{{Short description|Species of flowering plant}} {{Redirect2|Vendayam|Vendhayam|the 2011 film|Vengayam}} {{Speciesbox | name = Fenugreek | image = Illustration Trigonella foenum-graecum0 clean.jpg | taxon = Trigonella foenum-graecum | authority = L.<ref name=GRIN>{{GRIN | access-date=2008-03-13}}</ref> }} thumb|Fenugreek greens
'''Fenugreek''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|ɛ|nj|ʊ|ɡ|r|iː|k}}; '''''Trigonella foenum-graecum''''') is an annual plant in the family Fabaceae, with leaves consisting of three small obovate to oblong leaflets. It is cultivated worldwide as a semiarid crop. Its leaves and seeds are common ingredients in dishes from the Indian subcontinent, and have been used as a culinary ingredient since ancient times.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of Herbs |date=2009 |isbn=978-1-60469-134-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7_KPgxEglHAC&q=fenugreek+Egyptians&pg=PA321 |access-date=10 May 2021 |last1=Debaggio |first1=Thomas |last2=Tucker |first2=Arthur O. |publisher=Timber Press |archive-date=2 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230702043535/https://books.google.com/books?id=7_KPgxEglHAC&q=fenugreek+Egyptians&pg=PA321 |url-status=live }}</ref> Its use as a food ingredient in small quantities is safe.<ref name="Tox2016" /><ref name="drugs">{{cite web |title=Fenugreek |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/fenugreek.html |publisher=Drugs.com |access-date=11 May 2024 |date=14 August 2023}}</ref>
Although a common dietary supplement,<ref name=nccih/> no significant clinical evidence suggests that fenugreek has therapeutic properties.<ref name="drugs" /><ref name="nccih">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/fenugreek|title=Fenugreek|publisher=National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, US National Library of Medicine|access-date=11 May 2024|date=1 August 2020}}</ref> Commonly used in traditional medicine, fenugreek can increase the risk of serious adverse effects, including allergic reactions.<ref name=drugs/><ref name=nccih/>
==History== Fenugreek is believed to have been brought into cultivation in the Near East. Which wild strain of the genus ''Trigonella'' gave rise to domesticated fenugreek is uncertain. Charred fenugreek seeds have been recovered from Tell Halal, Iraq (carbon dated to 4000 BC), Bronze Age levels of Lachish, and desiccated seeds from the tomb of Tutankhamun.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Daniel |last1=Zohary |first2=Maria |last2=Hopf |first3=Ehud |last3=Weiss |title=Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Domesticated Plants in Southwest Asia, Europe, and the Mediterranean Basin |edition=4th |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |page=122 }}</ref> Cato the Elder lists fenugreek with clover and vetch as crops grown to feed cattle.<ref>{{cite book |title= De Agri Cultura |page=27 |author= Cato the Elder|title-link=De Agri Cultura |author-link=Cato the Elder }}</ref>
In one first-century AD recipe, the Romans flavoured wine with fenugreek.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Curry A |date=February 2010 |title=A 9,000-Year Love Affair |journal=National Geographic |volume=231 |issue=2 |page=46}}</ref> In the 1st century AD, in Galilee, it was grown as a staple food, as Josephus mentions in his book, the ''Wars of the Jews''.<ref>Josephus, ''De Bello Judaico'', book 3, chapter 7, vs. 29. The prepared relish made from ground fenugreek seeds is very slimy and slippery, and was therefore poured over ladders as a stratagem to prevent the enemy's ascent.</ref> The plant is mentioned in the second-century compendium of Jewish Oral Law (Mishnah) under its Hebrew name ''tiltan''.<ref>Commentators Maimonides and Ovadiah di Bertinoro on Mishnah ''Kil'ayim'' 2:5; ''Terumot'' 10:5; ''Orlah'' 3:6; ''ibid''. 10:6; ''Ma'aserot'' 1:3, ''ibid''. 4:6; ''Ma'aser Sheni'' 2:2–3; ''Niddah'' 2:6.</ref>
==Etymology== The English name derives via Middle French ''fenugrec'' from Latin ''faenugraecum'', ''faenum Graecum'' meaning "Greek hay".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=fenugreek|title=Online Etymology Dictionary|website=www.etymonline.com|language=en|access-date=2017-02-07|archive-date=2016-12-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221005645/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=fenugreek|url-status=live}}</ref>
==Production== India is a major producer of fenugreek, and over 80% of India's output is from the state of Rajasthan.<ref>{{cite book|title=Organic Spices|editor=V. A. Parthasarathy, K. Kandinnan and V. Srinivasan|article=Fenugreek|page=694|publisher=New India Publishing Agencies}}</ref>
==Uses== thumb|right|Fenugreek seeds
Fenugreek is used as a herb<!-- "a herb" is British English ---> (dried or fresh leaves), spice (seeds), and vegetable (fresh leaves, sprouts, and microgreens). Sotolon is the chemical responsible for the distinctive maple syrup smell of fenugreek.<ref name=pubchem/><ref name=drugs/>
Cuboid, yellow- to amber-coloured fenugreek seeds are frequently encountered in the cuisines of the Indian subcontinent, used both whole and powdered in the preparation of pickles, vegetable dishes, ''dal'', and spice mixes such as ''panch phoron'' and ''sambar'' powder. They are often roasted to reduce inherent bitterness and to enhance flavour (Maillard browning).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/fenugreek|title=BBC - Food - Fenugreek recipes|access-date=2017-02-07|archive-date=2017-01-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118063645/http://www.bbc.co.uk/food/fenugreek|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Cooking === {{Cookbook|Fenugreek}}{{refimprove|section|date=July 2018}}
Fresh fenugreek leaves are an ingredient in some curries, such as with potatoes in Indian cuisines to make ''aloo methi'' (potato fenugreek) curry.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK501779/ |title=Fenugreek |date=2021-08-16 |publisher=National Library of Medicine (US) |language=en |pmid=30000838 |access-date=2022-06-07 |archive-date=2022-05-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521191832/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK501779/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
In Armenian cuisine, fenugreek seed powder is used to make a paste that is an important ingredient to cover dried and cured beef to make ''basturma''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wani |first1=Sajad Ahmad |last2=Kumar |first2=Pradyuman |date=2018-04-01 |title=Fenugreek: A review on its nutraceutical properties and utilization in various food products |journal=Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences |language=en |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=97–106 |doi=10.1016/j.jssas.2016.01.007 |issn=1658-077X|doi-access=free }}</ref>
In Iranian cuisine, fenugreek leaves are called ''shambalileh''. They are one of several greens incorporated into the herb stew ''ghormeh sabzi'', the herb frittata ''kuku sabzi'', and the soup ''eshkeneh''.
In Georgian cuisine, a related species—''Trigonella caerulea'', called "blue fenugreek"—is used.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trigonella caerulea Sweet Trefoil, Blue fenugreek PFAF Plant Database |url=https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Trigonella+caerulea |access-date=2022-06-07 |website=pfaf.org |archive-date=2022-06-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220607094652/https://pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Trigonella+caerulea |url-status=live }}</ref>
In Egyptian cuisine, fenugreek is known by the Arabic name ''hilba'' or ''helba'' حلبة. Seeds are boiled to make a drink that is consumed at home and in coffee shops. Peasants in Upper Egypt add fenugreek seeds and maize to their pita bread to produce ''aish merahrah'', a staple of their diet. ''Basterma'', a cured, dried beef, gets its distinctive flavour from the fenugreek used as a coating.
In the same way in Turkish cuisine, fenugreek seed powder, called ''çemen'', is used to make a paste with paprika powder and garlic to cover dried and cured beef in making ''pastirma/basturma''. (Its name comes from the Turkish verb ''bastırmak'', meaning "to press").
In Palestinian cuisine, fenugreek is used as an ingredient in a cake called fenugreek cake or hilbeh.<ref>{{cite news |last1=El-Haddad |first1=Laila |title=Fenugreek Olive Oil Cake (Saniyit Hulba) |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/recipes/fenugreek-olive-oil-cake-saniyit-hulba/ |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=25 March 2025}}</ref>
In Moroccan cuisine, fenugreek is used in ''rfissa'', a dish associated with the countryside.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Idrissi|first=Abdelbaar Mounadi|date=2018-12-18|title=Anny Gaul: "The Cuisine of the City of Tetouan"|url=https://legation.org/anny-gaul-the-cuisine-of-the-city-of-tetouan/|access-date=2021-10-28|website=Tangier American Legation Museum|language=en-US|archive-date=2022-05-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519093252/https://legation.org/anny-gaul-the-cuisine-of-the-city-of-tetouan/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Fenugreek is used in Eritrean and Ethiopian cuisines.<ref name="ethnomed">{{Cite web | first=Alevtina | last=Gall | author2=Zerihun Shenkute | title=Ethiopian Traditional and Herbal Medications and their Interactions with Conventional Drugs | url=http://ethnomed.org/clinical/pharmacy/ethiopian-herb-drug-interactions | work=EthnoMed | publisher=University of Washington | date=November 3, 2009 | access-date=January 27, 2011 | archive-date=March 19, 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190319012225/http://ethnomed.org/clinical/pharmacy/ethiopian-herb-drug-interactions | url-status=live }}</ref> The word for fenugreek in Amharic is ''abesh'' (or ''abish''), and the seed is used in Ethiopia as a natural herbal medicine in the treatment of diabetes.<ref name="ethnomed" />
Yemenite Jews following the interpretation of Rabbi Shelomo Yitzchak (Rashi) believe fenugreek, which they call ''hilbah'', ''hilbeh'', ''hilba'', ''helba'', or ''halba'' "חילבה", to be the Talmudic ''rubia''.{{cn|date=June 2022}} When the seed kernels are ground and mixed with water, they greatly expand; hot spices, turmeric, and lemon juice are added to produce a frothy relish eaten with a sop. The relish is reminiscent of curry.{{cn|date=June 2022}} It is eaten daily and ceremonially during the meal of the first and/or second night of the Jewish New Year, Rosh Hashana.<ref>This is based on the assumption that the Aramaic name רוביא corresponds to it. (Karetot 6a; Horiyot 12a) Rabbenu Nissim at the end of Rosh Hashana, citing the custom of R Hai Gaon. This follows Rashi's translation of רוביא, cited as authoritative by Tur and Shulchan Aruch OC 583:1. But Abudirham interprets רוביא as black-eyed peas.</ref>
In Yemen, a small amount of ''oud al hilba'' (عود الحلبة), which appears to be the same as ''ashwagandha'', is traditionally added to ground fenugreek seeds before they are mixed with water to prepare the ''hulbah'' paste. This is believed to aid in digestion and more importantly to prevent or lessen the maple-syrup smell that usually occurs when consuming fenugreek.
===Nutritional profile=== {{Infobox nutritional value | name = Fenugreek seed | kJ = 1352 | water = 8.8 g | protein = 23 g | fat = 6.4 g | carbs = 58 g | fiber = 25 g | calcium_mg = 176 | iron_mg = 34 | magnesium_mg = 191 | phosphorus_mg = 296 | potassium_mg = 770 | sodium_mg = 67 | zinc_mg = 2.5 | manganese_mg = 1.23 | vitC_mg = 3 | thiamin_mg = 0.322 | riboflavin_mg = 0.366 | niacin_mg = 1.64 | vitB6_mg = 0.6 | folate_ug = 57 | source_usda = 1 | note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/171324/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry] }}
In a 100-gram reference amount, fenugreek seeds provide {{convert|323|kcal|kJ|order=flip}} of food energy and contain 9% water, 58% carbohydrates, 23% protein, and 6% fat. Fenugreek seeds provide calcium at 14% of the Daily Value (DV, table).{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}} Fenugreek seeds (per 100 grams) are a rich source of protein (46% DV), dietary fiber, B vitamins, and dietary minerals, particularly manganese (59% DV) and iron (262% DV) (table).
===Dietary supplement=== Fenugreek dietary supplements are manufactured from powdered seeds into capsules, loose powders, teas, and liquid extracts in many countries.<ref name=drugs/><ref name=nccih/> No high-quality evidence supports that these products have any clinical effectiveness.<ref name=drugs/><ref name=nccih/>
===Animal feed=== Fenugreek is sometimes used as animal feed. It provides a green fodder palatable to ruminants. The seeds are also used to feed fish and domestic rabbits.<ref>Heuzé V., Thiollet H., Tran G., Lebas F., 2018. Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum). Feedipedia, a programme by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/242 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180328231329/https://www.feedipedia.org/node/242 |date=2018-03-28 }}</ref>
===Food additive=== Fenugreek seeds and leaves contain sotolon, which imparts the aroma of fenugreek and curry in high concentrations, and maple syrup or caramel in lower concentrations.<ref name=drugs/><ref name="pubchem">{{cite web|title=3-Hydroxy-4,5-dimethylfuran-2(5H)-one; CID=62835|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Sotolone|publisher=PubChem, US National Library of Medicine|date=3 March 2019|access-date=17 March 2019|archive-date=15 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200615210917/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/Sotolone|url-status=live}}</ref> Fenugreek is used as a flavoring agent in imitation maple syrup or tea, and as a dietary supplement.<ref name=nccih/>
==Research== Constituents of fenugreek seeds include flavonoids, alkaloids, coumarins, vitamins, and saponins; the most prevalent alkaloid is trigonelline and coumarins include cinnamic acid and scopoletin.<ref name=Tox2016>{{cite journal|last1=Ouzir|first1=M|last2=El Bairi|first2=K|last3=Amzazi|first3=S|title=Toxicological properties of fenugreek (Trigonella foenum graecum)|journal=Food and Chemical Toxicology|year= 2016|volume=96|pages=145–54|pmid=27498339|doi=10.1016/j.fct.2016.08.003}}</ref> Research into whether fenugreek reduces biomarkers in people with diabetes and with prediabetic conditions is of limited quality.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gong|first1=J|last2=Fang|first2=K|last3=Dong|first3=H|last4=Wang|first4=D|last5=Hu|first5=M|last6=Lu|first6=F|title=Effect of Fenugreek on Hyperglycaemia and Hyperlipidemia in Diabetes and Prediabetes: a Meta-analysis|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=194|pages=260–268|date=2 August 2016|pmid=27496582|doi=10.1016/j.jep.2016.08.003}}</ref>
As of 2023, no high-quality evidence has been found for whether fenugreek is safe and effective in relieving dysmenorrhea<ref name=drugs/><ref name="patt">{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002124.pub2|journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|title=Dietary supplements for dysmenorrhoea|year=2016|volume=2016|article-number=CD002124|pmid=27000311|last1=Pattanittum|first1=Porjai|last2=Kunyanone|first2=Naowarat|last3=Brown|first3=Julie|last4=Sangkomkamhang|first4=Ussanee S|last5=Barnes|first5=Joanne|last6=Seyfoddin|first6=Vahid|last7=Marjoribanks|first7=Jane|issue=3|pmc=7387104}}</ref> or improving lactation during breastfeeding.<ref name="foong">{{cite journal | last1=Foong | first1=Siew Cheng | last2=Tan | first2=May Loong | last3=Foong | first3=Wai Cheng | last4=Marasco | first4=Lisa A | last5=Ho | first5=Jacqueline J | last6=Ong | first6=Joo Howe | title=Oral galactagogues (natural therapies or drugs) for increasing breast milk production in mothers of non-hospitalised term infants | journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume=2020 | issue=5 | date=2020-05-18 | article-number=CD011505 | issn=1465-1858 | pmid=32421208 | pmc=7388198 | doi=10.1002/14651858.cd011505.pub2}}</ref> Studies of fenugreek are characterized as having variable, poor experimental design and quality, including small numbers of subjects, failure to describe methods, inconsistency and duration of dosing, and not recording adverse effects.<ref name=drugs/><ref name=nccih/><ref name=patt/><ref name=foong/>
Because research on the potential biological effects of consuming fenugreek has provided no high-quality evidence for health or antidisease effect, fenugreek is not approved or recommended for clinical use by the United States Food and Drug Administration.<ref name=drugs/><ref name=nccih/>
==Traditional medicine== Although once a folk remedy for an insufficient milk supply when nursing, no good evidence indicates that fenugreek is effective or safe for this use,<ref name=drugs/><ref name=nccih/><ref name=foong/> nor is it useful in traditional practices for treating dysmenorrhea, inflammation, diabetes, or any human disorder.<ref name=drugs/><ref name=nccih/><ref name=patt/>
==Adverse effects and allergies== The use of fenugreek has the potential for serious adverse effects, as it may be unsafe for women with hormone-sensitive cancers.<ref name=drugs/><ref name=nccih/> Fenugreek is not safe for use during pregnancy, as it has possible abortifacient effects and may induce preterm uterine contractions.<ref name="Tox2016" /><ref name=drugs/>
Some people are allergic to fenugreek, including those with peanut allergy or chickpea allergy.<ref name=Tox2016/><ref name=drugs/> Fenugreek seeds can cause diarrhea, dyspepsia, abdominal distention, flatulence, and perspiration, and impart a maple-like smell to sweat, urine, or breast milk.<ref name=Tox2016/><ref name=drugs/><ref name=nccih/> A risk of hypoglycemia exists, particularly in people with diabetes, and it may interfere with the activity of antidiabetic drugs.<ref name=Tox2016/><ref name=drugs/> Because of the high content of coumarin-like compounds in fenugreek, it may interfere with the activity and dosing of anticoagulants and antiplatelet drugs.<ref name=Tox2016/><ref name=drugs/>
Fenugreek sprouts, cultivated from a single specific batch of seeds imported from Egypt into Germany in 2009, were suspected as the source of the 2011 outbreak of ''Escherichia coli'' O104:H4 in Germany and France.<ref>{{cite magazine| url=https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2011/07/e-coli-3-years/ | magazine=Wired | first=Maryn | last=McKenna | title=E. coli: A Risk for 3 More Years From Who Knows Where | date=2011-07-07}}</ref> Identification of a common producer and a single batch of fenugreek seeds was evidence for the origin of the outbreaks.<ref>{{cite journal|display-authors=3|last1=King|first1=L. A.|last2=Nogareda|first2=F.|last3=Weill|first3=F.-X.|last4=Mariani-Kurkdjian|first4=P.|last5=Loukiadis|first5=E.|last6=Gault|first6=G.|last7=Jourdan-DaSilva|first7=N.|last8=Bingen|first8=E.|last9=Mace|first9=M.|last10=Thevenot|first10=D.|last11=Ong|first11=N.|last12=Castor|first12=C.|last13=Noel|first13=H.|last14=Van Cauteren|first14=D.|last15=Charron|first15=M.|last16=Vaillant|first16=V.|last17=Aldabe|first17=B.|last18=Goulet|first18=V.|last19=Delmas|first19=G.|last20=Couturier|first20=E.|last21=Le Strat|first21=Y.|last22=Combe|first22=C.|last23=Delmas|first23=Y.|last24=Terrier|first24=F.|last25=Vendrely|first25=B.|last26=Rolland|first26=P.|last27=de Valk|first27=H.|title=Outbreak of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli O104:H4 Associated With Organic Fenugreek Sprouts, France, June 2011|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|volume=54|issue=11|year=2012|pages=1588–1594|issn=1058-4838|doi=10.1093/cid/cis255|pmid=22460976|doi-access=free}}</ref>
==References== {{Reflist}}
== External links == * {{Wiktionary inline}}
{{Herbs & spices}} {{Taxonbar|from=Q133205}} {{Authority control}}
Category:Edible legumes Category:Forages Category:Indian spices Category:Iraqi cuisine Category:Jewish cuisine Category:Leaf vegetables Category:Nitrogen-fixing crops Category:Plants described in 1753 Category:Plants used in traditional Chinese medicine Category:Spices Category:Traditional medicine in India Category:Trifolieae Category:Yemeni cuisine