{{short description|Species of flowering plant in the nightshade family}} {{speciesbox |image = 01 rocoto perupair.jpg |genus = Capsicum |species = pubescens |authority = Ruiz & Pav. |synonyms = * ''Brachistus lanceifolius'' Miers * ''Capsicum annuum'' var. ''violaceum'' Voss * ''Capsicum lanceifolium'' (Miers) Kuntze |synonyms_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl/record/kew-2698612|title=The Plant List}}</ref>|}} {{Pepper | name=Rocoto pepper | heat=Low to Very hot | scoville=2,400- 250,000 }} thumb|Countries in which ''C. pubescens'' is grown
'''''Capsicum pubescens''''' is a plant of the genus ''Capsicum'' (pepper). The species name, ''pubescens'', refers to the hairy leaves of this pepper. The hairiness of the leaves, along with the black seeds, make ''Capsicum pubescens'' distinguishable from other ''Capsicum'' species. ''Capsicum pubescens'' has pungent yellow, orange, red, green or brown fruits.
This species is found primarily in Central and South America, and is known only in cultivation. It is consumed fresh, as a paste, dried, or ground. Of all the domesticated species in the genus ''Capsicum'', it is the least widespread and most genetically distinct. It has no common name in English, and its name in Spanish varies by country: it is called by the indigenous terms {{lang|es|'''rocoto'''|italic=no}} in Peru and Ecuador (from the Quechua {{lang|qu|rukutu}} or {{lang|qu|ruqutu}}) and {{lang|es|'''locoto'''|italic=no}} in Bolivia and Argentina (from the Aymara {{lang|ay|luqutu}}); however, in Mexico the term {{lang|es|'''chile manzano'''|italic=no}} (literally, "appletree pepper") is used due to the visual similarity of the fruit to apples.<ref name=":0" />
==Description== ===Vegetative characteristics=== Like all other species of the genus ''Capsicum'', plants of the species ''Capsicum pubescens'' grow as a shrub, but sometimes as climbing plants. They grow into four-meter woody plants relatively quickly, and live up to 15 years, which gives them, especially with age, an almost tree-like appearance.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kosmix Staff |first=None |title=Rocoto Pepper |url=http://www.kosmix.com/topic/rocoto_pepper |work=Chilli Articles |publisher=Kosmix.com |access-date=7 May 2011 }}{{dead link|date=November 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> After initial growth, the plant branches at a height of about 30 cm for the first time, and further growth divides into a bushy appearance. More shoots develop from the leaf axils. Some varieties have purple discoloration on the branches, as can be observed in other ''Capsicum'' species. The leaves have a 5–12 mm long petiole and a leaf blade ovate to 5–12 cm long, 2.5 to 4 cm wide, tapering at the top and the base is wedge-shaped.<ref>{{cite web|last=Duffy|first=Jim|title=Capsicum Pubescens|url=http://www.refiningfirechiles.com/pubescens.html|work=Chilli Guides|publisher=Refining Fire Chillies|access-date=7 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150221124357/http://refiningfirechiles.com/pubescens.html|archive-date=2015-02-21|url-status=dead}}</ref>
In addition to the relatively long life, ''Capsicum pubescens'' differs in many other characteristics from related species.
===Flowers=== The flowers appear singly or in pairs (rarely up to four) on the shoots, and the branches are at about 1 cm long flower stems, which extend on the fruit to around 4–5 cm. The calyx has five triangular pointed teeth, which have in the fruit a length of about 1 mm. A characteristic different from other cultivated species of the genus ''Capsicum'' is the blue-violet-colored petals, brighter in the centre. The anthers are partly purple, partly white.<ref name=Livsey>{{cite web|last=Livsey|first=Julian|title=''Capsicum'' Genus Guide|url=http://www.thechileman.org/guide_species.php|work=Chileman Guides|publisher=thechileman.org|access-date=7 May 2011|archive-date=31 October 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051031044621/http://www.thechileman.org/guide_species.php|url-status=dead}}</ref>
=== Phytochemicals ===
==== Capsaicinoids ==== Capsaicinoids (capsaicin) are naturally occurring phytochemicals responsible for the heat in chili peppers.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Snape |first=Joel |date=2025-11-10 |title=Why do people love spicy food – even when it hurts to eat it? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2025/nov/10/why-do-people-love-spicy-food-even-when-it-hurts-to-eat-it |access-date=2025-11-10 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> While other chili varieties are dominated with up to 80 % by capsaicin, ''C. pubescens'' has an almost equally high concentration of dihydrocapsaicin.<ref name=":02">{{cite journal|last1=W. Meckelmann|first1=Sven|last2=Jansen|first2=Christian|last3=W. Riegel|first3=Dieter|last4=van Zonneveld|first4=Maarten|last5=Ríos|first5=Llermé|last6=Peña|first6=Karla|last7=Mueller‑Seitz|first7=Erika|last8=Petz|first8=Michael|date=29 July 2015|title=Phytochemicals in native Peruvian Capsicum pubescens (Rocoto)|journal=Eur Food Res Technol (|volume=241|issue=6|pages=817–825|doi=10.1007/s00217-015-2506-y|s2cid=98994557}}</ref>
''C. pubescens'' is a domesticated chili pepper that has not been explored extensively for its phytochemicals.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Collins|first1=M.|title=Rare and Novel Capsaicinoid Profiles in Capsicum.|last2=Bosland|first2=P.|publisher=Capsicum and Eggplant Newsletter|edition=Volume 13|pages=48–51}}</ref> While some types of ''C.pubescens'' are considered mild, other varieties are some of the hottest peppers. The pungency level varies according to two different studies between 2400-31,000 Scoville scale, 15,000-80,000 Scoville scale and 50,000-250,000 Scoville scale.<ref name=":02" /><ref>{{cite book|last1=Kollmannsberger|first1=Hubert|title=Volatile and capsaicinoid composition of aj´ı (Capsicum baccatum) and rocoto (Capsicum pubescens), two Andean species of chile peppers|last2=Rodrıguez-Burruezo|first2=Adrian|last3=Nitz|first3=Siegfried|last4=Nuez|first4=Fernando|date=28 January 2011|publisher=Wiley Online Library}}</ref>
''C. pubescens'' is a poor source of carotenoids and has a low amount of ascorbic acid and total polyphenols compared to ''Capsicum annuum''. Furthermore, removing the seeds of this pepper during food processing reduces the total polyphenol content by 50%.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=OBOH|first1=G.|last2=ROCHA|first2=J.B.T.|title=Distribution and Antioxidant Activity of Polyphenols in Ripe and Unripe Tree Pepper (Capsicum Pubescens)|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1745-4514.2007.00123.x|journal=Journal of Food Biochemistry|year=2007|volume=31|issue=4|pages=456–473|doi=10.1111/j.1745-4514.2007.00123.x|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
==== Aroma ==== The growing interest for this species is related to its cucumber aroma.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rodrıguez-Burruezo|first1=A.|last2=Prohens|first2=J.|last3=Raigon|first3=M. D.|last4=Nuez|first4=F.|date=13 March 2009|title=Variation for bioactive compounds in ajı´ (Capsicum baccatum L.) and rocoto (C. pubescens R. & P.) and implications for breeding|journal=Euphytica|volume=170 |issue=1–2 |pages=169–181|doi=10.1007/s10681-009-9916-5|s2cid=25545535}}</ref> The aromatic structure of ''C.pubescens'' is different than that of other chili peppers. Four aromas are dominant in the odor profile: green, cucumber, earthy-peas, and paprika or bell pepper, due possibly to the higher amount of sulfur and nitrogen compounds (pyrazine) and cucumber-like aldehydes with a low contribution to esters and ionones.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Morales-Soriano|first1=Eduardo|last2=Kebede|first2=Biniam|last3=Ugás|first3=Roberto|last4=Grauweta|first4=Tara|last5=Van Loey|first5=Ann|last6=Hendrickx|first6=Marc|date=2018|title=Flavor characterization of native Peruvian chili peppers through integrated aroma fingerprinting and pungency profiling|journal=Food Research International |volume=109|pages=250–259|doi=10.1016/j.foodres.2018.04.030 |pmid=29803448 }}</ref> The aromatic differences between ''C. chinense'' (a commonly used chili pepper) and ''C. pubescens'' is the contribution of several ionone esters and ectocarpene. This explains the exotic, fruity aromatic character of ''C. chinense'', which is presented only in small quantities in ''C. pubescens''. <ref>{{cite journal|last1=W. Meckelmann|first1=Sven|last2=Jansen|first2=Christian|last3=W. Riegel|first3=Dieter|last4=van Zonneveld|first4=Maarten|last5=Ríos|first5=Llermé|last6=Peña|first6=Karla|last7=Mueller‑Seitz|first7=Erika|last8=Petz|first8=Michael|date=29 July 2015|title=Phytochemicals in native Peruvian Capsicum pubescens (Rocoto)|journal=Eur Food Res Technol (|volume=241|issue=6|pages=817–825|doi=10.1007/s00217-015-2506-y|s2cid=98994557}}</ref>
== Uses == === Food properties === The fruits of ''Capsicum pubescens'' are a versatile food in South American cuisine. The flesh is thicker than that of other chilis, closer to the consistency and size of bell peppers.<ref>{{cite book |last1=National Research Council |title=Lost Crops of the Incas: Little-Known Plants of the Andes with Promise for Worldwide Cultivation |date=1989 |publisher=Washington, DC: The National Academies Press |isbn=978-0-309-04264-2}}</ref> The level of spice is comparable to other common known chilis, with 50,000 to 250,000 Scoville Heat Units recorded.<ref name=":3">{{cite web |title=Rocoto-Pflanzen |url=https://chilipflanzen.com/wissenswertes/rocoto-pflanzen/ |website=Chilipflanzen |date=7 January 2016 |access-date=14 November 2021}}</ref>
=== Fresh uses === The seeds and the white membranes, which contain most of the spice, are cut out. It is advised to wear gloves when handling ''Capsicum pubescens''. To reduce the spiciness the fruits can be boiled.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Adams |first1=Mark |title=Top 10: Things to Eat in Peru |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/best-food-peru#page=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412232018/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/best-food-peru#page=2 |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 12, 2021 |website=National Geographic |date=8 July 2016 |access-date=9 November 2021}}</ref> The prepared rocoto chilis are used for a variety of dishes. Rocoto relleno is a popular dish in Arequipa, a city in the Andes of Peru. The hollowed out and boiled rocotos are filled up with a mixture of ground beef, onions, garlic and spices. It is topped off with a piece of cheese and baked in the oven.<ref name="Cookbook">{{cite book |last1=Acurio |first1=Gaston |title=Peru: The Cookbook |date=2015 |publisher=Phaidon Press limited |isbn=978-3-944297-20-0}}</ref> The fruits of the ''Capsicum pubescens'' are also used as additions to other meals. Chili paste is made by mixing the chilis with oil. Chili cream is made by mixing rocoto chilis with fresh cheese. Aji de Huacatay is a green sauce which contains green rocoto chilis and is served typically with potatoes. Additionally, rocotos are used for fresh salsas.<ref name="Cookbook" />
=== Processed uses === Due to the thick flesh and the high moisture content, drying of peppers solely with sunlight is not as effective as with other species of Capsicum. A closed drying tunnel can reduce the moisture of 80 kilograms of fresh rocoto to 6.4 kilograms of dried rocoto.<ref>{{cite web |title=Chile – In der Heimat der Rocoto-Chili |date=19 November 2014 |url=https://pepperworld.com/chile-in-der-heimat-der-rocoto-chili/ |access-date=14 November 2021}}</ref>
== Origin and distribution == ''Capsicum pubescens'' is native to Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador, dating to pre-Incan times. Traces of its presence have been found in the Guitarrero Caves. The existence of ''Capsicum pubescens'' was documented by ancient Peruvians of the Paracas, Nazca, Moche, and Chimu cultures, through textiles, ceramics, and domestic remains. ''Capsicum pubescens'' is likely to belong to the oldest domesticated plants in the Americas, its domestication dating back to 6000 BC.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|date=2012|editor-last=Bosland|editor-first=P. W.|editor2-last=Votava|editor2-first=E. J.|title=Peppers: vegetable and spice capsicums|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1079/9781845938253.0000|doi=10.1079/9781845938253.0000|hdl=10568/99587|isbn=9781845938253}}</ref> ''Capsicum pubescens'' is believed to have evolved from other, more primitive wild ''Capsicum'' species occurring in the same area.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1201/9780203381151|title=Capsicum|date=2003-08-15|publisher=CRC Press|doi=10.1201/9780203381151|isbn=978-0-429-22054-8|editor-last=Krishna De|editor-first=Amit}}</ref> Of all the domesticated species of peppers, this is the least widespread and genetically furthest away from all others.<ref name=":0" /> It is reproductively isolated from other species of the genus ''Capsicum'' and forms a distinct genetic lineage.<ref name=":1" /> In the early 1900's ''Capsicum pubescens'' was introduced to Indonesia where it is now grown along other Capsicum species. The routes of introductions remain unclear, as ''Capsicum pubescens'' is found on multiple Indonesian islands. A white flower mutant of ''Capsicum pubescens'' is widely distributed in West and Central Java, which differentiates it from the normally purple flowering plants.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last1=Yamamoto|first1=Sota|last2=Djarwaningsih|first2=Tutie|last3=Wiriadinata|first3=Harry|date=2013-06-01|title=Capsicum pubescens (Solanaceae) in Indonesia: Its History, Taxonomy, and Distribution|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s12231-013-9230-y|journal=Economic Botany|language=en|volume=67|issue=2|pages=161–170|doi=10.1007/s12231-013-9230-y|s2cid=63689|issn=1874-9364|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
''Capsicum pubescens'' is rare outside of Central America, being found in cultivation primarily in Bolivia and Peru where it likely originated. It is commonly cultivated from Mexico to Peru, as well as in Indonesia.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2" /> The plants are usually grown at small scale in courtyards and family gardens, and only surpluses reach markets.
Given its cold tolerance, ''Capsicum pubescens'' grows at higher elevations than other species, and cannot survive the tropical heat in the lowlands.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Lost crops of the Incas : little-known plants of the Andes with promise for worldwide cultivation|date=1989|publisher=National Academy Press|others=National Research Council. Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation|isbn=0-309-56431-X|location=Washington, D.C.|oclc=56141084}}</ref> However, ''Capsicum pubescens'' is not frost-tolerant and requires a long vegetation period of about 9 months.<ref name=":1" /> These climate requirements are the main challenges for introducing it to other locations.
== Cultivation ==
=== Production === The Viru and Lambayeque valleys are the main production areas, 1000 km north of the capital of Peru.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Peppers: Vegetable and Spice Capsicums|year=2000|pages=36|language=english}}</ref> In the Netherlands, tomatoes, cucumbers and peppers share more than 90% gross area of greenhouse production.<ref name="Breukers">{{cite book | last1=Breukers | first1=A. | last2=Hietbrink | first2=O. | last3=Ruijs | first3=M.N.A. | title=The power of Dutch greenhouse vegetable horticulture: an analysis of the private sector and its institutional framework | year=2008 | publisher=LEI Wageningen UR | isbn=9789086152483 | url=https://research.wur.nl/en/publications/the-power-of-dutch-greenhouse-vegetable-horticulture-an-analysis- | access-date=2021-12-07}}</ref> Between April and November, ''C. pubescens'' is grown in greenhouses in the Netherlands. In the rest of the year, it has limited availability, and is grown in Spain or Italy.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web|date=1 November 2021|title=Rocoto red|url=https://italianchilli.com/en/content/60-rocoto-red#SEEDS|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121182445/https://italianchilli.com/en/content/60-rocoto-red |archive-date=2021-11-21 }}</ref>
=== Planting === ''C. pubescens'' is genetically different and unique in ''Capsicum'', as it is the only one to tolerate cooler temperatures. A clear temperature difference during the day (15 °C) and at night (8 °C) is preferred, which is similar to the mountainous regions of Peru and Bolivia.<ref name=":22">{{Cite web|title=Rocoto plants|url=https://chili-plant.com/chilli-varieties/rocoto-plants/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191014220306/https://chili-plant.com/chilli-varieties/rocoto-plants/ |archive-date=2019-10-14 }}</ref> However, frost and high heat cause serious damage.<ref name=":12" />
Cultivation methods of ''C. pubescens'' include growing in a nursery for 1 to 1.5 months in early February, then planting in the field when there is no frost risk, generally around March. Potassium, magnesium and zinc are used after transplantation, or after branching or flowering, and are generally applied once every 2 months after harvesting began. Some farmers cultivate ''C. pubescens'' among tea trees, ''C. annuum'', or other crops.<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|date=1 February 2016|title=Distribution and Cultivation Practices of Capsicum pubescens on the Islands of Java, Sumatra, and Sulawesi, Indonesia |url= https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/jis/17/1/17_67/_pdf|journal=The Journal of Island Studies|volume=17|pages=67–87|doi=10.5995/jis.17.1.67 |last1=Yamamoto |first1=Sota |last2=Djarwaningsih |first2=Tutie |last3=Wiriadinata |first3=Harry |s2cid=132421012 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
=== Pests === The plants resist pests in Europe. However, ''C. pubescens'' is the host plant of ''Anastrepha ludens'' (Mexican fruit fly).<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 November 2021|title=''Capsicum pubescens'' (rocoto) |publisher=CABI|url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/47408783#toplantType|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211121182445/https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/47408783 |archive-date=2021-11-21 }}</ref> ''A. ludens'' is one of the most threatening pests of ''Anastrepha''. It is considered an A1 quarantine pest by EPPO (European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization).<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 November 2021|title=''Anastrepha ludens'' (Mexican fruit fly)|publisher=CABI |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/5654|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121183041/http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/5654 |archive-date=2016-01-21 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=1 September 2021|title=EPPO A1 List of pests recommended for regulation as quarantine pests |url=https://www.eppo.int/ACTIVITIES/plant_quarantine/A1_list|publisher=EPPO|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180914203439/https://www.eppo.int/ACTIVITIES/plant_quarantine/A1_list |archive-date=2018-09-14 }}</ref> Thus, the importation of fresh ''C. pubescens'' is restricted by many countries, and only frozen and manufactured import food are authorized in European market.
=== Pathogens === The plants are resistant to several diseases, including the oomycete pathogen ''Phytophthora capsici'', a severe pathogen of pepper production over the world, causing more than $100 million in losses annually.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=June 2018|title=Race Characterization of Phytophthora Root Rot on Capsicum in Taiwan as a Basis for Anticipatory Resistance Breeding|journal= Phytopathology|doi=10.1094/PHYTO-08-17-0289-R|last1=Barchenger|first1=Derek W.|last2=Sheu|first2=Zong-Ming|last3=Kumar|first3=Sanjeet|last4=Lin|first4=Shih-Wen|last5=Burlakoti|first5=Rishi R.|last6=Bosland|first6=Paul W.|volume=108|issue=8|pages=964–971|pmid=29484915|doi-access=free}}</ref> ''C. pubescens'' has a thick waxy cuticle which becomes detached during the infection process, called ''pealing pealing'' disease in the areas around Oxapampa, Peru.
=== Harvesting === ''C. pubescens'' matures at least 3 months after flowering,<ref name=":22" /> with harvesting 3 to 8 months after transplantation into fields.<ref name=":32" /> Fruits were collected weekly every 2 weeks, and the harvesting is continued for 2-3 years, up to 5 years before the occurrence of diseases. Yields produce approximately 0.5 kg per plant per harvest, from up to 40 chilies for one meter tall.<ref name=":22" />
==Gallery== <gallery> Image:Ripe-manzanos.jpg|A 'Manzano' pepper plant with ripe pods Image:Cap1033-botao1.jpg|''Rukutu'' flower bud with many trichomes, characteristic that gives this species its name Image:Capsicum pubescens flower.jpg|Typical flower of a ''rukutu'': purple corolla with white spots in the center image:Bag of frozen rocoto.jpg|A bag of frozen ''rukutu'' for sale at a California market, 2009, and the orange variety is commonly cultivated in coastal Southern California and can be found fresh year-round in produce sections of ethnic markets. Image:Capsicum pubescens (Rocoto).JPG|Red Rocoto fruit cross section showing black-seeded fruit Image:Rocoto Pepper Plant.jpg| Rocoto plant prior to flowering </gallery> {{Wikispecies}}
==See also== * List of ''Capsicum'' cultivars * Rocoto relleno, baked rocoto stuffed with mince
== References == {{Reflist}}
==Further reading== * Charles M. Rick: [http://www.botanicus.org/page/939979 "Capsicum pubescens, a little-known pungent pepper from Latin America"]. In: ''Missouri Botanical Garden Bulletin'', Band 36, 1950. pp. 36–42. * Hugh Popenoe u. a.: ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20060901155009/http://newton.nap.edu/books/030904264X/html/R1.html Lost Crops of the Incas, Little-Known Plants of the Andes with Promise for Worldwide Cultivation.]'' National Academy Press, Washington DC 1989. {{ISBN|0-309-04264-X}} (Online)
==External links== {{Commons category}} * {{PFAF|Capsicum pubescens}}
{{Capsicum Cultivars}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q133428}}
pubescens Category:Chili peppers Category:Crops originating from Mexico Category:Crops originating from Peru Category:Taxa named by José Antonio Pavón Jiménez Category:Taxa named by Hipólito Ruiz López