absolute Monarchy, 1598-2012 V1.'' Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1979.</ref>

====Prussia==== {{Further|Prussia}} [[File:Friedrich der Große - Johann Georg Ziesenis - Google Cultural Institute (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|200 px|King Frederick II of Prussia, "the Great"]] In Brandenburg-Prussia, the concept of absolute monarch took a notable turn from the above with its emphasis on the monarch as the "first servant of the state", but it also echoed many of the important characteristics of absolutism. Prussia was ruled by the House of Hohenzollern as a feudal monarchy from 1525 to 1701 and an absolute monarchy from 1701 to 1848, after which it became a federal semi-constitutional monarchy from 1848 to 1918 until the monarchy was abolished during the German Revolution.<ref>''The Western Experience'', Seventh Edition, Boston: McGraw-Hill, 1999.</ref>

Frederick I was the first ''King in Prussia'', beginning his reign on 18 January 1701.<ref name=Beier162>{{cite book|title=Die Chronik der Deutschen|first=Brigitte|last=Beier|publisher=wissenmedia|year=2007|page=162|isbn=978-3-577-14374-5|language= German}}</ref> King Frederick the Great adopted the title ''King of Prussia'' in 1772, the same year he annexed most of Royal Prussia in the First Partition of Poland, and practiced enlightened absolutism until his death in 1786. He introduced a general civil code, abolished torture and established the principle that the Crown would not interfere in matters of justice.<ref>David Fraser, ''Frederick the Great: King of Prussia'' (2001) [https://archive.org/details/frederickgreatki00fras/page/n5/mode/2up online]</ref> He also promoted an advanced secondary education, the forerunner of today's German gymnasium (grammar school) system, which prepares high achieving students for university studies. The Prussian education system was emulated in various countries, including the United States.

====Russia==== {{Further|Russian Empire}} Photograph of Tsar Alexander II, 1878–81|thumb|right|200 px Until 1905, the tsars and emperors of Russia governed as absolute monarchs. Ivan IV ("the Terrible") was known for his reign of terror through the ''oprichnina''. Following the Time of Troubles in the early 17th century, the traditional alliance of autocratic monarchy, the church, and the aristocracy was widely seen as the only basis for preserving the social order and Russian statehood, which legitimized the rule of the Romanov dynasty.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lieven |first1=Dominic |editor1-last=Bang |editor1-first=Peter Fibiger |editor2-last=Bayly |editor2-first=Christopher Alan |editor3-last=Scheidel |editor3-first=Walter |title=The Oxford World History of Empire |date=2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-753276-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nz0HEAAAQBAJ |language=en |chapter=The Russian Empire (1453–1917) |page=965}}</ref> Peter I ("the Great") reduced the power of the Russian nobility and strengthened the central power of the monarch, establishing a bureaucracy. This tradition of absolutism was expanded by Catherine II and her descendants.

Russia became the last European country (excluding Vatican City) to abolish absolutism, and it was the only one to do so as late as the 20th century (the Ottoman Empire drafted its first constitution in 1876). Russia was one of the four continental empires which collapsed after World War I, along with Germany, Austria–Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire. In 1918, the Bolsheviks executed the Romanov family, ending three centuries of Romanov rule.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Decades of Reconstruction |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2017 |isbn=9781107165748 |pages=331 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZokDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA331 |editor-last=Planert |editor-first=Ute |editor-last2=Retallack |editor-first2=James |access-date=5 January 2023 |archive-date=11 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211110511/https://books.google.com/books?id=vZokDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA331 |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Sweden==== {{Further|Swedish Empire}}

==Contemporary trends== The Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the ''Springtime of the Peoples'' or the ''Springtime of Nations'', were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848.<ref>{{cite book |author=Merriman, John |year=1996 |title=A History of Modern Europe: From the French Revolution to the present |page=715}}</ref>

Many nations formerly with absolute monarchies, such as Jordan, Kuwait, Morocco and Qatar, have ''de jure'' moved towards a constitutional monarchy. However, in these cases, the monarch still retains tremendous powers, even to the extent that by some measures, parliament's influence on political life is viewed as negligible or merely consultative.{{efn|"By 1985 the legislature appeared to have become more firmly established and recognized as a body in which notables representing authentic forces in the political spectrum could address national issues and problems. But it had not gained real autonomy or a direct role in the shaping of government policies." [...] "In spite of its formally defined role in the lawmaking and budgetary processes, the parliament had not established itself as an independent branch of government, owing to the restrictions on its constitutional authority and the dominating influence of the king. The fact that the king has been able to govern for long periods by ''zahir'' after dissolving the legislative body has further underscored the marginality of the chamber." — J.R. Tartter (1986)<ref>{{cite book |last=Tartter |first=Jean R. |date=1986 |chapter=Government and politics |editor1-last=Nelson |editor1-first=Harold D. |title=Morocco, a country study |publisher=United States Government Printing Office |pages=246–247 |url=https://archive.org/details/moroccocountryst00nels/mode/2up |series=Area Handbook |oclc=12749718 |via= |access-date=2022-03-25 }}</ref>}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tusalem |first1=Rollin F. |date=16 September 2021 |title=Bringing the legislature back in: Examining the structural effects of national legislatures on effective democratic governance |journal=Government and Opposition |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=291–315 |doi=10.1017/gov.2021.32 |s2cid=240505261 |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/gov.2021.32 |language=en |issn=0017-257X|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Rafayah |first1=Shakir |date=29 January 2022 |title=What role for political parties in Jordan? |magazine=Arab Weekly |lang=en |url=https://thearabweekly.com/what-role-political-parties-jordan |access-date=25 March 2022 |archive-date=1 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230601205815/https://thearabweekly.com/what-role-political-parties-jordan |url-status=live }}</ref>

In Nepal, there were several swings between constitutional rule and direct rule related to the Nepalese Civil War, the Maoist insurgency, and the 2001 Nepalese royal massacre, with the Nepalese monarchy being abolished on 28 May 2008.<ref>{{cite news |last=Sharma |first=Gopal |date=2008-05-29 |title=Nepal abolishes centuries-old Hindu monarchy |lang=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-nepal-king-idUSISL5996320080529 |access-date=2020-12-01 |archive-date=2023-06-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604181350/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-nepal-king-idUSISL5996320080529 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In Tonga, the king had majority control of the Legislative Assembly until 2010.<ref>[http://parliament.gov.to/constitution1.htm Constitution of Tonga] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081119232721/http://parliament.gov.to/constitution1.htm|date=2008-11-19}}, s. 61</ref>

=== Liechtenstein === Liechtenstein has moved towards expanding the power of the monarch—the Prince of Liechtenstein was given vast expanded powers after a referendum to amend the Constitution of Liechtenstein in 2003, which led BBC News to describe the prince as an "absolute monarch again".<ref name="Liechtenstein">{{cite news |title=Liechtenstein prince wins powers |date=2003-03-16 |website=BBC News |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/2853991.stm |access-date=2015-10-26 |archive-date=2015-12-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151215091943/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2853991.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> The referendum granted the monarch the powers to dismiss the government, nominate judges and veto legislation, among others.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Osborn |first1=Andrew |title=European prince wins new powers |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/17/andrewosborn |website=The Guardian |access-date=20 March 2024 |date=17 March 2003 |archive-date=20 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240320073725/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/mar/17/andrewosborn |url-status=live }}</ref> Just prior to the referendum, the Venice Commission of the Council of Europe published a comprehensive report analysing the amendments, opining that they were not compatible with the European standards of democracy, effectively making Liechtenstein a ''de facto'' absolute monarchy.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Henrik Zahle |author2=Pieter Van Dijk |author3=Jean-Claude Scholsem |title=On the amendments to the constitution of Liechtenstein proposed by the Princely House of Liechtenstein |url=http://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL-AD(2002)032-e |website=venice.coe.int |publisher=Venice Commission |access-date=6 May 2024 |location=Strasbourg |date=16 December 2002 |archive-date=28 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228150407/http://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/default.aspx?pdffile=CDL-AD(2002)032-e |url-status=live }}</ref> Prince Hans-Adam II had also previously threatened to leave the country and move his assets out of Liechtenstein if voters had chosen to restrict his powers.<ref name="Liechtenstein"/>

=== Vatican City === {{Main|Vatican City}} Vatican City continues to be an absolute monarchy, but is unique because it is also a microstate, ecclesiastical jurisdiction, and elective monarchy. As of 2023, Vatican City has a population of 764 residents (regardless of citizenship). It is the smallest state in the world both by area and by population. The Pope is the absolute monarch of Vatican City, and is elected by a papal conclave with a two-thirds supermajority.<ref name="BXVI-MP">Benedict XVI (11 June 2007). [https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/motu_proprio/documents/hf_ben-xvi_motu-proprio_20070611_de-electione_lt.html De aliquibus mutationibus in normis de electione Romani Pontificis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222062902/http://w2.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/la/motu_proprio/documents/hf_ben-xvi_motu-proprio_20070611_de-electione.html |date=22 December 2017 }} (in Latin). ''Motu proprio''. Vatican City: Vatican Publishing House.</ref><ref name="BBC-BXVI">[https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6242466.stm "Pope alters voting for successor"] . ''BBC News''. 26 June 2007.</ref>

As governed by the Holy See, Vatican City State is an sacerdotal-monarchical state ruled by the Pope, who is the bishop of Rome and head of the Catholic Church.<ref name="factbook">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/holy-see-vatican-city/ |title=Holy See (Vatican City) |work=CIA—The World Factbook |date=22 September 2021 |access-date=25 January 2021 |archive-date=26 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126204237/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/holy-see-vatican-city/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> Unlike citizenship of other states, which is based either on ''jus sanguinis'' or ''jus soli'', citizenship of Vatican City is granted on ''jus officii'', namely on the grounds of appointment to work in a certain capacity in the service of the Holy See. It usually ceases upon cessation of the appointment. Citizenship is also extended to the spouse and children of a citizen, provided they are living together in the city.<ref name=citizenship>{{cite web |url=https://www.vaticanstate.va/phocadownload/leggi-decreti/Leggesullacittadinanzalaresidenzaelaccesso.pdf |title=Law on citizenship, residence and access |publisher=Vatican City State |date=22 February 2011 |access-date=31 July 2022 |language=it |archive-date=17 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717184754/https://www.vaticanstate.va/phocadownload/leggi-decreti/Leggesullacittadinanzalaresidenzaelaccesso.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Current absolute monarchs== {{legend|#E6E6AA|Denotes subnational monarchy}} {| class="wikitable plainrowheaders sortable" |- ! Realm !! Image !! Monarch ! Born !! Age !! Since !! Length !! Succession !! class=unsortable| Ref(s)  |- |{{flag|Brunei|name=Brunei Darussalam}} |150x150px||{{sort|Hassanal Bolkiah|Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah}} |{{Birth date|1946|7|15|df=yes}} |{{age in years and days|1946|7|15|age=no}} |{{dts|4 October 1967}}||{{ayd|1967|10|04}}|| Hereditary||<ref name="brunei">{{Cite web |author=Government of Brunei |title=Prime Minister |work=The Royal Ark |publisher=Office of the Prime Minister |url=http://www.pmo.gov.bn/pmo1/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=50&Itemid=82 |access-date=12 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007033949/http://www.pmo.gov.bn/pmo1/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=50&Itemid=82 |archive-date=7 October 2011 }}</ref> |-style="background:#e6e6aa;" |{{flag|Sharjah|name=Emirate of Sharjah}} |100px||{{sort|Sultan bin Muhammad Al-Qasimi|Ruler Sultan bin Muhammad Al-Qasimi}} |{{Birth date|1939|7|2|df=yes}} |{{age in years and days|1939|7|2|age=no}} |{{dts|25 January 1972}}||{{ayd|1972|01|25}}||Hereditary||<ref name="UAE monarchs" /> |-style="background:#e6e6aa;" |{{flag|Fujairah|name=Emirate of Fujairah}} |||{{sort|Hamad bin Mohammed Al Sharqi|Ruler Hamad bin Mohammed Al Sharqi}} |{{Birth date|1949|2|22|df=yes}} |{{age in years and days|1949|2|22|age=no}} |18 September 1974||{{ayd|1974|9|18}}||Hereditary||<ref name="UAE monarchs" /> |-style="background:#e6e6aa;" |{{flag|Ajman|name=Emirate of Ajman}} ||100px ||{{sort|Humaid bin Rashid Al Nuaimi III|Ruler Humaid bin Rashid Al Nuaimi III}} |{{Birth year|1931}} |{{age in years|1931}} years |{{dts|6 September 1981}}||{{ayd|1981|9|6}}||Hereditary||<ref name="UAE monarchs" /> |- |{{flag|Eswatini|name=Kingdom of Eswatini}} |138x138px||{{sort|Mswati III|Ngwenyama Mswati III}} |{{Birth date|1968|4|19|df=yes}} |{{age in years and days|1968|4|19|age=no}} |{{dts|25 April 1986}}||{{ayd|1986|04|25}}||Hereditary and elective||<ref>{{Citation | last = Simelane | first = H.S. | contribution = Swaziland: Mswati III, Reign of | year = 2005 | title = Encyclopedia of African history | editor-last = Shillington | editor-first = Kevin | volume = 3 | pages = 1528–30 | publisher = Fitzroy Dearborn | id = 9781579584559}}</ref> |-style="background:#e6e6aa;" |{{flag|Dubai|name=Emirate of Dubai}} |100px||{{sort|Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum|Ruler Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum}} |{{Birth date|1949|7|15|df=yes}} |{{age in years and days|1949|7|15|age=no}} |{{dts|4 January 2006}}||{{ayd|2006|01|04}}||Hereditary||<ref name="UAE monarchs" /> |-style="background:#e6e6aa;" |{{flag|Umm al-Quwain|name=Emirate of Umm al-Quwain}} |100px|link=|alt=||{{sort|Saud bin Rashid Al Mualla|Ruler Saud bin Rashid Al Mualla}} |{{Birth date|1952|10|1|df=yes}} |{{age in years and days|1952|10|1|age=no}} |{{dts|2 January 2009}}||{{ayd|2009|1|2}}||Hereditary||<ref name="UAE monarchs" /> |-style="background:#e6e6aa;" |{{flag|Ras al-Khaimah|name=Emirate of Ras al-Khaimah}} |100px||{{sort|Saud bin Saqr Al Qasimi|Ruler Saud bin Saqr Al Qasimi}} |{{Birth date|1956|2|10|df=yes}} |{{age in years and days|1956|2|10|age=no}} |{{dts|27 October 2010}}||{{ayd|2010|10|27}}||Hereditary||<ref name="UAE monarchs" /> |- |{{flag|Kingdom of Saudi Arabia}} |100px||{{sort|Salman bin Abdul‘aziz|King Salman bin Abdul‘aziz}} |{{Birth date|1935|12|31|df=yes}} |{{age in years and days|1935|12|31|age=no}} |{{dts|23 January 2015}}||{{ayd|2015|01|23}}|| Hereditary and elective||<ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi Arabia's King Abdullah dies |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-30945324 |work=BBC News |date=23 January 2015 |access-date=23 January 2015 |archive-date=22 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150122233542/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-30945324 |url-status=live }}</ref> |- |{{flag|Oman|name=Sultanate of Oman}} |100px||Sultan Haitham bin Tariq Al Said |{{Birth date|1954|10|11|df=yes}} |{{age in years and days|1954|10|11|age=no}} |{{dts|11 January 2020}} |{{ayd|2020|01|11}} |Hereditary||<ref>{{Cite web |author=Sultan Qaboos Centre for Islamic Culture |title=About H.M the Sultan |publisher=Government of Oman, Diwan of the Royal Court |url=http://sqcic.gov.om/HM.html |access-date=12 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118223700/http://sqcic.gov.om/HM.html |archive-date=18 January 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | author = Nyrop, Richard F | title = Area Handbook for the Persian Gulf States | publisher = Wildside Press LLC | year = 2008 | page = 341 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=BPX0h_wbFtEC | isbn = 978-1-4344-6210-7}}</ref> |-style="background:#e6e6aa;" |{{flag|Abu Dhabi|name=Emirate of Abu Dhabi}} |130x130px||{{sort|Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan|Ruler Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan}} |{{Birth date|1961|3|11|df=yes}} |{{age in years and days|1961|3|11|age=no}} |{{dts|13 May 2022}}||{{ayd|2022|05|13}}||Hereditary||<ref name="UAE monarchs">{{cite journal |last1=Walters |first1=Timothy |last2=Barwind |first2=Jack A. |title=Media and Modernity in the United Arab Emirates: Searching for the Beat of a Different Drummer |journal=Free Speech Yearbook |date=January 2004 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=151–163 |doi=10.1080/08997225.2004.10556311 |s2cid=108530356 |quote=Seven absolute monarchs exercise political power over a federation established in 1971.}}</ref> |- |{{flag|Vatican City|name=Vatican City State}} | alt=Portrait of Pope Leo XIV|frameless|143x143px |Pope Leo XIV ||{{Birth date|1955|9|14|df=yes}} |{{age in years and days|1955|9|14|age=no}} |{{dts|8 May 2025}}||{{ayd|2025|05|08}}||Elective|| <ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-04-21|title='God chose this day' – Catholics around the world mourn Pope Francis |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c5y656415lzo |access-date=2025-04-21 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB}}</ref> |}

=== Saudi Arabia === {{Main|Politics of Saudi Arabia}}Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy, and according to the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia adopted by Royal Decree in 1992, the King must comply with Sharia (Islamic law) and the Quran.<ref name=Cavendish78>{{cite book |title=World and Its Peoples: the Arabian Peninsula |last=Cavendish |first=Marshall |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7614-7571-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse/page/78 78] |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |url=https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse/page/78 }}</ref> The Quran and the body of the Sunnah (traditions of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad) are declared to be the Kingdom's Constitution, but no written modern constitution has ever been promulgated for Saudi Arabia, which remains the only Arab nation where no national elections have ever taken place since its founding.<ref name= Gerhard>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of world constitutions, Volume 1 |last=Robbers |first=Gerhard |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8160-6078-8 |page=791|publisher=Facts On File }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=1 November 2011 |title=Qatar elections to be held in 2013 - Emir |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15537725 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106200756/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15537725 |archive-date=2012-01-06 |access-date=27 February 2021 |work=BBC News}}</ref> No political parties or national elections are permitted.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://graphics.eiu.com/PDF/Democracy_Index_2010_web.pdf |title=The Economist Democracy Index 2010 |author=The Economist Intelligence Unit |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=6 June 2011 |archive-date=6 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180606141853/http://graphics.eiu.com/PDF/Democracy_Index_2010_web.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Cavendish78/> The Saudi government is the world's most authoritarian regime in 2023 measured by the electoral democracy score of the V-Dem Democracy indices.<ref name="vdem_dataset">{{Citation |last=Coppedge |first=Michael |title=V-Dem Dataset 2021 |date=2021 |url=https://www.v-dem.net/dsarchive.html |access-date=2025-07-31 |publisher=Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) Project |doi=10.23696/VDEMDS21}}</ref>

=== Oman === {{Main|Politics of Oman}} Oman is an absolute monarchy, with the Sultan of Oman being both head of state and head of government. The Sultan is hereditary, who appoints a cabinet to assist him. The sultan also serves as the supreme commander of the armed forces and prime minister. Oman bans all political parties.<ref>{{cite web | title=Oman: Freedom in the World 2020 Country Report | url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/oman/freedom-world/2020 }}</ref>

==Scholarship== There is a considerable variety of opinion by historians on the extent of absolutism among European monarchs. Some, such as Perry Anderson, argue that quite a few monarchs achieved levels of absolutist control over their states, while historians such as Roger Mettam dispute the very concept of absolutism.<ref>Mettam, Roger. ''Power and Faction in Louis XIV's France'', 1991.</ref> In general, historians who disagree with the appellation of ''absolutism'' argue that most monarchs labeled as ''absolutist'' exerted no greater power over their subjects than any other ''non-absolutist'' rulers, and these historians tend to emphasize the differences between the absolutist rhetoric of monarchs and the realities of the effective use of power by these absolute monarchs. Renaissance historian William Bouwsma summed up this contradiction: {{blockquote|Nothing so clearly indicates the limits of royal power as the fact that governments were perennially in financial trouble, unable to tap the wealth of those ablest to pay, and likely to stir up a costly revolt whenever they attempted to develop an adequate income.<ref>Bouwsma, William J., in Kimmel, Michael S. ''Absolutism and Its Discontents: State and Society in Seventeenth-Century France and England''. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1988, 15</ref>|William Bouwsma}}

Anthropology, sociology, and ethology as well as various other disciplines such as political science attempt to explain the rise of absolute monarchy ranging from extrapolation generally, to certain Marxist explanations in terms of the class struggle as the underlying dynamic of human historical development generally and absolute monarchy in particular.

In the 17th century, French legal theorist Jean Domat defended the concept of absolute monarchy in works such as ''"On Social Order and Absolute Monarchy"'', citing absolute monarchy as preserving natural order as God intended.<ref>{{cite web |author=Domat, Jean |author-link=Jean Domat |date=18 April 2009 |title=On Defense of Absolute Monarchy |series=Cornell College Student Symposium |place=Mount Vernon, IA |publisher=Cornell College |url=http://symposium.cornellcollege.edu/2009/04/18/jean-domat-on-defense-of-absolute-monarchy/ |access-date=12 May 2015 |archive-date=28 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028234633/https://symposium.cornellcollege.edu/2009/04/18/jean-domat-on-defense-of-absolute-monarchy/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Other intellectual figures who supported absolute monarchy include Thomas Hobbes and Charles Maurras.

==See also== {{Portal|Monarchy}} {{div col begin|colwidth=20em}} * Autocracy * Authoritarianism * Constitutional monarchy * Criticism of monarchy * Despotism * Dictatorship * Enlightened absolutism * Monarchomachs * Totalitarianism * Tyranny {{div col end}}

==Footnotes== {{notelist}}

==References== {{reflist|25em}}

==Further reading== * Anderson, Perry. (1961, 1974). ''Lineages of the Absolutist State''. London: Verso. * Beloff, Max. ''The Age of Absolutism 1660–1815''. * Blum, Jerome, et al. (1970). ''The European World'', vol 1, pp 267–466. * Blum, Jerome, et al. (1951). ''Lord and Peasant in Russia from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. * Kimmel, Michael S. (1988). ''Absolutism and Its Discontents: State and society in seventeenth-century France and England''. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books. * Méttam, Roger. (1988). ''Power and Faction in Louis XIV's France''. New York: Blackwell Publishers. * Miller, John (ed.) (1990). ''Absolutism in Seventeenth-Century Europe''. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. * Wilson, Peter H. (2000). ''Absolutism in Central Europe''. New York: Routledge. * Zmohra, Hillay. (2001). ''Monarchy, Aristocracy, and the State in Europe – 1300–1800''. New York: Routledge.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Absolute Monarchy}} Category:Monarchy Category:Political theories Category:Authoritarianism