{{Short description|Genus of annelid worms}} {{Italic title}} {{Use mdy dates|date=February 2024}} {{Automatic taxobox | fossil_range = {{fossilrange|Albian|Present}} | name = ''Osedax'' | image = Osedax roseus.jpg | image_caption = ''Osedax roseus'' | taxon = Osedax | authority = Rouse et al., 2004<ref name=":14" /> | subdivision_ranks = Species | subdivision = See text. }}
'''''Osedax''''' is a genus of siboglinid polychaetes, commonly called '''snot worms''' or '''bone-eating worms'''. ''Osedax'' is Latin for 'bone devourer'<ref name=":14" />, derived from the worms' unique ecological niche of bone-boring. ''Osedax'' settle on a bone, then secrete an acid through specialized root tissues to dissolve the bone's external layers in order to access the lipids within.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":15" /> ''Osedax'' act as ecosystem engineers, enhancing the biodiversity of bones they inhabit by increasing their structural complexity, allowing microfauna to inhabit otherwise inaccessible regions of the internal bone.<ref name=":15" />
Scientists from the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute using the submarine ROV ''Tiburon'' first discovered the genus in Monterey Bay, California, in February 2002. The worms were found living on the bones of a decaying gray whale in the Monterey Canyon, at a depth of {{convert|2893|m|abbr=on}}.<ref name=":14" />
==Anatomy and physiology== Like other siboglinids, ''Osedax'' lacks a mouth, gut, or anus, and instead depends on colonies of endosymbiont microbes housed inside a trophosome for nutrition. Unlike other siboglinids, however, this trophosome takes the form of a vascularized root system which penetrates bone.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Craig R. |last2=Glover |first2=Adrian G. |last3=Treude |first3=Tina |last4=Higgs |first4=Nicholas D. |last5=Amon |first5=Diva J. |date=2015-01-03 |title=Whale-Fall Ecosystems: Recent Insights into Ecology, Paleoecology, and Evolution |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-marine-010213-135144 |journal=Annual Review of Marine Science |language=en |volume=7 |issue= |pages=571–596 |doi=10.1146/annurev-marine-010213-135144 |pmid=25251277 |bibcode=2015ARMS....7..571S |issn=1941-1405}}</ref> These microbes, of the order ''Oceanospirillales,'' produce enzymes which hydrolyze collagen from bones, yielding nutrition to the worms.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":14" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Goffredi |first1=S. K. |last2=Orphan |first2=V. J. |last3=Rouse |first3=G. W. |last4=Jahnke |first4=L. |last5=Embaye |first5=T. |last6=Turk |first6=K. |last7=Lee |first7=R. |last8=Vrijenhoek |first8=R. C. |year=2005 |title=Evolutionary innovation: a bone-eating marine symbiosis |journal=Environmental Microbiology |volume=7 |issue=9 |pages=1369–1378 |bibcode=2005EnvMi...7.1369G |doi=10.1111/j.1462-2920.2005.00824.x |pmid=16104860}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last1=Goffredi |first1=Shana K. |last2=Johnson |first2=Shannon B. |last3=Vrijenhoek |first3=Robert C. |date=April 2007 |title=Genetic Diversity and Potential Function of Microbial Symbionts Associated with Newly Discovered Species of Osedax Polychaete Worms |journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology |language=en |volume=73 |issue=7 |pages=2314–2323 |bibcode=2007ApEnM..73.2314G |doi=10.1128/AEM.01986-06 |issn=0099-2240 |pmc=1855680 |pmid=17277220}}</ref><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last1=Moggioli |first1=Giacomo |last2=Panossian |first2=Balig |last3=Sun |first3=Yanan |last4=Thiel |first4=Daniel |last5=Martín-Zamora |first5=Francisco M. |last6=Tran |first6=Martin |last7=Clifford |first7=Alexander M. |last8=Goffredi |first8=Shana K. |last9=Rimskaya-Korsakova |first9=Nadezhda |last10=Jékely |first10=Gáspár |last11=Tresguerres |first11=Martin |last12=Qian |first12=Pei-Yuan |last13=Qiu |first13=Jian-Wen |last14=Rouse |first14=Greg W. |last15=Henry |first15=Lee M. |date=2023-05-17 |title=Distinct genomic routes underlie transitions to specialised symbiotic lifestyles in deep-sea annelid worms |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=14 |issue=1 |page=2814 |bibcode=2023NatCo..14.2814M |doi=10.1038/s41467-023-38521-6 |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=10192322 |pmid=37198188}}</ref> ''Osedax'' exhibit very drastic sexual dimorphism, with females being >20,000 times larger than males.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Rouse |first1=Greg W. |last2=Wilson |first2=Nerida G. |last3=Worsaae |first3=Katrine |last4=Vrijenhoek |first4=Robert C. |date=2015-01-19 |title=A Dwarf Male Reversal in Bone-Eating Worms |journal=Current Biology |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=236–241 |bibcode=2015CBio...25..236R |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2014.11.032 |issn=0960-9822 |pmid=25496962 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Males are paedomorphic and microscopic, inhabiting a section of the females' trunk where they produce sperm from yolk reserves.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":5" />
=== Digestive system === ''Osedax'' rely on symbiotic species of bacteria that aid in the digestion of whale proteins and lipids and release nutrients that the worms can absorb.<ref name=":14" /> ''Osedax'' have colorful feathery plumes that also act as gills and unusual root-like structures that absorb nutrients. The ''Osedax'' secrete acid (rather than rely on teeth) to bore into bone to access the nutrients<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":1" />. High concentrations of carbonic anhydrase are found in the roots of ''Osedax.'' This serves as evidence of a common bioerosion mechanism in which secreted acid is produced by aerobic respiration. This process works with a demineralization mechanism in which oxygen is carried from seawater to the roots and HCO{{subsup||3|−}} is secreted into the seawater.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Tresguerres|first1=Martin|last2=Katz|first2=Sigrid|last3=Rouse|first3=Greg W.|date=June 22, 2013|title=How to get into bones: proton pump and carbonic anhydrase in Osedax boneworms|url= |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|volume=280|issue=1761|article-number=20130625|doi=10.1098/rspb.2013.0625|pmc=3652447|pmid=23760644}}</ref>
The epidermis also plays key roles in bone deterioration and nutrient uptake. This process of bone deterioration occurs through a symbiotic relationship with an endosymbiotic bacteria.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Katz |first1=Sigrid |last2=Klepal |first2=Waltraud |last3=Bright |first3=Monika |date=October 2010 |title=The skin of Osedax (Siboglinidae, Annelida): An ultrastructural investigation of its epidermis |url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/jmor.10873 |journal=Journal of Morphology |language=en |volume=271 |issue=10 |pages=1272–1280 |doi=10.1002/jmor.10873 |pmid=20672365 |bibcode=2010JMorp.271.1272K |s2cid=10697873|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The cells in the epidermis of the ''Osedax'' root region are responsible for the secretion of digestive enzymes. The epidermis also has an expanded microvillus border which increases the surface area.<ref name=":0" />
Through the use of X-ray CT technology, scans showed that borings made by ''Osedax mucofloris'' were hemi-ellipsoidal in shape. Boring depths varied depending on which bone was colonized by the ''O. mucofloris''. Deeper borings were found in radius bone compared to the ulna and vertebrae.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Higgs|first1=Nicholas D.|last2=Glover|first2=Adrian G.|last3=Dahlgren|first3=Thomas G.|last4=Little|first4=Crispin T. S.|date=December 2011|title=Bone-Boring Worms: Characterizing the Morphology, Rate, and Method of Bioerosion by Osedax mucofloris (Annelida, Siboglinidae)|journal=The Biological Bulletin|volume=221|issue=3|pages=307–316|doi=10.1086/bblv221n3p307|pmid=22186919|bibcode=2011BiolB.221..307H |s2cid=32725146|issn=0006-3185}}</ref>
''Osedax'' roots are covered by a mucus sheath that helps protect the worm's trunk. Some studies support the theory that this sheath plays a role in dissolving the bone. This sheath could also play an important role in reducing the damage to ''Osedax'' skin by absorbing harmful acid. Another potential function of the mucus sheath is that it could inhibit the breakdown of the worm's bone matrix. This is significant because the bone matrix is integral in maintaining the worm's position while in direct contact with a bone.<ref name=":1" />
=== Symbiosis === Symbionts are the primary providers of nutrition for ''Osedax.''<ref name=":14" /> However, these symbionts also possess genes, secretion systems, and toxins that disrupt the ''Osedax'' membrane and facilitate recurrent infections of adult ''Osedax'' through the root tips.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |last1=Goffredi |first1=Shana K |last2=Yi |first2=Hana |last3=Zhang |first3=Qingpeng |last4=Klann |first4=Jane E |last5=Struve |first5=Isabelle A |last6=Vrijenhoek |first6=Robert C |last7=Brown |first7=C Titus |date=2013-11-14 |title=Genomic versatility and functional variation between two dominant heterotrophic symbionts of deep-sea ''Osedax'' worms |journal=The ISME Journal |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=908–924 |doi=10.1038/ismej.2013.201 |issn=1751-7362 |pmc=3960542 |pmid=24225886}}</ref> There is ongoing debate in the literature over whether the symbiosis in ''Osedax'' roots is commensal or mutualistic.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal |last1=Goffredi |first1=Shana K. |last2=Panossian |first2=Balig |last3=Brzechffa |first3=Camille |last4=Field |first4=Naomi |last5=King |first5=Chad |last6=Moggioli |first6=Giacomo |last7=Rouse |first7=Greg W. |last8=Martín-Durán |first8=José M. |last9=Henry |first9=Lee M. |date=2023-06-29 |editor-last=Dubilier |editor-first=Nicole |title=A dynamic epibiont community associated with the bone-eating polychaete genus Osedax |journal=mBio |language=en |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=e0314022 |doi=10.1128/mbio.03140-22 |doi-access=free|issn=2150-7511 |pmc=10470745 |pmid=37382438}}</ref><ref name=":9" /> The symbiotic relationship between ''Osedax'' and its accompanying bacteria may be transferred either via vertical or horizontal transmission.<ref name=":9" />
''Osedax'' species use collagen, which is the primary organic component in bone.<ref name=":11" /> Collagen is degraded using a family of endopeptidases called matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), which facilitates nutrient absorption by the ''Osedax''.<ref name=":11" /> The roots of the ''Osedax'' express high amounts of V-ATPase and carbonic anhydrase enzymes, which allows the ''Osedax'' to dissolve and absorb collagen and lipids.<ref name=":11" /> Once dissolved, the nutrients are either used by the ''Osedax'', or transported to the symbionts for further catabolism.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":11" />
As the endosymbionts lack secreted M9 peptidase, they rely on the ''Osedax'' worm to source extracellular collagen.<ref name=":11" /> The symbionts in the ''Oceanospirillales'' order have then been observed to further process the collagen using collagenolytic enzymes.<ref name=":9" /><ref name=":12" />
Sequencing of the ''Osedax'' worm genome has suggested an evolved dependency on its endosymbionts.<ref name=":11" /> This is revealed by genomic streamlining, where increased functional groups were observed despite the loss of some gene families.<ref name=":11" /> Six incomplete pathways were discovered in the ''Osedax'' worm genome which were supplemented by the endosymbionts.<ref name=":11" /> In particular, the ''Osedax'' worm lacks specific gene families involved in bone lipid and carbohydrate metabolism.<ref name=":11" /> This function is complemented by the ''Oceanospirillales'' symbionts, which utilize the glyoxylate cycle to catabolize nutrients from whale bones and convert fatty acids into carbohydrates.<ref name=":11" /> The ''Osedax'' are then able to take up and store the end products as glycogen.<ref name=":11" /> Bacteriocytes are present in the ''Osedax'' lower trunk subepidermal connective tissue,<ref name=":11" /> and there are additional genes in the bacteriocytes that encode amino acids and glucose and aid in digestion and absorption of proteins into the roots.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Miyamoto |first1=Norio |last2=Yoshida |first2=Masa-aki |last3=Koga |first3=Hiroyuki |last4=Fujiwara |first4=Yoshihiro |date=2017-01-13 |title=Genetic mechanisms of bone digestion and nutrient absorption in the bone-eating worm Osedax japonicus inferred from transcriptome and gene expression analyses |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=17 |issue=1 |page=17 |bibcode=2017BMCEE..17...17M |doi=10.1186/s12862-016-0844-4 |issn=1471-2148 |pmc=5237233 |pmid=28086748 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
=== Endosymbionts === The ''Oceanospirillales'' symbionts are found in the specialized roots<ref name=":10" /> of all ''Osedax'' species,<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Rouse |first1=Greg W. |last2=Goffredi |first2=Shana K. |last3=Johnson |first3=Shannon B. |last4=Vrijenhoek |first4=Robert C. |date=2011-10-23 |title=Not whale-fall specialists, Osedax worms also consume fishbones |journal=Biology Letters |language=en |volume=7 |issue=5 |pages=736–739 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2011.0202 |issn=1744-9561 |pmc=3169056 |pmid=21490008 |bibcode=2011BiLet...7..736R }}</ref><ref name=":9" /> and play a major role in accelerating the degradation process of bones, as well as facilitating nutrient uptake for the ''Osedax''.<ref name=":10" /><ref name=":11" /> ''Oceanospirillales'' are known for their ability to degrade complex organic compounds.<ref name=":14" /><ref name=":12" />
''Campylobacterales'' are abundant along the trunk of the ''Osedax'' according to a 2023 study.<ref name=":10" /> Different genera in this order are found in ''Osedax'' at different points during the whale's degradation:
# Members of the ''Arcobacter'' genus are the primary early colonizers (<24 months).<ref name=":10" /> # ''Sulfurospirillum'' genus members colonize at ~50 months, during the transitional stages of organic carbon breakdown.<ref name=":10" /> # The ''Sulfurimonas'' genus dominates at >140 months, and are key players in its symbiosis with the ''Osedax'' host.<ref name=":10" />
The ''Sulfurimonas'' genus in particular protects the ''Osedax'' worms from potentially harmful by-products produced at >140 months of the whale fall degradation.<ref name=":10" /> The ''Sulfurimonas'' bacteria house the type II and IV sulfide:quinone oxidoreductase genes that encode enzymes to oxidize and assimilate sulfide.<ref name=":10" /> These reactions prevent the host from absorbing toxic by-products across the epithelial barrier.
==Sexual dimorphism and life cycle== Osedax males are notably smaller than their female counterparts. Between 50 and 100 microscopic dwarf males live inside the tube surrounding a single female and never develop past the larval stage; they produce sperm from yolk reserves.<ref name=":5" /> Male dwarfism prevents competition with female ''Osedax'' worms for food and space.<ref name=":5" /> Conditions that favour dwarfism in male Osedax are: # Eliminates competition between male and female ''Osedax'' as resources are limited,<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Trivers |first=Robert L. |date=1974-11-08 |title=Sexuality: Costs and Benefits: ''The Economy of Nature and the Evolution of Sex'' . Michael T. Ghiselin. University of California Press,. Berkeley,. 1974. xii, 346 pp. $12.95. |journal=Science |volume=186 |issue=4163 |pages=525–526 |doi=10.1126/science.186.4163.525 |issn=0036-8075}}</ref> # Sessile lifestyle: attach to and rely on females for food,<ref name=":6" /> # Decreases difficulty in finding a mate.<ref name=":6" />
Interestingly, ''Osedax priapus'' lack the frequently observed male dwarfism. Males live freely and compete for space and food with females. Being larger, they produce and carry more sperm. However, sexual size dimorphism is still observed in ''O. priapus'': most males are one-third the volume of females.<ref name=":5" />
Annelid sex is typically determined by genetic factors,<ref name=":5" /> however models of environmental sex determination have been proposed for ''Osedax'', in which larvae that settle on bones mature into females, while larvae that settle on female ''Osedax'' do not fully develop and mature into males.<ref name=":14">{{Cite journal |last1=Rouse |first1=G. W. |last2=Goffredi |first2=S. K. |last3=Vrijenhoek |first3=R. C. |date=2004-07-30 |title=''Osedax'': Bone-Eating Marine Worms with Dwarf Males |journal=Science |volume=305 |issue=5684 |pages=668–671 |doi=10.1126/science.1098650 |pmid=15286372 |bibcode=2004Sci...305..668R |issn=0036-8075}}</ref> ''Osedax japonicus'' in particular has showcased an environmental form of sex determination.<ref name=":5" />
=== Life cycle === Female ''Osedax'' worms have been observed spawning both in the wild and in laboratory aquaria.<ref name=":5" /> ''Osedax rubiplumus'' can spawn hundreds of oocytes at a time. They are already fertilized when they are released from the female worm. The worms' endosymbionts, species of bacteria in the order Oceanospirillales, were not observed in the spawned oocytes, which suggests that they are acquired after the worms settle on the bones.<ref name=":5" /> ''Osedax'' appears to be highly fecund and reproduces continuously. * Mature female ''Osedax'' worms spawn eggs into the mucus attached to their tubes, where the embryos develop for 3 days. * Larvae then begin to swim in the water column. This is called the trochophore stage. The larvae settle on whale bones and begin crawling. * During the trocophore stage, male ''Osedax'' settle on the tubes of the females, where they are metamorphosed into dwarf males, which can be inside or outside the female tube. * 1 day after settling on bones, larvae use two pairs of chaetae to attach to the substrate. Juvenile worms begin to secrete mucus and develop two ventral palps on the dorsal side of the prostomium. * 2 days after settling, the palps elongate and the heart starts to beat. The roots attach to the bones begin to digest. * 4 days after settling, the trunk and ventral palps elongate, where symbiotic bacteria are detected in the root. * 7 days after settlement, pinnules extend from the ventral palps. * 10 days post settlement, the juvenile worms have 4 palps with pinnules, an oviduct, and a distinct root system.<ref name=":5" />
==Ecology== [[File:Osedax frankpressi.jpg|thumb|''Osedax frankpressi'']] When initially discovered, some scientists proposed that ''Osedax'' was a whale-bone specialist<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Glover |first1=Adrian G |last2=Kemp |first2=Kirsty M |last3=Smith |first3=Craig R |last4=Dahlgren |first4=Thomas G |date=2008-09-07 |title=On the role of bone-eating worms in the degradation of marine vertebrate remains |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=275 |issue=1646 |pages=1959–1961 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2008.0177 |issn=0962-8452 |pmc=2596369 |pmid=18505721 |bibcode=2008PBioS.275.1959G }}</ref>, a notion later disproven by the discovery of ''Osedax'' on a variety of skeletal substrates including bone fragments<ref name=":13" />, teleost bones<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":13" />, shark teeth<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Collareta |first1=Alberto |last2=Mezzasalma |first2=Ottavia |last3=Agresti |first3=Juri |last4=Barucci |first4=Andrea |last5=Bosio |first5=Giulia |last6=Mulè |first6=Federica |last7=Casati |first7=Simone |last8=Cencio |first8=Andrea Di |last9=Bianucci |first9=Giovanni |last10=Pieri |first10=Alice |last11=Nobile |first11=Francesco |date=2025-11-05 |title=Trace fossil evidence for Osedax Rouse et al., 2004 exploiting shark tooth dentine on a Pliocene seafloor: broadening our understanding of a major taphonomic agent |url=https://fr.pensoft.net/article/167615/ |journal=Fossil Record |language=en |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=359–375 |doi=10.3897/fr.28.167615 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2025FossR..28..359C |issn=2193-0074|hdl=11568/1333472 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rouse |first1=Greg W. |last2=Goffredi |first2=Shana K. |date=January 2023 |title=Osedax (Siboglinidae: Annelida) utilizes shark teeth for nutrition |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-marine-biological-association-of-the-united-kingdom/article/osedax-siboglinidae-annelida-utilizes-shark-teeth-for-nutrition/C5CC1EF4D2D9B298D05978D75FE1DBF0 |journal=Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom |language=en |volume=103 |article-number=e35 |doi=10.1017/S0025315423000243 |bibcode=2023JMBUK.103E..35R |issn=0025-3154|doi-access=free }}</ref>, reptile<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=McClain |first1=Craig Robert |last2=Nunnally |first2=Clifton |last3=Dixon |first3=River |last4=Rouse |first4=Greg W. |last5=Benfield |first5=Mark |date=2019-12-20 |editor-last=Duperron |editor-first=Sébastien |title=Alligators in the abyss: The first experimental reptilian food fall in the deep ocean |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=14 |issue=12 |bibcode=2019PLoSO..1425345M |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0225345 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=6924670 |pmid=31860642 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0225345}}</ref> and bird skeletons<ref name=":7">{{cite journal |last1=Kiel |first1=Steffen |last2=Kahl |first2=Wolf-Achim |last3=Goedert |first3=James L. |year=2010 |title=Osedax borings in fossil marine bird bones |journal=Naturwissenschaften |volume=98 |issue=1 |pages=51–55 |doi=10.1007/s00114-010-0740-5 |pmc=3018246 |pmid=21103978}}</ref><ref name=":13" />, pinniped bones<ref name=":13" />, experimentally placed cow bones<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=William J |last2=Johnson |first2=Shannon B |last3=Rouse |first3=Greg W |last4=Vrijenhoek |first4=Robert C |date=2008-02-22 |title=Marine worms (genus Osedax ) colonize cow bones |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=275 |issue=1633 |pages=387–391 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2007.1437 |issn=0962-8452 |pmc=2596828 |pmid=18077256 |bibcode=2008PBioS.275..387J }}</ref>, and even human remains<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Caccia |first1=Giulia |last2=Caccianiga |first2=Marco |last3=Mazzarelli |first3=Debora |last4=Piegari |first4=Giuseppe |last5=Paciello |first5=Orlando |last6=Campobasso |first6=Carlo Pietro |last7=Cattaneo |first7=Cristina |date=2025-07-17 |title=Bioerosion of human bones in the Mediterranean Sea: could it be Osedax? |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/00450618.2025.2532406 |journal=Australian Journal of Forensic Sciences |volume=0 |pages=1–16 |doi=10.1080/00450618.2025.2532406 |issn=0045-0618|url-access=subscription }}</ref>. Multiple species of ''Osedax'' can co-exist in close proximity, even on the same bone.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Higgs |first1=Nicholas D. |last2=Glover |first2=Adrian G. |last3=Dahlgren |first3=Thomas G. |last4=Smith |first4=Craig R. |last5=Fujiwara |first5=Yoshihiro |last6=Pradillon |first6=Florence |last7=Johnson |first7=Shannon B. |last8=Vrijenhoek |first8=Robert C. |last9=Little |first9=Crispin T. S. |date=2014 |title=The morphological diversity of Osedax worm borings (Annelida: Siboglinidae) |url=http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/82860/1/Higgs%202014%20Journal%20of%20the%20Marine%20Biological%20Association%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom.pdf |journal=Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom |volume=94 |issue=7 |pages=1429–1439 |bibcode=2014JMBUK..94.1429H |doi=10.1017/S0025315414000770 |s2cid=52246559}}</ref><ref name=":13" />
''Osedax'' and their borings enhance local biodiversity by dissolving the tough external cortical bone and tunneling through their internal layers, increasing structural complexity and providing new regions for microfauna to colonize.<ref name=":15" /> As such, ''Osedax'' are considered ecosystem engineers. However, these borings compromise the structural integrity of the bones, causing them to collapse after extensive boring, rendering these new habitats temporary.<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal|last1=Alfaro-Lucas|first1=Joan M.|last2=Shimabukuro|first2=Maurício|last3=Ferreira|first3=Giulia D.|last4=Kitazato|first4=Hiroshi|last5=Fujiwara|first5=Yoshihiro|last6=Sumida|first6=Paulo Y.G.|date=December 2017|title=Bone-eating Osedax worms (Annelida: Siboglinidae) regulate biodiversity of deep-sea whale-fall communities|journal=Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography|language=en|volume=146|pages=4–12|doi=10.1016/j.dsr2.2017.04.011|bibcode=2017DSRII.146....4A}}</ref> The role of ''Osedax'' in the degradation of marine vertebrate remains is important to marine vertebrate taphonomy.
== Evolution == The oldest trace fossils on bones characteristic of ''Osedax'' are from a plesiosaur humerus from the Cambridge Greensand, England, likely reworked from late Albian (c. 100 million years old) sediments and a rib and costal plate from a sea turtle found in Cenomanian (100–93 million years ago) aged sediments of the Chalk Group, England.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Danise|first1=Silvia|last2=Higgs|first2=Nicholas D.|date=April 2015|title=Bone-eating Osedax worms lived on Mesozoic marine reptile deadfalls|url= |journal=Biology Letters|language=en|volume=11|issue=4|article-number=20150072|doi=10.1098/rsbl.2015.0072|issn=1744-9561|pmc=4424620|pmid=25878047 |bibcode=2015BiLet..1150072D }}</ref> Further material is known from the Campanian and Maastrichtian.<ref name="JamisonToddetal2020">{{cite journal |last1=Jamison-Todd |first1=Sarah |last2=Mannion |first2=Philip D. |last3=Glover |first3=Adrian D. |last4=Upchurch |first4=Paul |year=2024 |title=New occurrences of the bone-eating worm Osedax from Late Cretaceous marine reptiles and implications for its biogeography and diversification |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B |volume=291 |issue=2020 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2023.2830 |pmc=11003772 |pmid=38593847 |article-number=20232830}}</ref> Following the extinction of almost all large marine reptiles at the end of the Cretaceous, ''Osedax'' likely persisted on the bones of sea turtles, marine birds, and fish.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kiel |first1=Steffen |last2=Kahl |first2=Wolf-Achim |last3=Goedert |first3=James L. |title=Traces of the bone-eating annelid Osedax in Oligocene whale teeth and fish bones |journal=Paläontologische Zeitschrift |date=March 2013 |volume=87 |issue=1 |pages=161–167 |doi=10.1007/s12542-012-0158-9 |language=en |issn=0031-0220|doi-access=free |bibcode=2013PalZ...87..161K }}</ref>
==Species== [[File:Osedax rubiplumus.jpg|thumb|''Osedax rubiplumus'']] Selected species:<ref>[http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=265008 WoRMS, Genus Osedax]</ref><ref name=":13">{{cite journal |last1=Rouse |first1=Greg W. |last2=Goffredi |first2=Shana K. |last3=Johnson |first3=Shannon B. |last4=Vrijenhoek |first4=Robert C. |title=An inordinate fondness for Osedax (Siboglinidae: Annelida): Fourteen new species of bone worms from California |journal=Zootaxa |date=February 5, 2018 |volume=4377 |issue=4 |pages=451–489 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.4377.4.1|pmid=29690036 |s2cid=13854107 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018Zoot.43777.4.1R }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fujiwara |first1=Yoshihiro |last2=Jimi |first2=Naoto |last3=Sumida |first3=Paulo Y. G. |last4=Kawato |first4=Masaru |last5=Kitazato |first5=Hiroshi |title=New species of bone-eating worm Osedax from the abyssal South Atlantic Ocean (Annelida, Siboglinidae) |journal=ZooKeys |date=August 1, 2019 |issue=814 |pages=53–69 |doi=10.3897/zookeys.814.28869|pmid=30651712 |pmc=6333729 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019ZooK..814...53F }}</ref><ref>Fujikura, Fujiwara & Kawato. Zoological Science 23: 733–740 (2006)</ref> * ''Osedax antarcticus'' <small>Glover, Wiklund & Dahlgren, 2013</small> * ''Osedax bozoi'' <small>Berman, Hiley, Read & Rouse, 2024</small> * ''Osedax braziliensis'' <small>Fujiwara, Jimi, Sumida, Kawato, Kitazato</small> * ''Osedax bryani'' <small>Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek</small> * ''Osedax byronbayensis'' <small>Georgieva, Wiklund, Ramos, Neal, Glasby & Gunton, 2023</small> * ''Osedax craigmcclaini'' <small>Berman, Hiley, Read, Rouse, 2024</small> * ''Osedax crouchi'' <small>Amon, Wiklund, Dahlgren, Copley, Smith, Jamieson & Glover, 2014</small> * ''Osedax deceptionensis'' <small>Taboada, Cristobo, Avila, Wiklund & Glover, 2013</small> * ''Osedax docricketts'' <small>Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek</small> * ''Osedax estcourti'' <small>Berman, Hiley, Read & Rouse, 2024</small> * ''Osedax fenrisi'' <small>Eilertsen, Dahlgren & Rapp, 2020</small> * ''Osedax frankpressi'' <small>Rouse, Goffredi & Vrijenhoek, 2004</small> * ''Osedax jabba'' <small>Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek</small> * ''Osedax japonicus'' <small>Fujikura, Fujiwara & Kawato, 2006</small> * ''Osedax knutei'' <small>Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek</small> * ''Osedax lehmani'' <small>Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek</small> * ''Osedax lonnyi'' <small>Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek</small> * ''Osedax mucofloris'' <small>Glover, Kallstrom, Smith & Dahlgren, 2005</small> * ''Osedax nataliae'' <small>Gularte, Sumida, Bergamo & Rouse, 2024</small> * ''Osedax nordenskjoeldi'' <small>Amon, Wiklund, Dahlgren, Copley, Smith, Jamieson & Glover, 2014</small> * ''Osedax priapus'' <small>Rouse et al., 2014</small> * ''Osedax packardorum'' <small>Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek</small> * ''Osedax randyi'' <small>Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek</small> * ''Osedax rogersi'' <small>Amon, Wiklund, Dahlgren, Copley, Smith, Jamieson & Glover, 2014</small> * ''Osedax roseus'' <small>Rouse, Worsaae, Johnson, Jones & Vrijenhoek, 2008</small> * ''Osedax rubiplumus'' <small>Rouse, Goffredi & Vrijenhoek, 2004</small> * ''Osedax ryderi'' <small>Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek</small> * ''Osedax sigridae'' <small>Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek</small> * ''Osedax talkovici'' <small>Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek</small> * ''Osedax tiburon'' <small>Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek</small> * ''Osedax traceyae'' <small>Berman, Hiley, Read & Rouse, 2024</small> * ''Osedax ventana'' <small>Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek</small> * ''Osedax waadjum'' <small>Georgieva, Wiklund, Ramos, Neal, Glasby & Gunton, 2023</small> * ''Osedax westernflyer'' <small>Rouse, Goffredi, Johnson & Vrijenhoek</small>
== <small>References</small> == {{Reflist|30em}} *
== External links == {{Commons category}} {{Wikispecies}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20040805034842/http://www.mbari.org/news/news_releases/2004/whalefall.html Press release describing discovery of ''Osedax''] * [https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4354286.stm BBC website] – link to story about discovery of ''Osedax'' worms in the North Sea * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091114064117/http://www.mbari.org/news/news_releases/2009/osedax-spp/osedax-spp-release.html A Motley Collection of Boneworms – Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute] * [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/aug/22/discovered-in-the-deep-the-worm-that-eats-bones-osedax Discovered in the deep: the worm that eats bones] – The Guardian
{{Taxonbar|from=Q287253}} Category:Sabellida Category:Polychaete genera Category:Polychaetes Category:Carcass-fall taxa Category:Necrophages