{{Short description|Hindu tradition}} {{DISPLAYTITLE:''Guru–shishya'' tradition}} {{Redirect|Sishya|the 1997 film|Sishya (film)}} {{redirect|Parampara}} thumb|upright=1.5|The traditional guru–disciple relationship. Watercolour, Punjab Hills, India, 1740.
The '''''guru–shishya''''' '''tradition''', or '''''parampara''''' ({{lit|lineage}}), denotes a succession of teachers and disciples in Indian-origin religions such as Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism and Buddhism (including Tibetan and Zen traditions). Each ''parampara'' belongs to a specific ''sampradaya'', and may have its own ''gurukulas'' for teaching, which might be based at ''akharas'', ''gompas'', ''mathas'', ''viharas'' or temples. It is the tradition of spiritual relationship and mentoring where teachings are transmitted from a ''guru'', teacher, ({{langx|sa|गुरु}}) or ''lama'', to a ''śiṣya'' ({{langx|sa|शिष्य|links=no}}, disciple), ''shramana'' (seeker), or ''chela'' (follower), after the formal ''diksha'' (initiation). Such knowledge, whether agamic, spiritual, scriptural, architectural, musical, arts or martial arts, is imparted through the developing relationship between the guru and the disciple.
It is considered that this relationship, based on the genuineness of the guru and the respect, commitment, devotion and obedience of the student, is the best way for subtle or advanced knowledge to be conveyed. The student eventually masters the knowledge that the guru embodies.
== Etymology ==
''Guru–shishya'' means "succession from guru to disciple".
''Paramparā'' (Sanskrit: परम्परा, ''paramparā'') literally means ''an uninterrupted row or series, order, succession, continuation, mediation, tradition''.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Sanskrit-English Dictionary |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.31959 |author=Monier Monier-Williams |author-link=Monier Monier-Williams |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1899 |ol=6534982M |page=587(column a) }}</ref> In the traditional residential form of education, the shishya remains with their guru as a family member and gets the education as a true learner.<ref>A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada ''Srimad Bhagavatam'' 7.12.1, The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 1976, {{ISBN|0-912776-87-0}}</ref>
== History == {{see also | Hindu philosophy | Buddhist philosophy | Jain philosophy | Sikhism#Philosophy_and_teachings |l4= Sikhism philosophy }}
In the early oral traditions of the Upanishads, the ''guru–shishya'' relationship had evolved into a fundamental component of Hinduism. The term "Upanishad" derives from the Sanskrit words ''"upa"'' (near), ''"ni"'' (down) and ''"ṣad"'' (to sit) — so it means "sitting down near" a spiritual teacher to receive instruction. The relationship between Krishna and Arjuna in the Mahabharata, and between Rama and Hanuman in the Ramayana, are examples of Bhakti. In the Upanishads, gurus and disciples appear in a variety of settings (e.g. a husband answering questions about immortality; a teenage boy being taught by Yama, Hinduism's Lord of Death). Sometimes the sages are women, and the instructions may be sought by kings.{{Citation needed|date=November 2025}}
In the Vedas, the knowledge of Brahman (''brahmavidya'') is communicated from guru to ''shishya'' by oral tradition (''sabda'').{{Sfn|Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami|1976|p=4-8}} Mundaka Upanishad describes receiving spiritual knowledge in verse 1.2.12:{{Sfn|Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami|1976|p=7}}
{{Blockquote|text=In order to learn the transcendental science, one must submissively approach a bona fide spiritual master, who is coming in disciplic succession and is fixed in the Absolute Truth.|title=Mundaka Upanishad|source=Verse 1.2.12}}The disciplic succession (''guru–parampara'') ensures that the knowledge is preserved unaltered through a succession line of teachers.{{Sfn|Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami|1976|p=7-8}}
==Arrangements ==
===Sampradaya, Parampara, Gurukula and Akhara === {{main|Sampradaya|Akhara}}
Traditionally the word used for a succession of teachers and disciples in ancient Indian culture is ''parampara'' (''{{IAST|paramparā}}'' in IAST).<ref>Bg. 4.2 ''{{IAST|evaṁ paramparā-prāptam imaṁ rājarṣayo viduḥ}} - This supreme science was thus received through the chain of disciplic succession, and the saintly kings understood it in that way.''.</ref><ref name = SDG/> In the ''parampara'' system, knowledge (in any field) is believed to be passed down through successive generations. The Sanskrit word figuratively means "an uninterrupted series or succession". Sometimes defined as "the passing down of Vedic knowledge", it is believed to be always entrusted to the ''{{IAST|ācāryas}}''.<ref name = SDG/> An established ''parampara'' is often called ''{{IAST|sampradāya}}'', or school of thought. For example, in Vaishnavism a number of ''sampradayas'' are developed following a single teacher, or an acharya. While some argue for freedom of interpretation others maintain that "Although an ''{{IAST|ācārya}}'' speaks according to the time and circumstance in which he appears, he upholds the original conclusion, or ''{{IAST|siddhānta}}'', of the Vedic literature."<ref name = SDG> {{Cite book | first = dasa Goswami | last = Satsvarupa | author-link = Satsvarupa dasa Goswami | title =Readings in Vedit Literature: The Tradition Speaks for Itself | publisher = Assoc Publishing Group| year = 1976| pages = 240 pages | isbn = 0-912776-88-9 | location = S.l. }}</ref> This parampara ensures continuity of ''sampradaya'', transmission of dharma, knowledge and skills.
Akhara is a place of practice with facilities for boarding, lodging and training, both in the context of Indian martial artists or a ''Sampradaya'' monastery for religious renunciates.<ref name=hin>[https://books.google.com/books?id=9XC9bwMMPcwC&dq=1954+Kumbh+stampede&pg=RA16-PA200 Akharas and Kumbh Mela] ''What Is Hinduism?: Modern Adventures Into a Profound Global Faith'', by Editors of Hinduism Today, Hinduism Today Magazine Editors. Published by Himalayan Academy Publications, 2007. {{ISBN|1-934145-00-9}}. ''243-244''.</ref> For example, in the context of the Dashanami Sampradaya sect, the word denotes both martial arts and religious monastic aspects of the trident wielding martial regiment of renunciate sadhus.<ref name="Lochtefeld2002">{{cite book|author=James G. Lochtefeld|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch/page/23|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8|pages=[https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch/page/23 23–4]}}</ref>
===Common characteristics of the ''guru–shishya'' relationship=== Within the broad spectrum of the Indian religions, the ''guru–shishya'' relationship can be found in numerous variant forms including tantra. Some common elements in this relationship include:
* The establishment of a teacher/student relationship.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Joshi |first=Ankur |last2=Gupta |first2=Rajen K. |date=2017 |title=Elementary education in Bharat (that is India): insights from a postcolonial ethnographic study of a Gurukul |url=http://www.inderscience.com/link.php?id=85390 |journal=International Journal of Indian Culture and Business Management |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=100 |doi=10.1504/IJICBM.2017.085390 |issn=1753-0806|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nandram |first=Sharda S. |last2=Joshi |first2=Ankur |last3=Sukhada |first3=N.A. |last4=Dhital |first4=Vishwanath |date=2021 |title=Delivering holistic education for contemporary times: Banasthali Vidyapith and the Gurukula system |url=http://www.inderscience.com/link.php?id=118235 |journal=International Journal of Business and Globalisation |language=en |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=222 |doi=10.1504/IJBG.2021.118235 |issn=1753-3627|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
* ''Diksha'' (formal initiation): A formal recognition of this relationship, generally in a structured initiation ceremony where the guru accepts the initiate as a ''shishya'' and also accepts responsibility for the spiritual well-being and progress of the new ''shishya''.
* ''Shiksha'' (transmission of knowledge): Sometimes this initiation process will include the conveying of specific esoteric wisdom and/or meditation techniques.
* ''Gurudakshina'', where the ''shishya'' gives a gift to the ''guru'' as a token of gratitude, often the only monetary or otherwise fee that the student ever gives. Such tokens can be as simple as a piece of fruit or as serious as a thumb, as in the case of ''Ekalavya'' and his guru ''Dronacharya''.
* ''Guru gotra'', refers to the practice of adopting the name of guru or the ''parampara'' as one's gotra (surname) instead of gotra at birth. The disciples of same guru, especially in the same cohort, are referred to as ''guru bhrata'' (brother by virtue of having same guru) or ''guru bhagini'' (sister by virtue of having same guru).
In some ''paramparas'' there is never more than one active master at the same time in the same ''guruparamaparya'' (lineage),<ref>Padoux, André. "The Tantric Guru" in David Gordon White (ed.) 2000. ''Tantra in Practice'', p. 44. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press {{OCLC|43441625}}</ref> while other ''paramparas'' might allow multiple simultaneous gurus at a time.
===Titles of gurus===
Gurunath is a form of salutation to revere the guru as god.
In paramapara, not only is the immediate guru revered, the three preceding gurus are also worshipped or revered. These are known variously as the ''kala-guru'' or as the "four gurus" and are designated as follows:<ref>[https://www.sacred-texts.com/tantra/maha/maha06.htm Mahanirvana Tantra]</ref>
* '''''Guru''''': Refer to the immediate guru.
* '''''Parama-guru''''': Refer to the founding guru of the specific ''parampara'', e.g. for the Śankaracharyas this is Adi Śankara.
* '''''Parātpara-guru''''': Refer to guru who is the source of knowledge for ''sampradaya'' or tradition, e.g. for the Śankaracharya's this is Vedavyāsa.
* '''''Parameṣṭhi-guru''''': Refer to the highest guru, who has the power to bestow mokṣa, e.g. for the Śankaracharya's this is usually depicted as Lord Śhiva, being the highest guru.
===Psychological aspects of relationship ===
The relation of Guru and Shishya is equated with that of a child in the womb of mother.<ref name=":0" /> Rob Preece, in ''The Wisdom of Imperfection,''<ref name="Preece">Preece, Rob. "The teacher-student relationship" in ''[http://www.snowlionpub.com/html/product_8734.html The Wisdom of Imperfection: The Challenge of Individuation in Buddhist Life]'', Snow Lion Publications, 2006, {{ISBN|1-55939-252-5}}, p. 155 ff. At mudra.co.uk (author's website): [http://www.mudra.co.uk/mudra_teacher_part1.html Part 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030807173905/http://www.mudra.co.uk/mudra_teacher_part1.html |date=2003-08-07 }}, [http://www.mudra.co.uk/mudra_teacher_part2.html Part 2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080603012530/http://www.mudra.co.uk/mudra_teacher_part2.html |date=2008-06-03 }}</ref> writes that while the teacher/disciple relationship can be an invaluable and fruitful experience, the process of relating to spiritual teachers also has its hazards.
As other authors had done before him,<ref name="Schnabel1982V">{{in lang|nl}} Schnabel, ''Tussen stigma en charisma'' ("Between stigma and charisma"), 1982. [https://www.dbnl.org/tekst/schn016tuss01_01/schn016tuss01_01_0012.htm Ch. V, p. 142], quoting Jan van der Lans, ''Volgelingen van de goeroe: Hedendaagse religieuze bewegingen in Nederland''. Ambo, Baarn, 1981, {{ISBN|90-263-0521-4}}<br />(''note'': "overdracht" is the Dutch term for "transference")</ref> Preece mentions the notion of transference to explain the manner in which the guru/disciple relationship develops from a more Western psychological perspective. He writes, ''"In its simplest sense transference occurs when unconsciously a person endows another with an attribute that actually is projected from within themselves"''. Preece further states that when we transfer an inner quality onto another person we may be giving that person a power over us as a consequence of the projection, carrying the potential for great insight and inspiration, but also the potential for great danger. ''"In giving this power over to someone else they have a certain hold and influence over us it is hard to resist, while we become enthralled or spellbound by the power of the archetype."''<ref name="Preece"/>
==''Guru–shishya'' relationship by sampradaya== There is a variation in the level of authority that may be granted to the guru. The highest is that found in bhakti yoga, and the lowest is in the ''pranayama'' forms of yoga, such as the Sankara Saranam movement. Between these two there are many variations in degree and form of authority.{{Original research inline|date=May 2008}}
===Advaita Vedanta sampradaya === {{Main|Advaita Guru Paramparā}}
Advaita Vedānta requires anyone seeking to study Advaita Vedānta to do so from a guru (''teacher''). The guru must have the following qualities:<ref name=MU>''Mundaka Upanishad'' 1.2.12</ref>
#''Śrotriya'' — must be learned in the Vedic scriptures and ''sampradaya''<ref name=MU/> #''Brahmaniṣṭha'' — figuratively meaning "established in Brahman"; must have ''realised'' the oneness of Brahman in everything and in himself.<ref name=MU/>
The seeker must serve the guru and submit his questions with all humility so that doubt may be removed.<ref>''Bhagavad Gita'' 4.34</ref> According to Advaita, the seeker will be able to attain ''liberation from the cycle of births and deaths'' (''moksha'').
===Śruti sampradaya=== {{Main|Śrauta}}
The ''guru–shishya'' tradition plays an important part in the Shruti tradition of Vaidika dharma. The Hindus believe that the Vedas have been handed down through the ages from guru to ''shishya''. The Vedas themselves prescribe for a young brahmachari to be sent to a Gurukul where the Guru (referred to also as acharya) teaches the pupil the Vedas and Vedangas. The pupil is also taught the ''Prayoga'' to perform yajnas. The term of stay varies (Manu Smriti says the term may be 12 years, 36 years or 48 years). After the stay at the Gurukul the brahmachari returns home after performing a ceremony called samavartana.
The word Śrauta is derived from the word Śruti meaning that which is heard. The Śrauta tradition is a purely oral handing down of the Vedas, but many modern Vedic scholars make use of books as a teaching tool.<ref>[https://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part17/chap1.htm Hindu Dharma]</ref>
===Shaktipat sampradaya=== {{main|Shaktipat}}
The guru passes his knowledge to his disciples by virtue of the fact that his purified consciousness enters into the selves of his disciples and communicates its particular characteristic. In this process the disciple is made part of the spiritual family (kula) – a family which is not based on blood relations but on people of the same knowledge.<ref>Abhinavagupta: The Kula Ritual, as Elaborated in Chapter 29 of the Tantrāloka, John R. Dupuche, Page 131</ref>
===Bhakti yoga===
The best known form of the ''guru–shishya'' relationship is that of bhakti. Bhakti (devotion) means surrender to God or guru. Bhakti extends from the simplest expression of devotion to the ego-destroying principle of prapatti, which is total surrender. The bhakti form of the ''guru–shishya'' relationship generally incorporates three primary beliefs or practices:
# Devotion to the guru as a divine figure or Avatar.{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}} # The belief that such a guru has transmitted, or will impart moksha, diksha or shaktipat to the (successful) ''shishya''. # The belief that if the ''shishya's'' act of focusing their bhakti upon the guru is sufficiently strong and worthy, then some form of spiritual merit will be gained by the ''shishya''.{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}}
=== Prapatti sampradaya === {{More citations needed section|date=November 2025}} In the principle of ''prapatti'' (Sanskrit meaning is surrender or seeking refuge, often associated with ''Sharanagati''), the ''shishya'' seeks the dissolution of the ''Ahamkara'' (ego) through complete submission to the will of the Divine or the guru. Instead of an attitude of mere helplessness, orthodox traditions view this as a profound state of spiritual trust, devotion, and liberation from worldly attachments.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Raman |first=Srilata |title=Self-Surrender (prapatti) to God in Shrivaishnavism |publisher=Routledge |year=2007 |isbn=9780415544641 |pages=11-15 |quote=Defines Prapatti (Sharanagati) as a profound soteriological surrender and taking refuge in the Divine, rather than mere physical helplessness.}}</ref> This doctrine is prominently expressed in the teachings of the four Shaiva ''Samayacharya'' saints, whose mystical love for Lord Siva is characterized by:
* Deep humility and the recognition of one's spiritual ignorance (avidya) or karmic bindings (paap); * Total surrender to the Divine as the ultimate, infallible refuge; and * A relationship of lover and beloved known as bridal mysticism, in which the devotee assumes the emotional role of the bride and Siva the bridegroom.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Peterson |first=Indira Viswanathan |title=Poems to Siva: The Hymns of the Tamil Saints |date= |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1989 |isbn=9780691609263 |pages=33-35,102 |quote=Bhakti connotes not only “devotion,” in the sense of reverence, attachment, and loyalty, but “love” (Tamil anpu, katal) in all its dimensions. The Siva of the Tamil hymns is not just an awesome, transcendent, brahmanical deity and the manifestation of sacred power on the Tamil model; he and his devotees are bound to each other by a powerful mutual love. The intimate nature of this relationship comes across in the many images and terms of endearment with which the saints address their God: “my pearl,” “my honey,” “my treasure.” Even while picturing Siva as king and master, the Nayanar sees him as related to his devotees by the closest and most significant kinship ties in the Tamil family: the Lord is the devotees’ father (attan, appan, tantai), mother’s brother (maman, amman), even mother (tay, ammai). Poems in which the Lord is portrayed as the lover are rare in the Téevaram, although there is an undercurrent of erotic mysticism in many poems in which the saint laments his separation (viraha) from God. Whatever the kind of love the saint wishes to portray, he draws on the tradition of the classical Tamil akan poetic genre, which constitutes the literature of the interior, the literature of all intimate love relationships.}}</ref>
=== Buddhism sampradaya ===
In the Pali Buddhist tradition, magae the Bhikkus are also known as Sekhas (SN XLVIII.53 Sekha Sutta).
In the Theravada Buddhist tradition, the teacher is a valued and honoured mentor worthy of great respect and a source of inspiration on the path to Enlightenment.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Thurman, Robert A. F. |author2=Huntington, John |author3=Dina Bangdel |title=Beginning the process: The Great Masters and Selecting a Teacher - The Guru-Disciple relationship; in: The Circle of Bliss: Buddhist Meditational Art |publisher=Serindia Publications |location=London |year=2003 |isbn=1-932476-01-6 }}</ref> In the Tibetan tradition, however, the teacher is viewed as the very root of spiritual realisation and the basis of the entire path.<ref>{{cite book |author=Dreyfus, Georges B. J. |title=The sound of two hands clapping: the education of a Tibetan Buddhist monk |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley |year=2003 |pages= 61–3|isbn=0-520-23260-7 }}</ref> Without the teacher, it is asserted, there can be no experience or insight. The guru is seen as Buddha. In Tibetan texts, emphasis is placed upon praising the virtues of the guru. Tantric teachings include generating visualisations of the guru and making offerings praising the guru. The guru becomes known as the ''vajra'' (figuratively "diamond") guru, the one who is the source of initiation into the tantric deity. The disciple is asked to enter into a series of vows and commitments that ensure the maintenance of the spiritual link with the understanding that to break this link is a serious downfall.{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}}
In Vajrayana (tantric Buddhism) as the guru is perceived as ''the way'' itself. The guru is not an individual who initiates a person, but the person's own Buddha-nature reflected in the personality of the guru. In return, the disciple is expected to show great devotion to their guru, who he or she regards as one who possesses the qualities of a Bodhisattva. A guru is regarded as one which has not only mastered the words of the tradition, but one that with which the student has an intense personal relationship; thus, devotion is seen as the proper attitude toward the guru.<ref name="isbn0-8264-1113-4">{{cite book |author=Gross, Rita M. |title=Soaring and settling: Buddhist perspectives on contemporary social and religious issues |publisher=Continuum |location=London |year=1998 |isbn=0-8264-1113-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/soaringsettlingb00gros/page/184 184] |url=https://archive.org/details/soaringsettlingb00gros/page/184 }}</ref>
The Dalai Lama, speaking of the importance of the guru, said: "Rely on the teachings to evaluate a guru: Do not have blind faith, but also no blind criticism." He also observed that the term 'living Buddha' is a translation of the Chinese words ''huo fuo''.<ref name="urlThe Teacher - The Guru">{{cite web |url=http://buddhism.kalachakranet.org/spiritual_teacher_guru.html |title=The Teacher - The Guru |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514220738/http://buddhism.kalachakranet.org/spiritual_teacher_guru.html |archive-date=2008-05-14 }}</ref>
== Order and service == {{See also|Hukamnama|Dakshina|}}
In Indic religions namely Jainism, Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism selfless service to Guru, accepting and following all his/her orders carries very significant and valued part of relationship of Shishya (disciple) with his/her Guru.<ref name=":0" /> Orders of Guru are referred as Guru Agya/Adnya/Hukam. Service of Guru is referred as Guru Seva.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Copeman|first1=Jacob|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r2O3W7mkAwAC|title=The Guru in South Asia: New Interdisciplinary Perspectives|last2=Ikegame|first2=Aya|date=2012|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-51019-6|language=en}}</ref> In Sikhism, the scripture Adi Granth is considered to be last Guru hence the book is worshiped as like human Guru.
==See also== {{Portal|Hinduism|Religion}}
* Apostolic succession * Dharma transmission * Sampradaya * Lineage (Buddhism) * List of Indian yoga gurus * Hindu denominations, Hindu reform movements and Hindu gurus * Buddhist denominations and Buddhism parampara * Jain denominations and Tirthankara parampara * Sikhism denominations and Sikh gurus
== References == {{Reflist}}
== Sources == *{{Cite book |last=Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami |url=http://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.66592 |title=Readings In Vedic Literature |date=1976}} ==Further reading== * Monika Horstmann, Heidi Rika Maria Pauwels, 2009, [https://books.google.com/books?id=kv0xPCZ6e9sC&dq=sampradaya+and+parampara&pg=PA170 ''Patronage and Popularisation, Pilgrimage and Procession'']. * {{cite book |author=Neuman, Daniel M. |title=The life of music in north India: the organization of an artistic tradition |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago |year=1990 |isbn=0-226-57516-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofmusicinnor00neum }} * Leela Prasad, 2012, [https://books.google.com/books?id=tZcdTw0toXsC&dq=sampradaya+and+parampara&pg=PA247 ''Poetics of Conduct: Oral Narrative and Moral Being in a South Indian Town'']. * Federico Squarcini, 2011, [https://books.google.com/books?id=1etcIIqQq9QC&dq=sampradaya+and+parampara&pg=PA26 ''Boundaries, Dynamics and Construction of Traditions in South Asia''].
==External links== *{{Commonscatinline}}
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