{{Short description|Chinese royal clothing}} {{more citations needed|date=December 2015}} {{Infobox clothing type|location=Shang dynasty, China|type=Traditional imperial robe as part of hanfu|introduced=Liao dynasty, Jin dynasty (1115–1234), Korea (at least since 1065 AD), Japan, Vietnam. Yuan Dynasty|image_file=Wanli-Emperor|175px|caption=Painting of Wanli Emperor of the Ming dynasty wearing mianfu}}{{Infobox Chinese | c = 冕服 | p = Miǎnfú | l = Coronation clothing | hangul = 면복 | hanja = 冕服 | rr = Myeonbok | qn = Cổn Miện<br>Miện phục | chuhan = 袞冕<br>冕服 }}
'''Mianfu''' ({{zh|c=冕服|p=miǎnfú|l=coronation costume}}) is a kind of Chinese clothing in hanfu; it was worn by emperors, kings, and princes, and in some instances by the nobles in historical China from the Shang to the Ming dynasty. The mianfu is the highest level of formal dress worn by Chinese monarchs and the ruling families in special ceremonial events such as coronation, morning audience, ancestral rites, worship, new year's audience and other ceremonial activities. There were various forms of mianfu, and the mianfu also had its own system of attire called the mianfu system which was developed back in the Western Zhou dynasty.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=14}}<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |last=Gu |first=Weilie |title=A GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO CHINESE CULTURE |publisher=American Academic Press |year=2022 |isbn=9781631815379 |translator-last=Sun |translator-first=Lixin}}</ref> The mianfu was used by every dynasty from Zhou dynasty onward until the collapse of the Ming dynasty. The Twelve Ornaments were used on the traditional imperial robes in China,<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last=Kwon |first=Cheeyun Lilian |title=Efficacious underworld : the evolution of Ten Kings paintings in medieval China and Korea |date=2019 |isbn=978-0-8248-5603-8 |location=Honolulu |oclc=1098213341}}</ref>{{Rp|page=88}} including on the mianfu.<ref name=":0" /> These Twelve Ornaments were later adopted in clothing of other ethnic groups; for examples, the Khitan and the Jurchen rulers adopted the Twelve ornaments in 946 AD and in 1140 AD respectively.<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=88}} The Korean kings have also adopted clothing embellished with nine out of the Twelve ornaments since 1065 AD after the Liao emperor had bestowed a nine-symbol robe ({{zhi|c=九章服|s=|p=jiǔzhāngfú}}) to the Korean king, King Munjong, in 1043 AD<ref name=":4" />{{Rp|page=88}} where it became known as {{Transliteration|ko|gujangbok}} ({{Korean|hangul=구장복|hanja=九章服|rr=gujangbok}}).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gujangbok: Ceremonial Robe Symbolizing the King's Prestige {{!}} Curator's Picks |url=https://www.museum.go.kr/site/eng/archive/united/https%3A%2F%2Fwww.museum.go.kr%2Fsite%2Feng%2Farchive%2Funited%2F14972 |access-date=2022-10-13 |website=NATIONAL MUSEUM OF KOREA}}</ref>
== Construction and design == The {{tlit|zh|mianfu}} is typically a set of clothing, which includes a type of Chinese crown (guan) called {{zhp|p=mianguan|c=冕冠}}, looked like a board which leans forward and had chains of beads at the front and back.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last1=Hua|first1=Mei|title=Zhongguo fu shi|last2=华梅|date=2004|publisher=Wu zhou chuan bo chu ban she|isbn=7-5085-0540-9|edition=Di 1 ban|location=Beijing|pages=16–18|oclc=60568032}}</ref> Usually, the {{tlit|zh|mianguan}} has 12 chains; however, it could also vary in numbers (i.e. 9, 7, 5, 3) depending on the importance of an event and in rank difference.<ref name=":0" /> To fasten the {{tlit|zh|mianguan}} to the hair, hairpins are used.<ref name=":0" /> The {{tlit|zh|mianfu}} was also worn together with other accessories, such as {{zhp|p=gedai|c=革带}} which is a type of leather belt, {{zhp|p=dadai|c=大带}} which is a large silk belt, {{zhp|p=peishou|c=佩綬}} which is a type of ribbon ornament, and clogs with wooden soles called {{zhp|p=xi|c=舄}} <ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Zhang |first=Fa |title=History and spirit of Chinese art. Volume 1, From prehistory to the Tang dynasty |date=2016 |publisher=Silkroad Press |isbn=978-1-62320-126-5 |location=Honolulu |oclc=933441686}}</ref>{{Rp|page=13}} The emperor's {{tlit|zh|mianfu}} shoes were made of silk with double-layered wooden soles.<ref name=":0" /> The shoes could vary in colour depending on events, and by order of importance, the emperor would wear red, white, or black shoes.<ref name=":0" /> All these originated from the primitive clothing worn by the shamans in ancient China.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=13}}
The upper garment of the emperor's mianfu is usually black in colour while the lower garment is crimson red in colour in order to symbolize the order of heaven and earth.<ref name=":0" /> The upper and lower garment are tied with a belt. A pure red coloured {{tlit|zh|bixi}}, an important component for ceremonial clothing, hangs down under the belt.<ref name=":0" /> Twelve Ornaments, including the dragons, are the usual decoration of the {{tlit|zh|mianfu}}.<ref name=":0" /> When decorated with all the Twelve Ornaments, the mianfu can be classified as {{zhp|c=十二章服|p=shíèrzhāngfú}} while decorated with nine out of the twelve symbols, it is can be classified as {{zhp|c=九章衣|s=|p=jiǔzhāngyī}} or {{zhp|c=九章服|s=|p=jiǔzhāngfú}}.
<gallery> Zhou Wu Tang.jpg|Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou wearing {{tlit|zh|mianfu}} Han Guangwu Di.jpg|Emperor Wu of Han wearing {{tlit|zh|mianfu}} File:Mogao Cave 220 Tang Dynasty emperor and officials 莫高窟220窟东壁门北 初唐君臣帝王.jpg|Tang dynasty emperor and officials from Mogao murals from AD 642, located in Cave 220, Dunhuang, Gansu. File:Emperor_Cheng_of_Han,_Northern_Wei_painted_screen.jpg|Emperor Cheng of Han as depicted on lacquer screen from Northern Wei. File:Mianguan Yinan.jpg|Tracing of figure wearing ''mianfu'' in Yinan Tomb stone-relief in Shandong Province. File:Imperial_Encyclopaedia_-_Ceremonial_Usages_-_pic316_-_袞冕.svg|{{zhp|p=Gunmianh|c=袞冕}} File:Imperial Encyclopaedia - Ceremonial Usages - pic348 - 元衣纁裳.svg|{{zhp|p=Yuanyi|c=元衣}} and {{zhp|p=Xunchang|c=纁裳}} File:Imperial_Encyclopaedia_-_Ceremonial_Usages_-_pic349_-_中單蔽膝.svg|{{zhp|p=Zhongshan|c=中單}} and {{zhp|p=Bixi|c=蔽膝}} File:Imperial Encyclopaedia - Ceremonial Usages - pic350 - 革帶.svg|{{zhp|p=Gedai|c=革帶}} File:Imperial Encyclopaedia - Ceremonial Usages - pic351 - 大帶.svg|{{zhp|p=Dadai|c=大帶}} File:Imperial Encyclopaedia - Ceremonial Usages - pic365 - 綬.svg| {{zhp|p=Peishou|c=佩綬}} File:Imperial Encyclopaedia - Ceremonial Usages - pic352.svg|{{zhp|p=Yupei|c=玉佩}}
</gallery>
=== Designs and social ranks === There are various forms of {{tlit|zh|mianfu}} which can be classified in five grades and which was worn by the members of the nobility aside from those worn by the Chinese emperor.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=14}} The difference in forms and appearance was used to distinguish between the ranks of its wearer; these differences were often form in the number of symbols and the tassels which were attached to the headwear worn in the {{tlit|zh|mianfu}}.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=14}} Examples of {{tlit|zh|mianfu}} include the:<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=14}}
# {{zhp|p=Daqiumian|c=大裘冕|l=great fur {{tlit|zh|mian}}}} # {{zhp|p=Gunmian|c=袞冕}} # {{zhp|p=Bimian|c=鷩冕|l=golden pheasant {{tlit|zh|mian}}}} # {{zhp|p=Cuimian|c=毳冕|l=downy {{tlit|zh|mian}}}} # {{zhp|p=Ximian|c=絺冕|l=linen {{tlit|zh|mian}}}} # {{zhp|p=Xuanmian|c=玄冕|l=black {{tlit|zh|mian}}}}
<gallery> File:Daqiumian.jpg| {{zhp|p=Daqiumian|c=大裘冕}} File:Gunmian.jpg|{{zhp|p=Gunmian|c=袞冕}} File:Imperial Encyclopaedia - Ceremonial Usages - pic317 - 鷩冕.svg|{{zhp|p=Bimian|c=鷩冕}} File:Imperial Encyclopaedia - Ceremonial Usages - pic318 - 毳冕.svg|{{zhp|p=Cuimian|c=毳冕}} File:Imperial Encyclopaedia - Ceremonial Usages - pic319 - 絺冕.svg|{{zhp|p=Ximian|c=絺冕}} </gallery> === Mianfu worn by nobility from Sanlitu ({{lang|zh|三禮圖}}) === <gallery>
上公衮冕.新定三礼图.20卷.宋聂崇义集注.清康熙12年通志堂刊.1673年.png|{{tlit|zh|Gunmian}} for {{zhp|p=gong|c=公}}
三公毳冕.新定三礼图.20卷.宋聂崇义集注.清康熙12年通志堂刊.1673年.png|{{tlit|zh|Cuimian}} for the Three Excellencies
File:侯伯鷩冕子男毳冕.新定三礼图.20卷.宋聂崇义集注.清康熙12年通志堂刊.1673年.png|{{zhp|p=Bimian|c=鷩冕}} and {{zhp|p=Cuimian|c=毳冕}} ceremonial robes of regional lords ({{lang|zh|侯伯}}) and eldest son (of nobility) ({{lang|zh|子男}}). 卿大夫玄冕.新定三礼图.20卷.宋聂崇义集注.清康熙12年通志堂刊.1673年.png|{{tlit|zh|Xuanmian}} for {{zhp|p=dafu|c=大夫}}
</gallery>
==History== Mianfu was first developed in the Shang dynasty,<ref>(Chinese){{lang|zh|陳邦懷，《殷代史料徵存》，鄴中片羽三集卷。}}</ref> and later improved and standardized during the Zhou dynasty. The {{tlit|zh|mianfu}} was also a strict system of attire which was defined based the social rank of its wearer and had to fulfil requirements based on specific events.<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=14}} The mianfu system was developed in the Western Zhou dynasty.<ref name=":3" />
In the Zhou dynasty, there were various types of mianfu; including the {{tlit|zh|gunmian}}, {{tlit|zh|bimian}}, {{tlit|zh|cuimian}}, {{tlit|zh|ximian}} and {{tlit|zh|xuanmian}}, which are the five grades of the {{tlit|zh|mianfu}} worn by the members of the nobility apart from the Emperor; the Zhouli stipulated which types of mianfu were allowed to be worn depending on each noble and official ranks of its wearer:<ref name=":1" />{{Rp|page=14}}
{{Quote|text=The dress of dukes ({{zhi|p=gong|c=公}}) resembles that of the emperor at or below the grade of {{zhi|p=gunmian|c=衮冕}}; the dress of marques ({{zhi|p=hou|c=侯}}) and earls ({{zhi|p=bo|c=伯}}) resembles that of the dukes at or below the grade of {{zhp|p=bimian|c=鷩冕}}; the dress of viscounts ({{zhi|p=zi|c=子}}) and barons ({{zhi|p=nan|c=男}}) resembles that of marques and earls at or below the grade of {{zhp|p=cuimian|c=毳冕}}; the dress of solitaries ({{zhi|p=gu|c=孤}}) resembles that of viscounts and baron at or below the grade of {{zhp|p=ximian|c=絺冕}}; the dress of ministers ({{zhi|p=qing|c=卿}}) and grand masters ({{zhi|p=dafu|c=大夫}}) resembles that of solitaries at or below the grade of {{zhp|p=xuanmian |c=玄冕}}.|author=Translated by Zhang Fa (2015)|title=in the book "The History and Spirit of Chinese Art", volume 1|source=translated from the original text, Zhouli}}
Though the use of ''mianfu'' was abolished during the Qin dynasty, in favour of a black {{transliteration|zh|shenyi}} called {{zhp|p=junxuan|c=袀玄}} and {{transliteration|zh|tongtianguan}},<ref>{{cite book|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hans/%E5%BE%8C%E6%BC%A2%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7120|title=Book of Later Han|chapter=120|script-quote=zh:“秦以戰國即天子位，滅去禮學，郊祀之服皆以袀玄。漢承秦故。”}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hans/%E6%99%89%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7025|title=Book of Jin|chapter=25|script-quote=zh:“通天冠，本秦制。高九寸，正竖，顶少斜却，乃直下，铁为卷梁，前有展筒，冠前加金博山述，乘舆所常服也。 ”}}</ref> which was continued to be used throughout the Western Han dynasty, the {{transliteration|zh|mianfu}} and {{transliteration|zh|mianguan}} were later restored by Emperor Ming of Han in the Eastern Han dynasty based on Rites of Zhou and Confucian Classic of Rites.<ref>{{pb}}{{cite book|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%BE%8C%E6%BC%A2%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B72|title=Book of Later Han|chapter=120|script-quote=zh:显宗遂就大业，初服旒冕，衣裳文章，赤舄絇屦，以祠天地，养三老五更于三雍，于时致治平矣。 }} {{cite book|title=Book of Later Han|url=https://zh.wikisource.org/zh-hans/%E5%BE%8C%E6%BC%A2%E6%9B%B8/%E5%8D%B7120|chapter=2|script-quote=zh:"二年春正月辛未，宗祀光武皇帝於明堂，帝及公卿列侯始服冠冕、衣裳、玉佩、絇屨以行事}}</ref>
In the Song dynasty, the emperor wore {{tlit|zh|mianfu}} which included {{tlit|zh|daqiumian}} and {{tlit|zh|gunmian}}.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Zhu |first1=Ruixi |title=A social history of middle-period China : the Song, Liao, Western Xia and Jin dynasties |last2=朱瑞熙 |date=2016 |others=Bangwei Zhang, Fusheng Liu, Chongbang Cai, Zengyu Wang, Peter Ditmanson, Bang Qian Zhu |isbn=978-1-107-16786-5 |edition=Updated |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |oclc=953576345}}</ref>{{Rp|page=2}} The crown prince of the Song dynasty also wore {{tlit|zh|gunmian}}.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=2}} The rulers of the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty also created their own carriages and apparel system by adopting the clothing system of the Han people and by imitating the Song dynasty; and the Jin emperors wore {{tlit|zh|gunmian}}.<ref name=":2" />{{Rp|page=|pages=41, 58}} According to the Yuanshi, Möngke wore the gunmian in 1252.<ref name=":8">{{Cite book |last=Shea |first=Eiren L. |title=Mongol court dress, identity formation, and global exchange |date=2020 |isbn=978-0-429-34065-9 |location=New York, NY |oclc=1139920835}}</ref>{{Rp|page=45|pages=}}
After the Manchu conquerors established the Qing dynasty, the new government initiated a policy that forbade Han Chinese to wear Hanfu. Qing emperors did not use {{tlit|zh|mianfu}} as the emperor's official garb, which eventually resulted in this style of clothing disappearing from use.
==Influence and derivatives== Due to the strong cultural influence China exerted on its neighbours, Mianfu was also worn by rulers in other East Asian countries that belonged to the so-called Sinosphere, such as Korea (in the form of myeonbok), Japan (known as ''Kon'e'') and Vietnam (known as Cổn Miện) during the imperial era. {{gallery|height=200 |File:Yiwon 08JongmyoDaeje.jpg|Yi Won wearing {{tlit|ko|myeonbok}} |image:kone.jpg|Japan Emperor Kōmei's Kon'e ({{lang|ja|袞衣}}) |File:Emperor Go-sanjō.jpg| Emperor Go-Sanjō in kon'e ({{lang|ja|袞衣}}) |File:Enthronement Ceremony of Emperor Kōmei.png|Enthronement ceremony of Emperor Kōmei, ''kon'e'' ({{lang|ja|袞衣}}) was used as ceremonial clothes. |File:越南阮朝弘宗宣皇帝阮福晙（启定1916年—1925年）31岁登基时的冕服照片（1916年）.jpg|Emperor Khải Định of Vietnam wearing {{lang|vi|Cổn miện}} |File:17064318 2a.jpg|Paintings of {{lang|vi|Cổn miện}} costumes in the Nguyễn dynasty by Nguyễn Văn Nhân |File:李朝至陳朝冕服.jpg|Simulation of {{lang|vi|Cổn miện}} of the Lý - Trần dynasties in the book {{lang|vi|Ngàn năm áo mũ}} by Trần Quang Đức }}
==See also== *Mianguan *Bianfu * Kon'e *Hanfu *Twelve Ornaments
==References== {{Reflist}}{{Types of Han Chinese clothing}} Category:Chinese traditional clothing Category:Court uniforms and dress Category:Ancient institutions in East Asia Category:Chinese imperial court