Mianguan

{{Short description|Type of crown with a flat top worn in East Asia}} {{italic title}} {{More citations needed|date=January 2022}}  [[File:Chinese Imperial Mian, Dingling.jpg|thumb|A {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}} in the Ding Ling Tomb Museum within the Ming Tombs]]

The '''{{transliteration|zh|mianguan}}''' ({{Zh|c=冕冠|p=miǎnguān|l=ceremonial headdress}}), also called '''{{transliteration|ja|benkan}}''' in Japan, '''{{transliteration|ko|myeonlyugwan}}''' in Korea, and '''{{lang|vi|Miện quan}}''' in Vietnam, is a type of crown traditionally worn by the emperors of China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, as well as other kings in East Asia.<ref>{{Cite web|last=字通,世界大百科事典内言及|first=精選版日本国語大辞典,ブリタニカ国際大百科事典小項目事典,デジタル大辞泉,普及版|title=冕冠とは|url=https://kotobank.jp/word/%E5%86%95%E5%86%A0-131094|access-date=2022-01-18|website=コトバンク|language=ja}}</ref>

Originating in China, the {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}} was worn by the emperor, his ministers,<ref name="hua-2011a">{{Cite book|last=Hua|first=Mei|title=Chinese clothing|date=2011|isbn=978-0-521-18689-6|edition=Updated|location=Cambridge, United Kingdom|pages=54|oclc=781020660}}</ref> and aristocrats.<ref name="china-books-periodicals-1987a">{{Cite book|title=5000 years of Chinese costumes|date=1987|publisher=China Books & Periodicals|others=Xun Zhou, Chunming Gao, 周汛, Shanghai Shi xi qu xue xiao. Zhongguo fu zhuang shi yan jiu zu|isbn=0-8351-1822-3|location=San Francisco, CA|pages=32, 34|oclc=19814728}}</ref> The ''mianguan'' was the most expensive Chinese headware, reserved for important sacrificial events.<ref name="hua-2011a" /> Regulations on its shape and its making were issued under the Eastern Han dynasty and applied in the succeeding dynasties only to be ended at the fall of the Ming dynasty in the 16th century AD.<ref name="hua-2011a" />

In Japan, emperors and nobles wore gold, silver, and gilt-bronze crowns, influenced by the Korean peninsula,{{Citation needed|date=September 2025}} from the Kofun period (mid 3rd century-7th century). In the 8th century, influenced by the Chinese ''mianguan'', the unique ''benkan'' was born, a metal crown with chains and a sun-shaped ornament at the top.<ref name = "Hachijo2021">{{Cite book |last = Hachijo |first = Tadatomo |title = 日本の装束解剖図鑑 |trans-title = Anatomy Illustrated Book of Japanese Costumes |publisher = X-Knowledge |date = 2021-03-09 |isbn = 978-4767828619 |pages = 14–15 |language =ja }}</ref>

It is also worn in Vietnam,{{efn|The crown of the emperor during the Nguyễn dynasty is housed in the Vietnam National Museum of History.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kyuhaku.com/pr/exhibition/exhibition_s31.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130328105009/http://www.kyuhaku.com/pr/exhibition/exhibition_s31.html |publisher=Kyushu National Museum |title=Special Exhibition "The Great Vietnam Exhibition" |access-date=2013-05-12 |archive-date=2013-03-28 |quote=Successive Emperors of the Nguyen Dynasty wore a crown called a Benkan, which had a rectangular plate on top of its head and twelve [strings] of colorful beads lined up [on a] red string in the front and back [each]. |language=ja}}</ref>}} and the monarchs of the Joseon dynasty also wore an equivalent crown, the {{transliteration|ko|myeonlyugwan}}.

== {{transliteration|zh|Mianguan}} (China) == [[File:Crown, Tomb of Ming Prince Zhu Tan (10144959305).jpg|thumb|''Mianguan'' from the tomb of Ming dynasty prince Zhu Tan, 10th son of the Hongwu Emperor]] thumb|Tracing of figure wearing ''mianguan'' in Yinan Tomb stone-relief in Shandong Province. Among all the type of Chinese headwear, the {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}} was the most expensive type; it was reserved especially for important sacrificial events.<ref name="hua-2011a" />

The {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}} and the {{transliteration|zh|mianfu}} were worn beginning in the Zhou dynasty, based on the ceremonial and ritual-culture of Zhou that prescribes which types of clothing and accessories could be worn by the different social ranks and during different occasions.<ref name="xie-2019a">{{Cite book |last1=Xie |first1=Hong |last2=Yan |first2=Lan-Lan |title=Proceedings of the 4th Annual International Conference on Social Science and Contemporary Humanity Development (SSCHD 2018) |chapter=To Explore the Changes in Dress System Affected by Imperial Politics Thinking during Sui and Tang Dynasties |date=2019 |url=https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/sschd-18/55912237 |language=en |publisher=Atlantis Press |pages=26–30 |doi=10.2991/sschd-18.2019.5 |isbn=978-94-6252-659-4|s2cid=159383691 }}</ref>

===Zhou dynasty=== In the ''Rites of Zhou'', there is a description of the ceremonial dress and crowns worn by the kings of the Zhou dynasty. According to the description, kings had six types of ceremonial dress ({{lang|zh|六冕}}, {{lit|six ''mian''|lk=yes}}) according to their rituals, all of which were worn with a ''mian'' ({{lang|zh|冕}}, {{lit|crown|lk=yes}}).<ref>{{Cite wikisource|title=周禮|trans-title=Rites of Zhou|chapter = 春官宗伯|trans-chapter=Offices of Spring|wslanguage=zh}}</ref> At that time, it was still called simply ''mian'', not ''mianguan''.

In addition, the ''mian'' was also worn by the various lords, such as dukes, marquises, counts, viscounts, and barons, as well as ''hú'' ({{lang|zh|狐}}, ministerial class), ''qīng'' ({{lang|zh|卿}}, {{lit|senior officials}}), and ''daiyus''.<ref>{{Cite wikisource|last1=Zheng|first1=Xuan|last2=Sun|first2=Yirang|title=周禮正義|trans-title=Zhouli Zhengyi|chapter = 40 |wslanguage=zh}}</ref>

The ''Book of Rites'' also has the following description of the ''mian'':

{{Quotation|The king's ''yùzǎo'' has twelve chains hanging from the front and back of the ''yán'', and his ceremonial robe has dragon patterns on it, which he wears to worship.<ref>{{Cite wikisource|title=禮記|trans-title=Book of Rites|chapter = 玉藻|trans-chapter=Yùzǎo| |wslanguage=zh}}</ref>}}

Here the king's crown is called a ''yùzǎo'' ({{lang|zh|玉藻}}, {{lit|jade and thread}}), not a ''mian'' ({{lang|zh|冕}}).

The word ''zǎo'' ({{lang|zh|藻}}, {{lit|thread}}) means silk thread, which is threaded through a jade bead to make a chain. The chains are then attached to the crown, which is why it is called a ''yùzǎo''. At the top of the ''yùzǎo'' is a board called a ''yán'' ({{lang|zh|延}}, {{lit|extension|lk=yes}}), from the front and back ends of which hang 12 chains each, or 24 chains in total.

However, the color of the jade and the color and length of the silk threads are unknown from the description in the ''Book of Rite''s alone. A commentary on the ''Book of Rite'' is the ''Right Meaning of the Ritual Records'' ({{lang|zh|禮記正義}}, {{lang|zh-Latn|Lǐjì Zhèngyì}}).

Zheng Xuan's commentary in this book states that the silk threads were of various colors, that the silk threads of the king's ''mian'' were of five colors, and that their length was long enough to reach the king's shoulders. However, the color of the jade is not mentioned.

On the other hand, according to the commentary by Kong Yingda (574 – 648) in the same book, the beads of the king's ''mian'' are five colors (from top to bottom: vermillion, white, blue, yellow, and black), and the distance between each jade is 1 ''cun'' (about 3 cm).{{efn|The length of the ''cun'' varied from period to period, but in the Tang dynasty, one ''cun'' was about 3 cm.}} This combination is one set (6 ''cun'', about 18 cm), and the length of the chain is two sets, thus the length of the chain of the king's ''mian'' is about 36 cm.

Both Zheng Xuan nor Kong Yingda's commentaries are likely conceptual, based on Confucian principles rather than known excavated or physical examples of ''mianguan'' during the Zhou dynasty.

===Qin dynasty=== Qin Shi Huang abolished the six types of ceremonial dress of the Zhou dynasty and replaced them with an all-black ceremonial dress called the ''junxuan'' ({{lang|zh|袀玄}}).<ref name = "Houhan">{{Cite wikisource|last1=Fan|first1=Ye|last2=Sima|first2=Biao|title=後漢書|trans-title=Book of the Later Han|chapter = 卷120|trans-chapter=vol. 20 |wslanguage=zh}}</ref>{{efn|The original source is "秦以戰國即天子位，滅去禮學，郊祀之服皆以袀玄。漢承秦故。” “顯宗遂就大業，初服旒冕，衣裳文章，赤舄絇屨，以祠天地。"}} However, the exact details of the ''junxuan'', including the crown, are unknown.

===Han dynasty=== [[File:Changguan of Hatted man male figurine, Han dynasty, Hunan Museum2.jpg|thumb|alt=Figure wearing a chángguān, excavated from the Mawangdui, Western Han, 2nd century BC.|Figure wearing a ''chángguān'', excavated from the Mawangdui, Western Han, 2nd century BC.]] In the Western Han dynasty, there was a crown called ''chángguān'' ({{lang|zh|長冠}}) or ''zhāiguān'' ({{lang|zh|齋冠}}). The origin of the ''chángguān'' is the so-called "Liu's crown" ({{lang|zh|劉氏冠}}), which Liu Bang had made from bamboo bark when he was chief of a post, and later wore even after he reached a high rank.<ref>{{Cite wikisource|last= Sima|first=Qian|title=史記|trans-title=Records of the Grand Historian|chapter=卷008|trans-chapter=vol. 008|wslanguage=zh}}</ref>

The Qin dynasty ''junxuan'' was continued to be worn by emperors of the Han dynasty, until the ''mianfu'' was formally restored during the reign of Emperor Ming (reigned 57 - 75) in the Eastern Han dynasty.

According to the ''Book of the Later Han,'' the extension (board) at the top of the revived ''mianguan'' was 7 ''cun'' wide and 1.2 ''chi'' long, with a rounded front edge and a square back edge, and the surface of the extension was black and the reverse side was red and green.<ref name = "Houhan" />

The length of the chain hanging from the extension was 4 ''cun'' in the front and 3 ''cun'' in the back. The color and number of chains were as follows: 12 chains of white jade for the emperor, 7 chains of blue jade for the three dukes and lords, and 5 chains of black jade for high-ranking officials. However, the three dukes and below had only front chains and no back chains.

thumb|alt=Emperor Yuan of the Western Han dynasty. From the Admonitions Scroll.|Emperor Yuan of the Western Han dynasty. From the ''Admonitions Scroll''. According to the ''Duduan'' ({{lang|zh|獨斷}}) by Cai Yong (132 - 192) of the Eastern Han dynasty, the number of white jade per chain on the ''mianguan'' of the reestablished emperors was only one at the bottom end of the chain.<ref>{{Cite wikisource|last=Cai|first=Yong|title=獨斷|trans-title=Duduan|wslanguage=zh}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last = Harada |first = Yoshito |title = 漢六朝の服飾 |trans-title = Dress of the Han Six Dynasties |publisher = Toyo Bunko |date = September 1967 |page = 74 |url = https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/3454230 |doi = 10.11501/3454230 |language = ja}}</ref>{{efn|The original text is "係白玉珠於其端."}}

Indeed, the ''mianguan'' of the emperors depicted in the ''Thirteen Emperors Scroll'' by Yan Liben, which depicts emperors from the Eastern Han to the Sui dynasty, have only one white jade at the bottom end of the chain. Also, earplugs, called ''tǒukuàng'' ({{lang|zh|黈纊}}) also hung down from the crown. This is also depicted in the ''Thirteen Emperors Scroll''.

In Gu Kaizhi's ''Admonitions Scroll'', Emperor Yuan of the Western Han dynasty is depicted, and the crown he wears is thought to be the ''tongtianguan'' ({{lang|zh|通天冠}}, {{lit|crown that reaches to the heavens|lk=yes}}).<ref>{{Cite book |last = Harada |first = Yoshito |title = 漢六朝の服飾 |trans-title = Dress of the Han Six Dynasties |publisher = Toyo Bunko |date = September 1967 |page = 105-106 |url = https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/3454230 |doi = 10.11501/3454230 |language = ja}}</ref> According to the ''Book of Later Han'', the ''tongtianguan'' was a crown usually worn by emperors.<ref name = "Houhan" /> Also, according to the book, it is stated that Emperor Ming was the first to wear a ''tongtianguan'',<ref>{{Cite wikisource|last1=Fan|first1=Ye|last2=Sima|first2=Biao|title=後漢書|trans-title=Book of the Later Han|chapter = 卷79上|trans-chapter=vol. 79-1|wslanguage=zh}}</ref> so it is thought that the ''tongtianguan'' actually came into use in the Eastern Han dynasty, though sources such as the Book of Jin claims its origin to be from the Qin dynasty.<ref name = "Jin">{{Cite wikisource|last=Fang|first=Xuanling|title=晉書|trans-title=Book of Jin|chapter = 卷025|trans-chapter=vol. 025|wslanguage=zh}}</ref>

===Cao Wei dynasty=== According to the ''Book of Jin'', Cao Rui, the second emperor of the Cao Wei dynasty, was fond of women's ornaments and changed the white jade beads in the chains to coral beads.<ref name = "Jin">{{Cite wikisource|last=Fang|first=Xuanling|title=晉書|trans-title=Book of Jin|chapter = 卷025|trans-chapter=vol. 025|wslanguage=zh}}</ref>

===Jin dynasty=== The dress system of the Jin dynasty basically followed that of the Eastern Han dynasty, but changes were made to the ''mianguan''. According to the ''Book of Jin'', a ''tongtianguan'' was worn over a black cape, and a ''mianguan'', called a ''píngmiǎn'' ({{lang|zh|平冕}}, {{lit|flat ''mianguan''|lk=yes}}), was placed over the ''tongtianguan''. In the Eastern Han dynasty, the crown was an integral part of the cap and the extension (board), but in the Jin dynasty, it is thought that the crown was changed to a detachable type, with the extension of the ''mianguan'' placed on top of the ''tongtianguan'', which was worn daily, at special occasions.<ref>{{Cite book |last = Harada |first = Yoshito |title = 漢六朝の服飾 |trans-title = Dress of the Han Six Dynasties |publisher = Toyo Bunko |date = September 1967 |page = 99 |url = https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/3454230 |doi = 10.11501/3454230 |language = ja}}</ref>

The extension was 7 ''cun'' wide and 1.2 ''chi'' long, black on the surface and vermilion-green on the reverse, rounded at the front and angular at the rear.

The chain beads initially followed the Cao Wei system and were made of jade and coral in various colors, but Gu He ({{lang|zh|顧和}}, 288 - 351) advised the emperor to return to the white jade beads of the Eastern Han dynasty. The number of chains on an emperor's ''mianguan'' was 12.

''Píngmiǎn'' were also used by royalty, dukes, and lords. The number of chains was 8 for royalty and dukes and 7 for lords.

===Liang dynasty=== In the Liang dynasty, as in the Jin dynasty, the ''mianguan'' consisted of a black cape, over which was placed the ''tongtianguan'', and over this was placed the ''píngmiǎn''. This was commonly known as the ''píngtiānguān'' ({{lang|zh|平天冠}}, {{lit|flat crown of heaven|lk=yes}}).<ref name = "Sui">{{Cite wikisource|last=Wei|first=Zheng|title=隋書|trans-title=Book of Sui|chapter = 卷11|trans-chapter=vol. 11|wslanguage=zh}}</ref> The emperor's ''píngtiānguān'' had 12 chains made of white jade beads, with the chains 4 ''cun'' long in the front and 3 ''cun'' long in the back. On each side of the crown hung an ornament resembling earplugs made of jade.

In 508, Emperor Wu of Liang (reigned 502 - 549) reestablished the ''dàqiúmiǎn'' ({{lang|zh|大裘冕}}, {{lit|great fur ''mian'' crown|lk=yes}}), the highest of the six crowns mentioned in the ''Rites of Zhou''. Although ''qiú'' ({{lang|zh|裘}}) refers to sheep's fur, the ''dàqiúmiǎn'''s ceremonial dress was black silk for the upper garment and red for the lower garment, both without patterns or embroidery. The ''mianguan'' had no chains.<ref name = "Sui" />

===Sui dynasty===

[[File:Liu Bei Tang-detail.jpg|thumb|Tang dynasty painting of Liu Bei of Shu wearing the {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}}]] Emperor Wen (reigned 581 - 604) of the Sui dynasty, in reference to the appearance of the red sparrow, a sign of good omen, when he received a mandate from heaven, changed the color of the imperial robes worn at court to red, while the ''gǔnmiǎn'' ({{lang|zh|袞冕}}, imperial dress with dragons and ''mianguan'') worn at rituals remained unchanged.<ref name = "Sui" /> The ''mianguan'' was black with 12 chains of white jade beads, chinstrap, ''tǒukuàng'' (an ornament resembling earplugs), and hairpin. The emperor's costume was black for the upper garment and red for the lower garment.

In 605, Emperor Yang (reigned 604 - 618) established the ''dàqiúmiǎn'' (supreme ceremonial dress of the emperor), just as the Liang dynasty had done. The upper extension of the ''mianguan'' was blue on the surface and vermilion on the reverse side, and did not have chains and earplugs attached.<ref name = "Sui" />

===Ming dynasty=== The basic shape of the {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}} remained the same from ancient times to the Ming dynasty. The crown worn by the Ming dynasty's Wanli Emperor has been excavated from the Dingling Mausoleum, while the painting "Illustrated Scrolls of the Emperors of the dynasties" by {{transliteration|zh|Yan Liben}} depicted emperors from the Former Han dynasty to the Sui dynasty, whose {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}} was almost the same shape as the crown depicted, with minor differences in decoration.

<gallery> File:Chinese Imperial Mian, Dingling.jpg|{{transliteration|zh|Mianguan}} excavated from the mausoleum of the Wanli Emperor during the Ming dynasty File:Wanli-Emperor.jpg|The {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}} of the Wanli Emperor. He is wearing the same {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}} as the {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}} in the left picture. </gallery>

Many of the non-Han Chinese dynasties that ruled China also adopted the {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}}. (Liao, which did not adopt the ritual system of the Han dynasty, and Yuan, which is considered to have a strong Mongolian flavor, also adopted the {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}}.){{Citation needed|date=February 2022}}

Manchu {{transliteration|mnc|mahala}} crown

The {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}} stopped being used in China since the fall of the Ming dynasty<ref name="hua-2011a" /> and the establishment of the Qing dynasty by the Manchu. Instead, a unique Manchu crown called the 'morning crown' ({{transliteration|mnc|mahala}} in Manchu) was used. The Manchu crown was shaped like an umbrella, and the top of the crown was decorated with a special pearl-encrusted ornament called the morning pearl.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}}

== Benkan (Japan) == {{main|Benkan}} [[File:Benkan Kōmei Tennō.jpg|thumb|alt=Benkan of Emperor Kōmei (1831-1867)|Benkan of Emperor Kōmei]]

The {{nihongo||冕冠|benkan|{{lit|crown|lk=yes}}}} is a type of crown traditionally worn by Japanese emperors and crown princes. It is also called {{nihongo||玉乃冠|tama no kōburi|{{lit|jeweled crown|lk=yes}}}}.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Minamoto no|first=Shitagō|title=和名類聚抄 |trans-title = Wamyō Ruijushō |volume = 20|publisher=Nawa Dō'en|date=1617|url = https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/2544221/1/38 |doi = 10.11501/2544221 |doi-access = free |page = 38 |language = ja}}</ref>

In ancient Japan, emperors and nobles wore metal crowns made of gold, silver, and gilt bronze under the influence of the Korean Peninsula.{{Citation needed|date=September 2025}} In the 8th century, emperors and crown princes began to wear ''benkan'' with chains attached to the metal crown, influenced by the Chinese {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}}.<ref>{{Cite book|editor-last=Saeki|editor-first=Ariyoshi|title=六国史|trans-title = Rikkokushi |volume=3|publisher=The Asahi Shimbun|date=1929|page=236 |url = https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1919014/1/141 |doi = 10.11501/1919014 |doi-access = free |language = ja |author1=佐伯, 有義, 1867-1945 }}</ref> Furthermore, a sun-shaped ornament was added to the top of the ''benkan'', giving birth to a uniquely Japanese crown.

Since then, the ''benkan'' was worn along with a ceremonial dress called ''kon'e'' for accession and ''chōga'' ({{lang|ja|朝賀}}, New Year's greetings) ceremonies, but it was last worn for the accession ceremony of Emperor Kōmei (1831-1867) in 1847, and has not been worn since.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Takeda|first1=Sachiko|last2=Tsuda|first2=Daisuke|title=礼服―天皇即位儀礼や元旦の儀の花の装い― |trans-title = Ceremonial Dress: floral attire for the emperor's accession ceremony and New Year's Day ceremony|publisher=Osaka University Press|date=2016-08-20|isbn=978-4872595512|page = 330 |language = ja}}</ref>

In addition to ''benkan'' for the emperor, there is {{nihongo||宝冠|hōkan|{{lit|precious crown|lk=yes}}}} for the female emperor and {{nihongo||日形冠|nikkeikan|{{lit|crown in the shape of the sun}}}} for the infant emperor, each of which has a distinctive shape.<ref name = "Saikyu1932">{{Cite book|editor-last = Kondo |editor-first = Heijo |title = 史籍集覧編外 (西宮記) |trans-title = Additional volume of the Historic Collection: Saikyū-ki |publisher = Kondo Publishing Division |date = 1932 |page = 499 |url = https://dl.ndl.go.jp/pid/1071721/1/251 |doi = 10.11501/1071721 |doi-access = free |language = ja |version = 3 |author1 = 近藤, 瓶城, 1832-1901 }}</ref>

The ''benkan'', ''hōkan'', and ''nikkeikan'' crowns made in the Edo period (1603-1867) each have survived, but as {{nihongo|imperial treasures|御物}}, these are not usually shown to the public. However, they are occasionally shown to the public to commemorate accession ceremonies.

== {{lang|vi|Miện quan}} (Vietnam) == The Chinese-style {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}} was also used in Vietnam, where it was known as the {{lang|vi|miện quan}}.

<gallery> File:Khai Dinh2.jpg|Khải Định of Nguyễn dynasty wearing a garment and {{lang|vi|miện quan}} File:越南阮朝弘宗宣皇帝阮福晙（启定1916年—1925年）31岁登基时的冕服照片（1916年）.jpg|Khải Định of Nguyễn dynasty wearing a {{lang|vi|miện quan}} File:TranhtrieuNguyen1.jpg|Paintings of ''Miện quan'' hats in the Nguyễn dynasty </gallery>

== Construction and design == thumb|{{transliteration|zh|Mianguan}} diagram:{{pb}}{{numbered list|Extension;|{{transliteration|zh|Tianhe}} belt;|Cap and roll;|chains;|Ears;|Tail;|{{transliteration|zh|Wu}} ({{lang|zh|武}});|Jade hairpin}} The {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}} is composed of:

A long, rectangular wooden board called the {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}} board ({{transliteration|zh|yan}} in the Han dynasty)<ref name="china-books-periodicals-1987a" /> was placed on top of the {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}}, with fulls hanging from the front and back of the {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}} board.

In the Han dynasty, the {{transliteration|zh|yan}} was round in the front but flat in the back; it was about {{convert|7|in}} in width and {{convert|1|ft}} in length.<ref name="china-books-periodicals-1987a" /> On both sides of the mianguan, there was a hole where an emerald hairpin could pass through so that the crown could be fastened to the hair bun of its wearer.<ref name="china-books-periodicals-1987a" /> A red band called the {{transliteration|zh|tianhe}} was attached to the centre of the {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}} and wraps around it.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}} The silk cord was tied on one end of the hairpin and would then be tied on the other side of the hairpin passing under the chin.<ref name="china-books-periodicals-1987a" /> There was also a {{transliteration|zh|chong er}} ({{lit|stuffing the ear}}) located on both side of the {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}} around the ear area; the {{transliteration|zh|chong er}} was a pearl or a piece of jade which symbolized that the wearer of {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}} should not believe in any slander.<ref name="china-books-periodicals-1987a" />

The number of chains depended on the status of the wearer, and the {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}} of the emperor had 12 chains at the front and back, for a total of 24 chains.<ref>{{Cite web|title=周礼注疏/卷三十二 - 维基文库，自由的图书馆|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%91%A8%E7%A6%AE%E8%A8%BB%E7%96%8F/%E5%8D%B7%E4%B8%89%E5%8D%81%E4%BA%8C|access-date=2022-01-20|website=zh.wikisource.org|language=zh-Hans}}</ref> The 12 chains dangles down the shoulders and were made of jade beads of multiple colours which would sway with the wearer's movement.<ref name="zhang-2016a">{{Cite book|last=Zhang|first=Fa|title=History and spirit of chinese art. Volume 1, From prehistory to the Tang Dynasty|date=2016|publisher=Silkroad Press|isbn=978-1-62320-126-5|location=Honolulu|pages=13|oclc=933441686}}</ref>

In addition, there was the nine-chained crown, worn by regional lords and the crown prince.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hans/%E5%91%A8%E7%A6%AE%E8%A8%BB%E7%96%8F/%E5%8D%B7%E4%B8%89%E5%8D%81%E4%BA%8C|title=Rites of Zhou|chapter=32|quote=诸侯之缫斿九就...每缫九成，则九旒也。}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hans/%E6%99%89%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7025|title=Book of Jin|chapter=25|quote=皇太子...其侍祀则平冕九旒}}</ref> The eight-chained crown was worn by other princes and dukes.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hans/%E6%99%89%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7025|title=Book of Jin|chapter=25|quote=王公八旒。}}</ref> The {{transliteration|zh|qiliu mian}} ({{lang|zh|七旒冕}}, seven-chained crown) was worn by high-ranking ministers.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hans/%E6%99%89%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7025|title=Book of Jin|chapter=25|quote=卿七旒。}}</ref> The five-chained crown ({{transliteration|zh|wuiu mian}}, {{lang|zh|五旒冕}}) was worn by viscounts and barons.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}} <!-- The following needs rewriting, as I don't know which crown it is referring to:

The material is made of {{transliteration|zh|tung}} board, and the clothes are made of silk, with a rounded front and a square back. One foot two inches wide, two feet four inches long<ref>用周尺</ref>--><!--I can't tell whether the following refers to a Japanese benkan or a Chinese benkan

It refers to a Chinese benkan but uses Japanese words because it comes from Japanese Wikipedia. The Japanese Benkan described above is significantly different

A kanzashi called a Tamakougai is pointed from the side of the crown and a braided cord called a tail is attached at the bottom. -->

The quantity and quality of the jewellery were an important marker of social ranking.<ref name="china-books-periodicals-1987a" /> In the Han dynasty, the emperor would use 12 strings of white jade, 7 strings of blue jade were used by dukes and princes, and black jade were used for ministers.<ref name="china-books-periodicals-1987a" />

<gallery> File:明代皇帝十二旒冕.svg|Emperor's Twelve-chained crown File:明代皇太子亲王九旒冕.svg|Nine-chained crown worn by crown-princes and kings. File:明代亲王世子八旒冕.svg|Eight-chained crown. File:明代郡王七旒冕.svg|Seven-chained crown. </gallery>

=== Cultural significance === The {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}} was designed to strengthen the charismatic authority of its wearer which was conferred by the head.<ref name="zhang-2016a" /> This is similar to the Mandate of Heaven concept in which there is a rationalization of divine authority.<ref name="zhang-2016a" />

=== Related items === {{Main|List of Hanfu headwear}} Since China was a crown-wearing culture, there were many crowns for different ranks, positions, and times.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Han|first1=Myun-Sook|last2=Im|first2=Sung-Kyung|date=2005|title=A Study on the Artificial Flowers as a Hair Ornament in China|journal=Proceedings of the Costume Culture Conference (복식문화학회:학술대회논문집)|publisher=The Costume Culture Association|pages=67–69|url=https://www.koreascience.or.kr/article/CFKO200536036091914.pdf}}</ref>

* {{transliteration|zh|Feng Guan}} – a crown worn by an empress (e.g. {{ill|Fengguan|lt=Phoenix Crown|zh|凤冠 (定陵)}} – crowns of Empress Xiao Danxian and Empress Dowager Xiao Jing excavated from the Dingling site, two each)<ref>{{Cite book|last=Yang|first=Shaorong|title=Traditional Chinese clothing: costumes, adornments & culture|date=2004|publisher=Long River Press|isbn=978-1-59265-019-4|location=San Francisco|language=English|oclc=52775158}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Press|first=Beijing Foreign Language|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oen_AgAAQBAJ&q=phoenix+coronet+wedding&pg=PA111|title=Chinese Auspicious Culture|date=2012-09-01|publisher=Asiapac Books Pte Ltd|isbn=978-981-229-642-9|language=en}}</ref>

== See also == * Benkan * Imperial crown * List of Hanfu headwear

== References == '''Notes'''{{NoteFoot}}{{notelist}} '''Sources'''{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography == * {{Interlanguage link|閻歩克|zh|阎步克}}『服周之冕』中華書局、2009年。

== External links == {{Commons category|Mianguan}} {{Types of Han Chinese clothing}} {{Crowns}} Category:Vietnamese headgear Category:Hats Category:Crowns (headgear) Category:Pages with unreviewed translations Category:Chinese headgear Category:Korean headgear