List of pharaohs

{{Short description|none}} {{Infobox former monarchy | royal_title = Pharaoh | realm = Egypt | coatofarms = Double crown.svg | coatofarmssize = 70px | coatofarmscaption = The Pschent combined the Red and White crowns of Lower and Upper Egypt | caption = '''Last native king Nectanebo II''' {{circa}} 360–342 BC | image = Head of Nectanebo II-MBA Lyon H1701-IMG 0204.jpg | first_monarch = Narmer/Menes | last_monarch = {{plainlist| * Nectanebo II (last native){{sfn|Clayton|2001|p=205. "When Egypt fell to the Persians in 343 BC, the reign of Nectanebo II, the last Egyptian pharaoh, came to an end; he was also the last Egyptian to rule Egypt for 2300 years until General Neguib and the 1952 Revolution"}} * Cleopatra and Caesarion (last Hellenistic)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tyldesley |first1=Joyce | author-link= Joyce Tyldesley |title=Cleopatra: Last Queen of Egypt |date=2009 |publisher=Profile Books |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fW4y5vvw2FUC&pg=PA3|isbn=978-1-86197-901-8 |pages=3 of paperback edition, 20–21 of e-book edition |quote=The Ptolemies believed themselves to be a valid Egyptian dynasty, and devoted a great deal of time and money to demonstrating that they were the theological continuation of all the dynasties that had gone before. Cleopatra defined herself as an Egyptian queen and drew on the iconography and cultural references of earlier queens to reinforce her position. Her people and her contemporaries accepted her as such.}}</ref> * Maximinus Daza (last use of titulary){{sfn|Beckerath|1999|pp=266–267}}}} | began = {{circa}} 3100 BC (± 150 years) | ended = {{plainlist| * 342 BC (last native) * 30 BC (last Hellenistic) * 313 AD (last use of title)}} | style = Five-name titulary | residence = Varies by era | appointer = Hereditary }} The pharaohs were the monarchs of ancient Egypt from the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt {{circa}} 3100 BC, with several times of fragmentation and foreign rule. The specific title of "pharaoh" (''pr-ꜥꜣ'') was not used until the New Kingdom, {{circa}} 1400 BC, but it is retroactively applied to all Egyptian kings; the generic term for monarchs was "nesut" (''nswt''). In addition to these titles, pharaohs had a complex royal titulary that remained relatively constant during its 3000-year history, having up to five royal names.

Egypt was continually governed, at least in part, by native pharaohs for approximately 2500 years, until it was conquered by the Libyan 22nd dynasty, and subsequently, the Kingdom of Kush in the late 8th century BC, whose rulers adopted the pharaonic titulature and became the 25th Dynasty. Following 100 years of Kushite rule, Egypt experienced another century of independent native rule before being conquered by the Persian Achaemenid Empire. The last native pharaoh was Nectanebo II of the short-lived 30th Dynasty, which ended when the Persians conquered Egypt for a second time in 342 BC. The Persians were in turn conquered by the Macedonian Greeks of Alexander the Great in 332 BC, after which Egypt was ruled by the Hellenic pharaohs of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Their rule came to an end with the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC, and pharaonic Egypt ceased to be an independent monarchy. However, Roman emperors continued to be accorded pharaonic titles by the Egyptians until the reign of Maximinus Daza in 313 AD.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brugsch |first=Heinrich |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ShoZAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=pharaoh+of+egypt&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwidtfuP0NCTAxXDdqQEHW09FT8Q6AF6BAgQEAM |title=Egypt Under the Pharaohs: A History Derived Entirely from the Monuments |date=1891 |publisher=J. Murray |language=en}}</ref>

The dates provided for most of Egypt's early history are only approximate and may vary depending on the author, sometimes by centuries. The names and order of kings is mostly based on the Digital Egypt for Universities database developed by the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology.{{Sfn|University College London|2000}} For royal titles and hieroglyphs, see the handbook of Jürgen von Beckerath,{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999}} as well as the website ''Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt'', which itself contains extensive bibliography.{{sfn|Lundström|2025b}}

Regnal numbers did not exist in ancient Egypt and is a modern way to distinguish pharaohs known by the same name.

== Sources and chronology ==

Modern lists of pharaohs are based on historical records, including ancient Egyptian king lists and later histories, as well as archaeological evidence. Concerning ancient sources, Egyptologists and historians alike call for caution regarding their credibility, exactitude, and completeness, many of which were written long after the reigns they report. An additional problem is that ancient king lists are often damaged, inconsistent with one another, and/or selective.

Given the lack of sources, it's impossible to fix exact dates for the early dynasties. However, most authors give dates around 3000 BC.{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=283}}{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=105}}{{Sfn|University College London|2000}}{{Sfn|Shaw|2003|p=481}}{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|p=490}}{{efn-lr|Theologist Christine Tetley used her own reconstruction of the Royal Annals to establish an alternative chronology that places Narmer's accession {{circa}} 3389 BC. She disregards conventional chronology and, especially for the later dynasties, relies heavily on Biblical accounts.{{sfn|Tetley|2017|pp=323ff}}}} According to computations derived from the Turin King List ({{circa}} 1250 BC), the First Dynasty most likely began {{circa}} 3100 BC, ± 150 years.{{sfn|Hayes|2007|pp=173–176}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gardiner |first=Alan Henderson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lzhBbsElbKAC |title=Egypt of the Pharaohs: An Introduction |date=1961 |publisher=Clarendon Press |pages=61–68}}</ref> This appears to be supported by radiocarbon dating studies, which often show earlier dates.<ref name="Dee Wengrow2"/><ref name="QuilesAnita"/>{{efn-lr|A 2013 study placed the accession of Aha, the second pharaoh, most likely between 3111 and 3045 BC (with 68% confidence), with a broader range of 3218 to 3035 BC (with 95% confidence).<ref name="Dee Wengrow2">{{cite journal |last1=Dee |first1=M. |last2=Wengrow |first2=D. |author-link2=David Wengrow |last3=Shortland |first3=A. |last4=Stevenson |first4=A. |last5=Brock |first5=F. |last6=Girdland Flink |first6=L. |last7=Bronk Ramsey |first7=C. |date=2013 |title=An absolute chronology for early Egypt using radiocarbon dating and Bayesian statistical modelling |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |volume=469 |issue=2159|doi=10.1098/rspa.2013.0395 |pmc=3780825 |pmid=24204188 |bibcode=2013RSPSA.46930395D}}</ref> However, radiocarbon dating only gives broad approximations subject to several external factors. For instance, while the aforementioned study placed Den in the range of 2945–2904 BC, a 2023 study placed his accession earlier, in the range of 3011–2921 BC, nearly a century earlier.<ref name="QuilesAnita">{{Cite journal |last1=Quiles |first1=Anita |last2=Tristant |first2=Yann |date=2023 |title=Radiocarbon-Based Modeling of the Reign of King den (1St Dynasty, Egypt) and the Start of the Old Kingdom |journal=Radiocarbon |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=485–504 |bibcode=2023Radcb..65..485Q |doi=10.1017/RDC.2023.15 |issn=0033-8222 |doi-access=free}}</ref>}}

Astronomical events, mainly the Sothic cycle, have also been used to try to fix "absolute dates", but these have their own set of problems. Richard Parker dated the accession of the 12th-dynasty pharaoh Senusret III to 1878 BC (with his 7th year falling in 1872 BC).{{sfn|Hayes|2007|pp=173–176}}<ref name="Parker77">{{cite encyclopedia |title=The Sothic Dating of the Twelfth and Eighteenth Dynasties |encyclopedia=Studies in Honor of George R. Hughes |url=https://www.caeno.org/pdf/Parker_Sothic%20dating_si.pdf |last=Parker |first=Richard A. |date=1977}}</ref> However, other authors such as Rolf Krauss have refuted Parker's computations; Krauss instead dates Senusret's accession to 1837/36 BC (7th year in 1831/30 BC). Similarly, the accession Amenhotep I was dated {{circa}} 1550–1515 BC (9th year {{circa}} 1541–1506 BC).{{sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|p=439-457}} Scholars often use the Egyptian "high" chronology, which assumes these astronomical observations were made in a single place (at Memphis). While there is debate on its accuracy,{{Efn-lr|The 7th year of Sensuret III would be 1830 BC if the astronomical observation was made at Elephantine.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shaw |first=Ian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ppAREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 |title=Ancient Egypt: A Very Short Introduction |date=2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-884546-1 |pages=40–61}}</ref> According to one independent study, the date should be 1840 BC,<ref name=Banjevic>Banjevic, B. (2001). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/341965624_LUNAR_DATES_AND_CHRONOLOGY_OF_THE_LATE_MIDDLE_KINGDOM_OF_ANCIENT_EGYPT "Lunar Dates and Chronology of the Late Middle Kingdom of Ancient Egypt"]. ''Journal of Serbian Archaeological Society'', 17, 105–115.</ref> or, according to another, 1879 BC.<ref name=Ossowski>Ossowski Larsson, P., & Larsson, L.-A. (2022). [https://www.academia.edu/93436170/The_absolute_dating_of_three_pharaohs_of_the_Egyptian_12_th_dynasty The absolute dating of three pharaohs of the Egyptian 12th dynasty].</ref> Others have even proposed 1980 BC.{{sfn|Tetley|2017|pp=171–178}} It has been argued that Sothic dates should not be consulted in the first place given their lack of certainty.<ref>Keenan, Douglas J. (2012). [https://www.informath.org/SothicEMK.pdfSothic Dating of the Egyptian Middle Kingdom is Fallacious]. London.</ref>}} the high chronology used by scholars such as Ian Shaw appears to be closer to the dates implied by radiocarbon dating.<ref name=":erdil">{{Cite journal |last1=Erdil |first1=P.|last2=Webster |first2=L.|last3=Kuitems |first3=M.|last4=Knoblauch |first4=C.|last5=Bestock |first5=L.|last6=Höflmayer |first6=F. |last7=Beeckman |first7=H. |last8=Fuller |first8=D. Q. |last9=Manning |first9=S. W. |last10=Dee |first10=M. W. |date=2025|title=Resolution of the High versus Low debate for Old and Middle Kingdom Egypt |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=20 |issue=5 |article-number=e0314612 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0314612 |doi-access=free |pmid=40435227 |pmc=12119019 |bibcode=2025PLoSO..2014612E |issn=1932-6203}}</ref><ref name=Ramsey>{{cite journal |last1=Ramsey |first1=Christopher B. |last2=Dee |first2=Michael W. |last3=Rowland |first3=Joanne M. |last4=Higham |first4=Thomas F. G. |last5=Harris |first5=Stephen A. |last6=Brock |first6=Fiona |last7=Quiles |first7=Anita |last8=Wild |first8=Eva M. |last9=Marcus |first9=Ezra S. |last10=Shortland |first10=Andrew J. |year=2010 |title=Radiocarbon-Based Chronology for Dynastic Egypt |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/44683433 |journal=Science |series=New Series |publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science |volume=328 |issue=5985 |pages=1554–1557 |bibcode=2010Sci...328.1554R |doi=10.1126/science.1189395 |jstor=40656429 |pmid=20558717 |s2cid=206526496}}</ref>{{efn-lr|According to radiocarbon dating, Senusret III became king {{circa}} 1890–1830 (with more possibility {{circa}} 1880–1860),<ref name=":erdil" /> while two studies have dated the accession of Ahmose I, predecessor of Amenhotep, {{circa}} 1570–1544 (possibly {{circa}} 1566–1552)<ref name=Ramsey/> or {{circa}} 1564–1528 (possibly {{circa}} 1557–1537).<ref name=QUILES>{{Cite journal |last1=Quiles |first1=Anita |last2=Aubourg |first2=E. |last3=Berthier |first3=B. |last4=Delque-Količ |first4=Emmanuelle |last5=Pierrat-Bonnefois |first5=G. |last6=Dee |first6=M. W. |last7=Audreu-Lanoë |first7=G. |last8=Ramsey |first8=C. Bronk |last9=Moreau |first9=C. |date=2012 |title=Bayesian modelling of an absolute chronology for Egypt's 18th Dynasty by astrophysical and radiocarbon methods |url=https://in2p3.hal.science/in2p3-00742997 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=40 |pages=423–432 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2012.05.026}}</ref> A recent independent study has proposed Year 1 of Ramesses II as 1297 BC, slightly earlier than the current consensus of 1279 BC.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Larsson |first1=Petra Ossowski |last2=Lars-Åke Larsson |date=2020 |title=Towards an absolute scientific date for the Egyptian New Kingdom, part 2: the New Moon dates |url=http://rgdoi.net/10.13140/RG.2.2.12339.66088 |doi=10.13140/RG.2.2.12339.66088}}</ref>}}

Most pharaohs' reigns are not fully documented, leading to many discrepancies in reign lengths. A formal regnal dating system was not adopted until the Middle Kingdom, and the day following a coronation was automatically recorded as "Year 1", meaning that regnal years alone can't be used to calculate exact Julian years.{{Efn-lr|During the Middle Kingdom, "Year 1" began on the same day as a pharaoh's accession, but "Year 2" began on New Year's Day (I Akhet, day 1). This system was changed in the New Kingdom, where "Year 2" began on the actual anniversary of the pharaoh, but reverted back in the Late Period.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=44–45}}}} Thus, it is impossible to determine exact dates even when some events can be securely dated. Dates with some certainty can only be given for the New Kingdom onwards, and only dates from the Late period can be securely dated and synchronized with other ancient chronologies.

Compare the chronological lists in {{harvnb|Beckerath|1997|pp=187–192}}, {{harvnb|Beckerath|1999|pp=283–289}}, {{harvnb|University College London|2000}}, {{harvnb|Bunson|2002|pp=105–108}}, {{harvnb|Shaw|2003|pp=481–488}}, {{harvnb|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=490–495}}, {{harvnb|Mladjov|2021a}} and {{harvnb|Mladjov|2021b}}.

=== Ancient Egyptian king lists === Royal lists after the Fifth Dynasty give only the throne name of each pharaoh, which has often led to confusion in identifying particular kings. The most detailed king lists, the Abydos, Saqqara and Turin canons, date to the New Kingdom, also known as the Ramesside period. Unfortunately, most of these Ramesside lists are of little value for the early dynasties (from which they are separated by over 1000 years), as they feature corrupted names and often disagree with contemporary sources. Complete king lists were certainly made after the 20th dynasty, but they have been lost.

The following king lists are known:{{Sfn|Lundström|2025c}} * Den seal impressions (1st Dynasty, {{Circa}} 3000 BC); found on a cylinder seal in Den's tomb. It lists all 1st Dynasty kings from Narmer to Den by their Horus names. * Qa'a seal impressions (1st Dynasty, {{Circa}} 2900 BC); found in Qa'a's tomb. It lists all eight kings of the 1st Dynasty by their Horus names. * Tomb of Sekhemkare (5th Dynasty, {{Circa}} 2500 BC); records five kings from Khafre to Sahure; the contemporary tomb of Netjerpunesut also includes Djedefre. * Royal Annals of the Old Kingdom (5th Dynasty, {{Circa}} 2400 BC); carved on an stele. Recorded the individual years of about 30 kings from Narmer to at least Kakai. Broken into small pieces, mostly known for the Palermo Stone. * Tomb of Seshemnefer III (5th Dynasty, {{Circa}} 2400 BC); carved onto the walls of Seshemnefer's mastaba tomb. Not an actual king list; it mentions at least 7 kings from Sneferu to Nyuserre Ini. * Giza writing board (6th Dynasty, {{Circa}} 2400 BC); painted on gypsum and cedar wood. Records 6 kings of various dynasties. * South Saqqara Stone (6th Dynasty, {{Circa}} 2200 BC); carved on a black basalt slab. Recorded the reigns of the first 5 kings of the Sixth Dynasty; it was later reused as a sarcophagus lid and thus almost all of the original text is lost. * Wadi Hammamat king list (12th dynasty, {{Circa}} 2000–1800 BC); records five kings of the Fourth Dynasty. * Karnak King List (18th Dynasty, {{Circa}} 1450 BC); carved on limestone at the Festival Hall of Thutmose III. Lists 61 kings from Sneferu, but with no apparent order and omitting several names. 39 names have been lost. * Tomb of Amenmose (19th Dynasty, {{Circa}} 1280 BC); lists Mentuhotep II and 11 kings from Ahmose I to Seti I. * '''Abydos King List''' (19th Dynasty, {{Circa}} 1280 BC); carved at the Temple of Seti I. Very detailed, but omitting some kings from the First Intermediate Period and all from the Second Intermediate Period. Records a total of 76 kings from Menes to Seti I. A similar but damaged list is found in the Abydos temple of Ramesses II, Seti's son and successor. * '''Saqqara Tablet''' (19th Dynasty, {{Circa}} 1250 BC), carved on limestone in a private tomb. Very detailed, lists 68 kings from Anedjib until Ramesses II. * '''Turin King List''' (19th Dynasty, {{Circa}} 1250 BC); written on a papyrus dating to the reign of Ramesses II. Listed every known king with their exact reign length, and divided some of them into groups similar to Manetho's dynasties. The document itself is a sloppy copy of a much more detailed original, which is in turn based on much older sources. The document is today damaged and incomplete, with most of the last sections missing. The papyrus lists 223 kings, but only about {{frac|1|3}} of the names have survived. The original likely included further kings until Ramesses II.<ref name=t/><ref>{{Cite book |last=Moyer |first=Ian S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-CHXhfey_ScC&pg=PA64 |title=Egypt and the Limits of Hellenism |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49655-1 |page=64}}</ref><ref name="Ryholt05">{{Cite journal |last=Ryholt |first=Kim |date=2005 |title=The Turin King-List |url=https://www.academia.edu/5564190 |journal=Ägypten und Levante |language=de |volume=1 |issue=XIV |pages=135–156 |doi=10.1553/AEundL14s135 |issn=1015-5104}}</ref> * Table of Qenhirkhopshef (19th Dynasty, {{Circa}} 1250 BC); found in the Karnak complex. Lists 17 kings from Senakhtenre Ahmose to Ramesses II. * Tomb of Khabekhnet (19th Dynasty, {{Circa}} 1250 BC); lists Mentuhotep II and five kings from Senakhtenre Ahmose to Amenhotep I alongside other family members. * Ramesseum king list (19th Dynasty, {{Circa}} 1250 BC); carved in the mortuary temple of Ramesses II, lists Menes, Mentuhotep II and most of the New Kingdom pharaohs. * Medinet Habu king list (20th Dynasty, {{Circa}} 1150 BC); carved in the mortuary temple of Ramesses III, very similar to the Ramesseum king list. * Tomb of Inherkhau (20th Dynasty, {{Circa}} 1150 BC); records seven kings of the New Kingdom until Ramesses IV alongside other family members. * Genealogy of Ankhefensekhmet (22nd Dynasty, {{Circa}} 750 BC); carved on a limestone dating to the reign of Shoshenq V, today damaged. Not an actual king list; it mentions at least 18 kings from Mentuhotep II to Psusennes I.

=== Manetho === Before the decipherment of Egyptian scripts in the early 19th century, Manetho's ''Aegyptiaca'', written in Greek in the early 3rd century BC,{{efn-lr|Some authors have questioned the chronological placement of Manetho: he is not mentioned by any author before Josephus, and his negative depiction of the Hyksos could be interpreted as antisemitism, which did not exist during Ptolemaic times.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=33–36}} This view is not commonly accepted; the identification of the Hyksos as Jews, while treated as fact by Josephus, was most likely not present in Manetho's original work.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lange |first1=Armin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IJc9EAAAQBAJ |title=Comprehending Antisemitism through the Ages: A Historical Perspective |last2=Mayerhofer |first2=Kerstin |last3=Porat |first3=Dina |last4=Schiffman |first4=Lawrence H. |date=2021 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |isbn=978-3-11-067199-5 |pages=88–90}}</ref> One papyrus dated to 241/0 BC mentions one "Manetho" that possibly corresponds to the Egyptian historian.<ref name="boss"/>}} was the sole source for all ancient Egyptian history. Manetho, himself an Egyptian priest, recorded the entirety of his country's history from mythological times until the conquest of Alexander the Great in 332 BC. He also created the dynastic framework still used by modern scholars, as well as coining the term "dynasty" itself.<ref name="boss">{{Cite book |last1=Verbrugghe |first1=Gerald |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2kAED-kQCJkC&pg=PA101 |title=Berossos and Manetho, Introduced and Translated |last2=Wickersham |first2=John Moore |date=2001 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-08687-0 |pages=95–115}}</ref> The original work is now lost and survives only through later epitomes and quotations, chiefly in the writings of Josephus (''Contra Apionem'', {{Circa}} 100 AD), Julius Africanus ({{Circa}} 230 AD), and Eusebius ({{Circa}} 330 AD). These summaries transmit primarily chronological data in the form of regnal lists, though Josephus' quotations show that Manetho originally included detailed narratives, regnal lengths in years and months (rounded as years alone by Africanus and Eusebius), and even alternate royal names.

Africanus' epitome, which is preserved by George Syncellus (<abbr>{{Circa}}</abbr> 810 AD), is generally regarded as the most reliable, while that of Eusebius is considered more problematic, having been derived from an incomplete and already corrupted source.{{Efn-lr|For Dynasty II, Africanus and Eusebius record 9 kings, but only Africanus provides all names. Similarly, Africanus records 8 kings for Dynasty III, while Eusebius records 17 and names only one. Africanus records all 9 kings of the Dynasty V, but Eusebius records 31 kings and lists two names that are actually copied from the Sixth Dynasty. The 12th dynasty is also preserved only by Africanus.{{sfn|Lundström|2025}}}} All surviving transmissions suffer from errors, inconsistencies in regnal totals, variant name spellings, and a failure to account for contemporaneous dynasties—whether due to Manetho himself or to later copyists. Josephus, Africanus, and Eusebius all used independent, and sometimes contradictory, versions of the same work, each copy adding a new layer of typos and corruptions.<ref>{{Cite web |title= Manetho |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Manetho/home.html|website=LacusCurtius}}</ref>{{sfn|Lundström|2025}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Greenberg |first1=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ut0LAAAACAAJ |title=Manetho: A Study in Egyptian Chronology. How Ancient Scribes Garbled an Accurate Chronology of Dynastic Egypt |last2=Gosline |first2=Sheldon Lee |date=2003 |publisher=Shangri-La Publications |isbn=978-0-9714683-6-8 |chapter=1. The Problem of Manetho's Chronology |chapter-url=https://ggreenberg.tripod.com/Manetho/w-man-chap1.htm}}</ref>

The content of the ''Aegyptiaca'' must be treated with caution. Manetho likely blended historical tradition with mythology, and later Christian authors are known to have altered Manetho's figures, especially for the Second Intermediate period, to accommodate events into the Biblical narrative.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Schlichter |first=Felix |url= |title=Mythology, Chronology, Idolatry |date=2024 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-68496-6 |pages=226–270 |chapter=The Dynasties of Manetho |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aa00EQAAQBAJ&pg=PA226}}</ref> Additional distortion arose from the transmission of Egyptian royal names into Greek and from repeated copying over centuries (Greek, like Latin, was written using ''scriptio continua'', with no spaces or punctuation between words). Despite these limitations, Manetho remains a foundational source for Egyptian chronology, provided his data are critically evaluated and corroborated with archaeological and contemporary evidence.

Some fragments of Egyptian history are also covered by some Greek historians such a Herodotus ({{circa}} 450 BC) and Diodorus Siculus ({{circa}} 50 BC).<ref name="her2">Herodotus, ''Histories'', [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Herodotus/2B*.html Book II].</ref><ref name=herodotuslist>Lundström, Peter. [https://pharaoh.se/ancient-egypt/kinglist/herodotus/ The king lists of Herodotus]. ''Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt''</ref><ref name="siculus" >Diodorus Siculus, ''Bibliotheca Historica'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/1C*.html#ref5B Book I].</ref>

=== Number of kings ===

The Turin King List records 207 kings up to the end of Dynasty XVI. In addition, it preserves 16 damaged names that Kim Ryholt associates with the so-called Abydos Dynasty, totaling 223 kings in the preserved papyrus.<ref name=t>{{Cite web |last=Lundström |first=Peter |title=Turin king list: Contents |url=https://pharaoh.se/ancient-egypt/kinglist/turin-contents/ |website=Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt}}</ref> The original document, however, likely extended until the reign of Ramesses II, just as the Saqqara and Ramesseum king lists. On this basis, the Turin King List probably listed at least 27 additional rulers: nine of Dynasty XVII, fifteen of Dynasty XVIII, and the first three kings of Dynasty XIX, yielding a minimum total of 250 kings.

The papyrus also contains several ''lacunae'', explicit gaps marked by the Ramesside scribes when names in their sources were illegible. Ryholt estimates that these ''lacunae'' represent at least 12 missing kings: six for Dynasty XIII, and at least six for Dynasty XIV.{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=72–74, 98–99}} In addition, there is a ''lacuna'' in Column 5.15 that very likely corresponds to Manetho's Dynasty VII, consisting of 10 additional kings recorded only in the Abydos King List.<ref name="Papazian2015">{{cite encyclopedia |year=2015 |title=The State of Egypt in the Eighth Dynasty |encyclopedia=Towards a New History for the Egyptian Old Kingdom: Perspectives on the Pyramid Age |publisher=BRILL |url={{Google books|vP3dCgAAQBAJ|page=416|plainurl=yes}} |editor1=Peter Der Manuelian |series=Harvard Egyptological Studies |author1=Hratch Papazian |editor2=Thomas Schneider}}</ref>{{sfn|Mladjov|2021a}} There are also two instances of fictitious kings, both in Dynasty IV (likely Manetho's ''Bikheris'' and ''Thamphthis''). Taking this into account, the total rises to at least 227 kings up to the end of Dynasty XVI, 243 up to the end of the Abydos Dynasty, and 270 until Ramesses II. Even these figures likely remain conservative, since a small number of ephemeral or disputed rulers —such as Sneferka or Ba at the end of Dynasty I— were probably omitted altogether.

Including the subsequent periods of native and foreign rule, the total of kings reaches more than 300 before the first Persian conquest, which closely aligns with Herodotus' statement that, following Menes, Egypt was ruled by "three hundred and thirty kings, whose names the priests recited from a papyrus roll".<ref name="her2" />:100{{efn-lr|Herodotus states that Egypt was ruled by 330 kings until Sesostris, yet several kings in his narrative—such as Sesostris himself—appear to be unhistorical. Elsewhere, he reports that Egyptian priests told him that the interval between Min (Menes) and Sethos (Shebitku) comprised "three hundred and forty-one generations of men," equated with the same number of kings and high priests, totaling 11,340 years by Herodotus' own calculations.<ref name="her2"/>:142 These figures are highly problematic; the number of 341 kings appears to be a simple addition of the 330 kings mentioned earlier and the 11 rulers listed by Herodotus before Sethos. However, some of these rulers correspond to pharaohs of the Old Kingdom, which chronologically belong to some of Egypt's earliest dynasties.<ref name=herodotuslist/> Their placement after the period supposedly spanning hundreds of kings indicates a fundamental misunderstanding of the data provided by the priests, and the reference to a single papyrus containing the entire list further suggests that this figure was intended to represent the total number of pharaohs before the Persian conquest.}} Manetho's own total of kings is roughly 360 kings in 5470 years, but the sum of individual reigns amounts to more than 500 kings in 5370 years.{{Efn-lr|For Manetho's first two books, Julius Africanus records 192 kings in 2300 years and 96 kings in 2121 years, respectively. Book III lists 64 kings, totaling 361 kings in 5471 years. However, the actual sum of kings and years gives roughly 511 kings in 5368 years.{{sfn|Lundström|2025}} As noted before, the stated totals often disagree with the actual sum of items. Ultimately, none of the years given by Africanus nor Eusebius are useful, as Manetho originally recorded both years ''and'' months (see the comparison table below the Eighteenth Dynasty section).}} Diodorus Siculus writes that mortal kings have ruled Egypt for "a little less than five thousand years".<ref name="siculus"/>

=== Royal names and titulature === {{Main|Ancient Egyptian royal titulary}} The first Egyptian kings were known by their '''Horus name''' (serekh), with additional Nebty and Golden Horus honorifics. From the late First Dynasty onwards, kings began to use a '''throne name''' known in English as the '''prenomen''' (''nswt-bjtj'' or ''nisut-bity'', "Sedge and Bee"), which was the main name used during the Fourth Dynasty as well as the royal name found in most king-lists. The next dynasty introduced the '''nomen''' (''Sa-Ra'', "son of Ra"), which is often understood as a '''personal name'''. This is the name used by scholars after the Fifth Dynasty, as well as the name used by Manetho for most pharaohs. Given the confusing nature of royal names, only kings who are recorded with their two cartouche names (''prenomen'' and ''nomen'') can be securely identified. Throne names assigned to pre-Fifth Dynasty pharaohs are sometimes referred to as "personal names" by scholars, as there was probably no distinction between throne and personal names at the time.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Strudwick |first=Nigel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sgoVryxihuMC&pg=PA15 |title=Texts from the Pyramid Age |date=2005 |publisher=Society of Biblical Lit |isbn=978-1-58983-138-4 |pages=14–15}}</ref> For a listing and description of all royal names, from Predynastic to Ptolemaic times, see {{harvnb|Leprohon|2013}}.

== Protodynastic period == {{Main|Naqada III}}

The Protodynastic period of Egypt spans from the formation of the first Egyptian states about 3300 BC to about 3000 BC, when Egypt was first unified as a single kingdom by the rulers of Upper Egypt. Before this, both Lower and Upper Egypt were divided into several small kingdoms. The terms "Lower Egypt" and "Upper Egypt" are based on the direction of the Nile's flow, which is north. Consequently, "Lower Egypt" is located north (downstream), while "Upper Egypt" is located south (upstream).

=== Lower Egypt === Lower Egypt geographically consists of the northern Nile and the Nile delta.

The Palermo Stone mentions 14 predynastic pharaohs by their Horus name from Lower Egypt. These may be mythical kings or semi-gods preserved through oral tradition, or posthumous names of earlier pharaohs. The original document likely contained rulers for Upper Egypt as well. {{Legend|#E6E6FA|(#) {{snd}} Existence disputed}}

center|500x500px {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="15%" |Name ! width="50%" |Notes |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" !1 | colspan="2" |{{center|''Name destroyed''}} |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" !2 |[[Pu (pharaoh)|[…]'''pu''']] | rowspan="9" |Only known from the Palermo Stone. |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" !3 |'''Hsekiu''' |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" !4 |'''Khayu''' |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" !5 |'''Tiu''' |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" !6 |'''Thesh''' |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" !7 |'''Neheb''' |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" !8 |'''Wazner''' |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" !9 |'''Mekh''' |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" !10 |[[A (pharaoh of lower egypt)|[…]'''a''']] |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" !11 | colspan="2" rowspan="4" |{{center|''Names destroyed''}} |- !12 |- !13 |- |bgcolor="#EAECF0"|'''14''' |}

Other rulers include: {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Name ! width="50%" |Notes |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" |60px |'''Double Falcon''' |A symbol found in Southern Palestine, Northwest Sinai, East Delta, Tura (Cairo, near Memphis), and even Abydos (Upper Egypt). May represent a generic royal title.<ref name="Francesco">Raffaele, Francesco (2002). "[https://www.francescoraffaele.com/egypt/hesyra/dynasty00.htm Dynasty 00]". ''Late predynastic and early dynastic Egypt''.</ref>{{sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=95–96}}{{sfn|Wilkinson|2005|pp=45–47}} |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" |60px |'''Hedju-Hor''' |A symbol found in Tura, and the eastern Nile Delta. Disputed reading, Hornung called him "Trio",{{sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=95–96}} while Wilkinson used a placeholder name.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2005|pp=45–47}} |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" |60px |'''Ny-Hor''' |A symbol found in Tura.{{sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=95–96}} Thought by some to be a different rendering of the name "Narmer", more likely a predynastic ruler.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2005|pp=45–47}} |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" |60px |'''Hat-Hor''' |A symbol found in Tarkhan, Cairo.{{sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=95–96}} Thought by some to be a different rendering of the name "Narmer", may not be a royal name.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2005|pp=45–47}} |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" |60px |'''Ni-Neith''' |A symbol found in Helwan, Cairo. Reading of name is uncertain.{{sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=95–96}} |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" |60px |'''Crocodile''' |A symbol found in Tarkhan and Abydos;<ref name="Serrano">{{Cite journal |last=Jiménez Serrano |first=Alejandro |date=2000 |title=Los reyes del Predinástico Tardío (Naqada III) |url=https://aedeweb.com/wp-content/uploads/3-LOS-REYES-DEL-PREDIN%C3%81STICO-TARD%C3%8DO-NAQADA-III.pdf |journal=Boletín de la Asociación Española de Egiptología |issue=10 |page=33 |issn=1131-6780}}</ref> identity and existence are disputed.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2005|pp=45-47}} |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" |60px |'''Wash''' |Probably from Buto; potentially a name in the Narmer Palette.<ref name="Heagy" /> Some disagree and argue that the Palette is only symbolic.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2005|p=41}} |} Other potential rulers, most of which have only placeholder names, have also been proposed by Günter Dreyer,<ref name="Serrano" /><ref name="Francesco" /> but this is disputed.{{sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=95–96}}

=== Upper Egypt ===

Upper Egypt refers to the region up-river to the south of Lower Egypt. There were at least three policies by the Naqada II period ({{circa}} 3500 BC): Thinis (with its cemetery at Abydos), Naqada and Hierakonpolis.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2005|pp=45–47}} {{Legend|#E6E6FA|(#) {{snd}} Existence disputed}}

While the early dynasties were aware of their pre-dynastic history, this appears to have been all but forgotten by the Ramessid period. Later sources refer to the Menes/Narmer as the first "human king", succeeding the gods that ruled Egypt for times immemorial. Later tradition also identified him as the founder of Memphis, when in fact the city had existed since before the reign of Iry-Hor.<ref name="talle">P. Tallet, D. Laisnay (2012): ''[https://www.academia.edu/3844520/_Iry-Hor_et_Narmer_au_Sud-Sinai_ouadi_Ameyra_ Iry-Hor et Narmer au Sud-Sinaï (Ouadi 'Ameyra), un complément à la chronologie des expéditios minière égyptiene]'', in: BIFAO 112, pp. 381–395</ref>

== Early Dynastic period (c. 3100–2700 BC) == {{See also|Early Dynastic Period of Egypt}}The sole "contemporary" source for early dynastic chronology is the Palermo Stone and its associated fragments. The Turin King List, is not considered reliable for this period, as it often contradicts contemporary sources. The annals are badly damaged, and only a few names are explicitly recorded, leading to several and divergent reconstructions over the decades. Unless otherwise noted, the reconstruction follows {{Harvnb|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006}}.{{Efn-lr|It is virtually impossible to establish the exact chronology of the early dynasties. According to Hornung, the First Dynasty lasted a minimum of 150 years, and only the reigns of Aha and Narmer remain unspecified.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=21–25, 94–101, 490}} None of Manetho's figures match the historical records and hence must be discarded. The chronology of the Second Dynasty is even more uncertain because Egypt was divided during most of its duration. The Turin King List does not acknowledge co-regencies for the Twelfth Dynasty,{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=170–175}} and thus likely did not for the Second Dynasty either. This must have resulted in an inflated total of years, meaning that the "955 years"<ref name="turin5" /> given for the duration of the first eight dynasties must also be inflated.|name=EDP}} Lastly, it's worth noting that virtually all transliterations are just approximations (Egyptian is an extinct language); certain spellings may change depending on the author.

=== First Dynasty === {{Main|First Dynasty of Egypt}}

Ancient sources, including Manetho, assign eight rulers to the First Dynasty, a fact confirmed by the records in the necropolis of Qa'a, the last pharaoh.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2005|pp=55–56}} The tombs of all pharaohs, including queen Merneith, are located in the necropolis of Umm El Qa'ab, Abydos. The first two dynasties originated from the lost city of Thinis, and ruled from Memphis according to later traditions.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2005|pp=48, 56–57}}

Manetho correctly assigns eight kings to this dynasty, but his order and naming are troublesome.{{efn-lr|name=Den|Den's throne name ''Khasty'' was misread in later times as ''Qenqen'', leading to Manetho's ''Kenkenes''. The same signs for ''Khasty'' could be alternatively read as ''Semty'' (or ''Sepaty''). This is likely the origin of Manetho's ''Ousaphaidos'' (after ''Hesepty''). The name ''Ouenephes'' probably derives from Όννωφρις (''Ónnofris''), a synonym for the god Osiris, who was associated with Djer's tomb. Thus, the correct order of the first 5 pharaohs should be ''Menes'' → ''Athotis'' → ''Ouenephes'' → (Djet) → ''Kenkenes'', the latter being the same as ''Ousaphaidos''.<ref name=Edwards>{{Cite book |last=Edwards |first=I.E.S. |url= |title=The Cambridge Ancient History |date=2006 |orig-date=1971 |publisher=CUP |isbn=978-0-521-07791-0 |volume=1 (Part 2) |pages=1–35 |chapter=The Early Dynastic Period in Egypt |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/the-cambridge-ancient-history-vol.-1-part-2/page/24}}</ref> Whether the regnal years are also mixed is uncertain.}} Ramesside king lists, made 1000 years later, identify all eight kings with throne names, but none of them match contemporary records. Throne names were introduced by the fifth king, so the first names must be later additions, possibly posthumous epithets.{{efn-lr|The name ''Meni'', for instance, means "He who endures", likely referring to his position as the supposed founder of Egypt.<ref name=Edwards/> Others appear to be corruptions or misreadings. Djer's supposed throne name, ''Itti'', does appear in the Palermo Stone, but it is rendered as a Golden Horus name.{{Sfn|Wilkinson|2000|pp=186–187}}<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cervelló |first=Autuori Josep |date=2005 |title=Was King Narmer Menes? |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/arnil_1161-0492_2005_num_15_1_896 |journal=Archéo-Nil |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=31–46 |doi=10.3406/arnil.2005.896}}</ref>|name=E1}} As noted before, the dynasty must have begun {{circa}} '''3100 BC''', ± 150 years.{{sfn|Hayes|2007|pp=173-176}}<ref name="Dee Wengrow2" />{{efn-lr|name=EDP}}

'''Proposed dates''': {{Circa}} 3007–2828 (179 years),{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=283}} {{Circa}} 2920–2770 (150 years),{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=105}} {{Circa}} 3000–2750 (250 years),{{Sfn|University College London|2000}} {{Circa}} 3000–2890 (110 years),{{Sfn|Shaw|2003|p=481}} {{Circa}} 2900–2730 (170 years){{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|p=490}}

{{Legend|#F2E0CE|(#) {{snd}} Status ambiguous}} {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Horus name ! width="15%" |Throne name{{efn-lr|name=ramname|Throne names for the first three dynasties follow those found in the official king lists of the New Kingdom. However, none of them match contemporary records and are mostly corruptions or misreadings. Original throne names are given in small brackets.}} ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=21–25, 94–101, 490}}{{efn-lr|name=regnal|The figures for the early dynasties correspond to regnal years, which denote accession-based counting and do not necessarily correspond to full calendar years of rule.}} |- !1 |60px |'''Narmer''' |'''Meni''' |Began his rule as king of Upper Egypt; finished the unification of Egypt. Recorded as '''Meni''' in the Ramesside lists, and is called '''Menes''' by Manetho.{{efn-lr|The Greek historians Herodotus ({{circa}} 450 BC) and Diodorus Siculus ({{circa}} 50 BC) give two similar variants of the name: '''Min''' and '''Menas''', respectively.<ref name="her2"/>:99<ref name="siculus" />:45}} His name is attested as far as modern Israel. According to Manetho, he was killed by a hippopotamus after ruling 62 years.{{sfnm|1a1=Wilkinson|1y=2005|1pp=56-8|2a1=Bunson|2y=2002|2p=262|3a1=Clayton|3y=2001|3pp=17–21|4a1=Tetley|4y=2017|4pp=267-8}} |– |- !2 |60px |'''Aha''' |Teti |Thought by some scholars to be the first pharaoh.{{sfn|Beckerath|1999|pp=38–39}}<ref name="Heagy">{{cite journal |date=2014 |title=Who Was Menes? |url=https://www.persee.fr/docAsPDF/arnil_1161-0492_2014_num_24_1_1071.pdf |journal=Archéo nil |volume=24 |pages=59–92 |doi=10.3406/arnil.2014.1071 |s2cid=248280047 |author-first=Thomas C. |author-last=Heagy}}</ref> Campaigned as far as Nubia, modern Sudan. According to radiocarbon dating studies, his reign likely began {{circa}} 3111–3045 BC,<ref name="Dee Wengrow2" /> but possibly about a century earlier.<ref name="QuilesAnita" /> Recorded as '''Teti''' in the Ramesside lists. Manetho calls him ''Athotís''. |– |- bgcolor="#F2E0CE" !* |frameless|60x60px |'''Neithhotep'''♀ |– |Mother of Aha and wife to Narmer,{{sfn|Wilkinson|2005|pp=5, 31, 58}} thought by some authors to have ruled early in Djer's reign, perhaps as co-ruler.{{sfn|Tyldesley|2006|pp=26-28}} |– |- !3 |60px |'''Djer''' |Iti |His tomb was later thought to be the tomb of Osiris, god of the afterlife. Recorded as '''Iti''' in the Ramesside lists.{{sfnm|1a1=Wilkinson|1y=2005|1p=71|2a1=Bunson|2y=2002|2pp=102-3|3a1=Clayton|3y=2001|3p=22|4a1=Tetley|4y=2017|4p=272}} One of the few kings to be directly named in the Royal Annals, which gives ''Iti'' as his Golden Horus name.{{Sfn|Wilkinson|2000|pp=186–187}} Manetho calls him ''Uenéphes''. |{{circa}} 47 years |- !4 |60px |'''Djet''' |Ita |Also known as "Serpent"; recorded as '''Ita''' in the Ramesside lists.{{sfnm|1a1=Wilkinson|1y=2005|1pp=61-2|2a1=Bunson|2y=2002|2p=101|3a1=Clayton|3y=2001|3p=22|4a1=Tetley|4y=2017|4pp=272-3}} Manetho calls him ''Usapháis''. |{{circa}} 10 years |- bgcolor="#F2E0CE" !* |60px |'''Merneith'''♀ |– |Mother of Den and likely the wife of Djet; almost certainly ruled as regent during Den's minority,{{sfn|Wilkinson|2005|pp=62-63. "It seems virtually certain that Merneith acted as regent during Den’s minority"}} although she is sometimes considered a ruler in her own right.<ref>{{Cite book |editor-last=Teeter |editor-first=Emily |url=https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/oimp33.pdf |title=Before the pyramids: the origins of Egyptian civilization |date=2011|isbn=978-1-885923-82-0 |series=Oriental Institute Museum publications|volume=33|pages=137–144, 207}}</ref> |– |- !5 |60px |'''Den''' |Sepati ('''Khasty''') |Most documented pharaoh of the dynasty. Introduced the prenomen and double crown. Celebrated two Sed festivals, indicating a long reign. Succeeded as a child and began his reign under the regency of his mother Merneith. His campaigns in the northeast are attested on the Palermo Stone, which also records a national census.{{sfnm|1a1=Wilkinson|1y=2005|1pp=63-5|2a1=Bunson|2y=2002|2p=99|3a1=Clayton|3y=2001|3pp=23-4|4a1=Tetley|4y=2017|4p=273}} His prenomen '''Khasty''' was later misread as '''Septi''' and '''Qenti'''.<ref name="Edwards" />{{efn-lr|name=Den}} Manetho calls him ''Kénkenes''. |{{circa}} 42 years |- !6 |60px |'''Anedjib''' |Merybiape ('''Merbiap''') |The Turin King List gives him a lifespan of 74 years, which would place his accession at age 66. Perhaps co-ruled with his father and/or succeeded at a late age, as he had an implausible Sed festival. His prenomen '''Merbiap''' was later misread as '''Merybiape''' and '''Merygeregipen'''.{{sfnm|1a1=Wilkinson|1y=2005|1pp=75-7|2a1=Bunson|2y=2002|2p=9|3a1=Clayton|3y=2001|3pp=24-5|4a1=Tetley|4y=2017|4pp=273-4}} Manetho calls him ''Miebidós''. |{{circa}} 8 years |- !7 |60px |'''Semerkhet''' |Semsu ('''Iry''') |His full reign is preserved on the Palermo Stone. The Turin King List gives him a lifespan of 72 years, which would place his accession at age 64.{{sfnm|1a1=Wilkinson|1y=2005|1pp=66-7|2a1=Bunson|2y=2002|2p=360|3a1=Clayton|3y=2001|3p=25|4a1=Tetley|4y=2017|4pp=275-6}} His prenomen '''Iry''' was later misread as '''Semsu''' and '''Semsen'''.<ref name="Edwards" /> Manetho calls him ''Semempsés''. |'''{{frac|8|1|2}} years''' |- !8 |60px |'''Qa'a''' |Qebeh ('''Sen''') |Celebrated two Sed festivals. The Turin King List gives him a lifespan of 63 years, which would place his accession at age 30. His Horus name was later corrupted into '''Qebeh'''.{{sfnm|1a1=Wilkinson|1y=2005|1p=68|2a1=Bunson|2y=2002|2p=324|3a1=Clayton|3y=2001|3p=25|4a1=Tetley|4y=2017|4p=277}} Last pharaoh to have human sacrifices dedicated to him.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2005|p=229}} Manetho calls him ''Bienéches''. |{{circa}} 33 years |- ! colspan="6" |The position and identity of the following pharaohs is unknown: |- bgcolor="#F2E0CE" !* |60px |'''Sneferka''' |– | rowspan="2" |Two obscure names associated with the end of Qaa's reign. Correct chronological position unknown, perhaps ephemeral rivals, usurpers, or alternative names of previous (or later) pharaohs.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2005|p=69}} |? |- bgcolor="#F2E0CE" !* |60px |'''Bird''' / '''Ba''' |– |? |} '''Comparison of royal lists''':

{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" |+ ! rowspan="2" |Historical pharaoh ! colspan="3" |Ramesside king lists<ref name="abydos">[https://pharaoh.se/ancient-egypt/kinglist/abydos-canon/ Abydos Canon]</ref><ref name="turin1">[https://pharaoh.se/ancient-egypt/kinglist/turin/column-3/ Turin King List: column 3]</ref> ! colspan="8" |''Aegyptiaca''{{sfn|Lundström|2025}}<ref name="manetho1" /> ! rowspan="11" | ! colspan="4" |Royal Annals |- !Abydos !Saqqara !Turin ! ! colspan="3" |Africanus ! ! colspan="3" |Eusebius !Hornung{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=21–25, 94–101, 490}} !Wilkinson{{sfn|Wilkinson|2000|pp=71–81, 258–259}} !''CAH''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Edwards |first=I.E.S. |author-link=I. E. S. Edwards |url=https://archive.org/details/the-cambridge-ancient-history-vol.-1-part-2/page/993 |title=The Cambridge Ancient History |publisher=CUP |year=2006 |volume=1 (Part 2) |page=994 |orig-date=1971}}</ref> !Helck{{sfn|Helck|1987|p=125}} |- |Narmer |Meni |– |Meni ! rowspan="9" | |Μηνης |Menes |62 ! rowspan="9" | |Μηνης |Menes |60 |– |– |– |32 years |- |Aha |Teti |– |Teti |Aθωθις |Athothis |57 |Aθωθις |Athothis |27 |– |– |– |1 year |- |Djer |Iti |– |Iti |Κενκενης |Kenkenes |31 |Κενκενης |Kenkenes |39 |47 years |41 years |47 years |54 years |- |Djet |Ita |– |[…]tui |Ουενεφης |Ouenephes |23 |Ουενεφης |Ouenephes |42 |10 years |– |– |11 years |- |Den ''Khasty'' |Septi |– |Qenti |Ουσαφαιδoς |Ousaphaidos |'''20''' |Ουσαφαης |Ousaphais |'''20''' |42 years |32 years |44–60 years |43 years |- |Adjib ''Merbiap'' |Meribiap |Merbapen |Merigeregipen |Μιεβιδoς |Miebidos |'''26''' |Nιεβαης |Niebais |'''26''' |8 years |10 years |7 years |11 years |- |Semerkhet ''Iry'' |Semsu |– |Semsen |Σεμεμψης |Semempses |'''18''' |Σεμεμψης |Semempses |'''18''' |'''9 years''' |'''9 years''' |8 years |'''9 years''' |- |Qa'a |Qebeh |Qebehu |Qebeh |Βιηνεχης |Bienekhes |'''26''' |Ουβιενθης |Oubienthes |'''26''' |33 years |– |26 years |33 years |- ! colspan="4" | | colspan="3" |'''253 years''' (actually '''263''') | colspan="3" |'''252 years''' (actually '''258''') |'''150+ years''' |'''100+ years''' |'''140+ years''' |'''185 years''' |}

=== Second Dynasty === {{Main|Second Dynasty of Egypt}}

The following table follows the royal records of the Saqqara and Turin lists, which coincide with Manetho in recording nine kings. Following the reign of Nynetjer, the country was split and remained so until the reign of Khasekhemwy.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zulian |first=Marcelo |date=2017 |title=Manetón y la Dinastía II. Pistas sobre las dinámicas de poder a comienzos de la historia egipcia. |url=https://cdsa.aacademica.org/000-019/2 |journal=XVI Jornadas Interescuelas/Departamentos de Historia |publisher=Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata}}</ref> The five Ramesside names between Nynetjer and Khasekhemwy cannot be securely correlated with contemporary rulers, leading to much confusion in the correct identification of rulers. The tombs of the first three pharaohs were found in Saqqara, while those of Seth-Peribsen and Khasekhemwy were found in Umm El Qa'ab.

'''Proposed dates''': {{Circa}} 2828–2682 (146 years),{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=283}} {{Circa}} 2770–2649 BC (121 years),{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=105}} {{Circa}} 2750–2650 BC (100 years),{{Sfn|University College London|2000}} {{Circa}} 2890–2686 (204 years),{{Sfn|Shaw|2003|p=481}} {{Circa}} 2730–2590 BC (140 years){{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|p=490}}

{| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Horus name ! width="15%" |Throne name{{Efn-lr|name=ramname}} ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=102–115, 490}}{{sfn|Wilkinson|2000|pp=71–81, 258–259}}{{efn-lr|name=regnal}} |- !1 |60px |'''Hotepsekhemwy''' |Bedjau ('''Hotep''') |Chose to be buried at Saqqara to be closer to the capital. His Horus name was misread as '''Bedjau''' during the 5th dynasty.<ref name=wilson>{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=R. Avry |url=https://www.academia.edu/33529754 |title=Introducing Shenkhet: A Relationship of Old Kingdom Nomenclatures and the Ancient Egyptian Environment |date=2017}}</ref> Manetho calls him ''Boethos''. The Turin King List gives him 95 years, likely his lifespan, which would imply his accession occurred at age 66–70.{{sfnm|1a1=Wilkinson|1y=2005|1p=70|2a1=Bunson|2y=2002|2p=173|3a1=Clayton|3y=2001|3p=26|4a1=Tetley|4y=2017|4p=277}}{{Efn-lr|name=Hotep|The names of Hotepsekhemwy and Nynetjer, albeit written with different characters, are both pronounced as ''Baunetjer'' in the Turin list.<ref name=turin3/> They are both given a lifespan of 95 years, which implies a duplication mistake. The Giza list of the Old Kingdom recorded Hotep's name as "Bedjau", likely a corruption of his Horus name, while the Ramesside Abydos list corrupted Nynetjer's name into "Banetjer".<ref name=wilson/> The Saqqara list further corrupted "Bedjau" into "Baunetjer", which lead to the Turin list recording both kings with similar sounding names (''b3w-nṯr'' and ''b3-n-nṯr'').{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=42}}}} |{{circa}} 25–29 years<ref name="Wildung" /> |- !2 |60px |'''Nebra''' |Kakau ('''Weneg?''') |Called '''Raneb''' in older scholarship. Recorded under the name '''Kakau''' in the Ramesside lists.{{sfnm|1a1=Wilkinson|1y=2005|1pp=70–1|2a1=Bunson|2y=2002|2p=344|3a1=Clayton|3y=2001|3pp=26–27|4a1=Tetley|4y=2017|4p=278}} Manetho calls him ''Kaiekhos''. Thought by some scholars to be the Horus name of Weneg.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=102–115, 490}} |{{circa}} 10–14 years<ref name="Wildung" /> |- !3 |60px |'''Nynetjer''' |Banetjer ('''Nynetjer''') |Egypt was divided by the end of his reign. His name was later misread as '''Banetjer'''. Known to have put down a rebellion in his 13th year.{{sfnm|1a1=Wilkinson|1y=2005|1pp=71–2|2a1=Bunson|2y=2002|2p=279|3a1=Clayton|3y=2001|3p=27}} Manetho calls him ''Binothris''. The Turin King List gives him 95 years, likely his lifespan, which would imply his accession occurred at age 55.{{Efn-lr|name=Hotep}} |'''40 years''' |- ! colspan="6" |The following names are only attested in Ramesside lists: |- !4 |60px |– |'''Wadjenes''' |The Turin King List gives him a lifespan of 70 years.<ref name="turin3" /> Manetho states that Wadjenes ruled for 17 years.<ref>William Gillian Waddell: ''Manetho'' (The Loeb Classical Library, Vol. 350). Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Mass.) 2004 (Reprint), {{ISBN|0-674-99385-3}}, pp. 37–41.</ref> Thus, Turin and Manetho combined imply that Wadjenes ascended to the throne at age 53. Thought by some scholars to be the same as Weneg,{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=430|2a1=Tetley|2y=2017|2pp=279–280}} or Seth-Peribsen.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|p=21}}<ref name="Wildung">Wildung, Dietrich (1969). ''[https://archive.org/details/dierollegyptisch0001wild Die Rolle ägyptischer Könige im Bewusstsein ihrer Nachwelt. Band 1].'' Münchner ägyptologische Studien vol. 17. {{ZDB|500317-9}}. Berlin, pp. 31–47.</ref> Manetho calls him ''Tlas''. |– |- !5 |60px |– |'''Senedj''' |The Turin King List gives him a lifespan of 54 years.<ref name="turin3" /> Manetho states that Senedj (''Sethenes'') ruled for 41 years. Thus, Turin and Manetho combined imply that he ascended to the throne at age 13. While poorly attested in contemporary sources, he developed a cult following that survived up until the 26th Dynasty, {{circa}} 600 BC.{{sfnm|2a1=Bunson|2y=2002|2p=361|1a1=Wilkinson|1y=2005|1pp=74–5}} Thought by some scholars to be the same person as either Horus Sa<ref>{{Citation | first = Thomas | last = Von der Way | title = Zur Datierung des "Labyrinth-Gebäudes" auf dem Tell el-Fara'in (Buto) | journal = Göttinger Miszellen | volume = 157 | year = 1997 | pages = 107–111}}</ref>{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=102–115, 490}} or Seth-Peribsen.<ref>Kenneth Anderson Kitchen: ''Ramesside Inscriptions''. page 234–235. {{full citation needed|date=February 2026}}</ref> |– |- !6 |40px |– |'''Neferkare I''' |The Turin King List gives him a lifespan of 70 years. Manetho states that Neferkara (''Khaires'') ruled for 17 years. Thus, Turin and Manetho combined imply that Neferkara ascended to the throne at age 53. Ryholt proposes that "Neferkara" is a misreading of Sneferka, who ruled at the end of the First Dynasty.<ref name="turin3" /> Excluded from the Abydos King List for unknown reasons. |– |- !7 |40px |– |'''Neferkasokar''' |Reigned 8 years and 3 months according to the Turin King List, lifespan damaged.<ref name="turin3" /> One reconstruction of the damaged lifespan in the list would give him a lifespan of 30 years, implying that Neferkasokar ascended to the throne at age 22.<ref name="turin3" /> Excluded from the Abydos King List for unknown reasons. Manetho calls him ''Nephercheres''. |– |- !8 |40px |– |"'''Hudjefa I'''" |Name lost but still included in king lists as '''''Hudjefa''''' (meaning "missing" or "erased"). The Turin King List gives him a reign of 11 years, 8 months, and 4 days, and a lifespan of 34 years, which would place his accession at age 22.<ref name="turin3" /> Excluded from the Abydos King List for unknown reasons. Manetho calls him ''Sesôchris''. |– |- ! colspan="6" |The position and identity of the following pharaohs is unknown: |- !* |60px |'''Ba''' |– |Name found beneath the Pyramid of Djoser, in Lower Egypt.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Raffaele |first=Francesco |date=2010 |title=Horus BA (Third Dynasty) |url=https://www.francescoraffaele.com/egypt/hesyra/dyn3-Ba.htm |website=Late Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt}}</ref> According to Nabil Swelim, his name may have been intermingled with the Ramesside name of Nynetjer (''Banetjer'').<ref>{{Cite book|title=Some Problems on the History of the Third Dynasty|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J7iPQgAACAAJ|publisher=Archaeological Society of Alexandria|date=1983|first=Nabil|last=Swelim|pages=27–32, 180 & 219}}</ref> |– |- !* |60px |– |'''Weneg''' |Attested in the Pyramid of Djoser, as well as a tomb from Saqqara. Possibly the prenomen of Nebra.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=102–115, 490}} |– |- !* |60px |– |'''Nubnefer''' |Attested on two vessel fragments from the Pyramid of Djoser associated with the reign of Nynetjer.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=102–115, 490}}{{Sfn|Wilkinson|2005|pp=75–77}} |– |- !* |60px |'''Seth-Peribsen''' |Peribsen |Tomb found at Abydos, attested only in Upper Egypt. His serekh notably features Set, not Horus.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=102–115, 490}}{{Sfn|Wilkinson|2005|pp=75–77}} May have been Nynetjer's direct successor in Upper Egypt.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|p=21}} His name notably appears alongside Senedj in a tomb dating to the Fourth Dynasty.{{Sfn|Wilkinson|2005|pp=74–76}}{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=102–115, 490}} |{{circa}} 10 years |- !* |60px | colspan="2" |'''Sekhemib-Perenmaat''' |Probably ruled in Upper Egypt.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=102–115, 490}}{{Sfn|Wilkinson|2005|pp=75–77}} |– |- !* |60px |'''Sa''' |– |Attested on a few vessels from the Pyramid of Djoser. May be Senedj or Nubnefer.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=102–115, 490}} |– |- ! colspan="6" |With the last ruler, the sources and king lists return to an agreement: |- !9 |60px |'''Khasekhemwy''' |Bebety ('''Khastwy''') |His serekh name is unique for presenting both Horus and Set, possibly indicating the end of a religious strife that began under Seth-Peribsen. Likely began as king of Upper Egypt (under the name '''Khasekhem''') before reuniting the two lands. He was one of Egypt's first master builders, best known for his funerary enclosure, the ''Shunet El Zebib''. His Horus name was later misread as '''Djadjay''' and '''Bebety'''.{{sfnm|1a1=Wilkinson|1y=2005|1pp=77–9|2a1=Bunson|2y=2002|2pp=199–200|3a1=Clayton|3y=2001|3pp=28–9|4a1=Tetley|4y=2017|4p=277}} Manetho calls him ''Kheneres''. Died at the age of 40 according to the Turin King List, which would place his accession at age 23.<ref name="turin3" /> |'''{{frac|17|1|2}} years'''{{Efn-lr|As recorded in the Palermo Stone.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2000|pp=78–79, 258}} The Turin King List gives him a reign of 27 years, 2 months and 1 day, and a lifespan of 40 years (i.e. he would have started his reign at the age of 13 according to the Turin List). The "27 years" figure must be a corruption of "17 years", thus we must assume he started his reign at the age of 23 instead.<ref name=turin3/>}} |}

'''Comparison of royal lists''' {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" |+Ancient ! rowspan="2" |Historical pharaoh ! rowspan="2" |Giza (5th dynasty) ! rowspan="2" |Abydos (19th) ! rowspan="2" |Saqqara (19th) ! colspan="3" |Turin (19th)<ref name="turin3">[https://pharaoh.se/ancient-egypt/kinglist/turin/column-3/ Turin King List: column 3–4.]</ref> ! colspan="6" |''Aegyptiaca''{{sfn|Lundström|2025}}<ref name="manetho1" /> ! colspan="3" |Royal Annals |- !Name !Reign !Lifespan ! colspan="3" |Africanus ! colspan="3" |Eusebius !Hornung{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=102–108, 490}} !Wilkinson{{sfn|Wilkinson|2000|pp=71–81, 258–259}} !Helck{{sfn|Helck|1987|p=125}} |- |Hotepsekhemwy |Bedjau |Bedjau |Baunetjer |[Bau]netjer |[…] |95y |Βoηθoς |Boethos |38 |Βωχος |Bochos |– | colspan="2" |– | rowspan="2" |39 years |- |Nebra |– |Kakau |Kakau |Kakau |[…] |[…] |Καιεχως |Kaiekhos |39 |Χωος |Choös |– | colspan="2" |– |- |Nynetjer |– |Banetjer |Banetjeru |Bau[netjer] |[…] |95y |Βίνωθρις |Binothris |47 |Βίοφις |Biophis |– | colspan="2" |'''40 years''' |45 years |- |''unknown'' |– |Wadjnas |Wadjlas |[Wadjne]s |[…] |70y |Τλας |Tlas |17 |– |– |– | colspan="2" |– | rowspan="3" |33 years |- |''unknown'' |– |Sendi |Senedj |Senedj |[…] |54y |Σεθενης |Sethenes |41 |– |– |– | colspan="2" |– |- |''unknown'' |– |– |Neferkara |Aaka |[…] |70y |Χαιρης |Khaires |17 |– |– |– | colspan="2" |– |- |''unknown'' |– |– |Neferkasokar |Neferkasokar |8y, 3m |[…] |Nεφερχερης |Nephercheres |25 |– |– |– | colspan="2" |– |8 |- |''unknown'' |– |– |Hudjefa I |Hudjefa |11y, 8m, 4d |34y |Σεσωχρις |Sesochris |48 |Σεσωχρις |Sesochris |48 | colspan="2" |– |12 |- |Khasekhemwy |– |Djadjay |Bebti |Bebti |27y, 2m, 1d |40y |Χενερης |Kheneres |30 |– |– |– | colspan="2" |'''18 years''' |– |- ! colspan="7" rowspan="2" | | colspan="3" |'''302 years''' | colspan="3" |'''297 years''' ! colspan="3" rowspan="2" | |- | colspan="3" |'''Dynasties I–II''', '''555 years''' (actual sum is '''565 years''') | colspan="3" |'''Dynasties I–II''', '''549 years''' (actual sum is '''555 years''') |} {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" |+Modern !Beckerath 1999 !UCL 2000 !Clayton 2001 !Bunson 2002 !Shaw 2003 !Hornung et al. 2006 |- | # '''Hotepsekhemwy''' # '''Nebra''' # '''Ninetjer''' # Weneg # Sened # Sekhemib # Peribsen # Neferkara # Neferkasokar # Hudjefa I # '''Khasekhemwy''' | # '''Hotepsekhemwy''' # '''Raneb''' # '''Ninetjer''' # Sekhemib # Peribsen # Sened # Weneg # '''Khasekhem(wy)''' | # '''Hotepsekhemwy''' # '''Raneb''' # '''Ninetjer''' # Peribsen # '''Khasekhemwy''' | # '''Hotepsekhemwy''' # '''Re'neb''' # '''Ninetjer''' # Weneg # Peribsen # Sendji # Neferka # Neferkara # '''Kha'sekhemwy''' | # '''Hetepsekhemwy''' # '''Raneb''' # '''Nynetjer''' # Weneg # Sened # Peribsen # '''Khasekhemwy''' | # '''Hetep-sekhemwy''' # '''Ra'-neb''' # '''Ny-netjer''' # Per-ibsen # Sekhem-ib # Sened # '''Kha-sekhemwy''' |}

== Old Kingdom (c. 2700–2200 BC) == {{Main|Old Kingdom of Egypt}}

The history of ancient Egypt is divided into three "golden ages" (Old, Middle, and New Kingdom), interspersed between three periods of fragmentation known as "intermediate periods". The capital during the period of the Old Kingdom was also Memphis. According to radiocarbon dating, the Old Kingdom began sometime around the mid-27th century BC, possibly between 2676 and 2643 BC, but with more certainty between 2691 and 2625 BC.<ref name=Ramsey/>

=== Third Dynasty === {{Main|Third Dynasty of Egypt}}

Ancient sources assign five rulers to the Third Dynasty, but there is uncertainty regarding their exact order and chronology. Both the Turin and Abydos king lists claim that the Third Dynasty was founded by Nebka, hence his position in some modern lists. However, archeological evidence has shown that the founder was in fact Djoser, who is correctly identified as its first king in the Saqqara Tablet. The dynasty ruled 74 years according to the Turin King List, but its numbers do not match with the earlier Palermo Stone; the actual duration may be as low as 50 years.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=116–123}}

'''Proposed dates''': {{Circa}} 2682–2614 BC (68 years),{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=283}} {{Circa}} 2649–2575 BC (74 years),{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=105}} {{Circa}} 2686–2600 BC (86 years),{{Sfn|University College London|2000}} {{Circa}} 2686–2613 BC (73 years),{{Sfn|Shaw|2003|p=481}} {{Circa}} 2592–2544 BC (48 years){{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|p=490}} {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Horus name ! width="15%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=116–123, 490}}{{Sfn|Wilkinson|2000|pp=79, 258}}{{efn-lr|name=regnal}} |- !1 |60px |Netjerikhet |'''Djoser''' |Best known under his posthumous name of '''Djoser''';{{efn-lr|Besides the Ramesside lists of Dynasty XIX, the name "Djoser" is also attested in a monument erected by Senusret II of Dynasty XII, as well as in the Westcar Papyrus of Dynasty XIII.{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=48 (n3)}} }} recorded in contemporary sources as '''Netjerikhet'''. Possibly a son of Khasekhemwy. Commissioned the first Pyramid, created by chief architect Imhotep, who was later deified.{{sfnm|1a1=Wilkinson|1y=2005|1pp=80–2|2a1=Bunson|2y=2002|2p=103|3a1=Clayton|3y=2001|3pp=37–42}} According to radiocarbon dating, his reign began in the range of 2691–2625 BC.<ref name="Ramsey" /> |'''28–29 years'''{{Efn-lr|text=According to Wilkinson, the Palermo Stone records 28 complete or partial years for Djoser,{{sfn|Wilkinson|2000|pp=79, 258}} which closely matches Manetho's figure of "29 years". The Turin King List gives "19 years"; Khasekhemwy's reign was similarly changed from "17 years" to "27 years". Ramesside scribes may have erroneously attributed the first 10 years of Djoser's reign to Khasekhemwy.}} |- !2 |60px |'''Sekhemkhet''' |Teti |Commissioned the Buried Pyramid, which was left unfinished due to his short reign.{{sfnm|1a1=Wilkinson|1y=2005|1pp=82–4|2a1=Bunson|2y=2002|2p=359|3a1=Clayton|3y=2001|3pp=38–9}} |'''7 years'''{{Efn-lr|text=As recorded in the Palermo Stone and Manetho (who calls him '''Tyreis''', after his posthumous name ''Teti''). The Turin King List records 6 years and x months and repeats the same figure for his successor, which may or may not be another copyist mistake.}} |- !3 |60px |'''Sanakht''' (?) |'''Nebka''' |Almost certainly the Horus name of '''Nebka''', the 3rd ruler in the Saqqara Tablet. Sometimes placed 4th.{{sfnm|1a1=Wilkinson|1y=2005|1pp=84–7|2a1=Bunson|2y=2002|2p=264|3a1=Clayton|3y=2001|3p=32}} The Turin King List places Nebka and Djoser as the first pharaohs and gives them the same reign length, which is likely a copyist error. | rowspan="3" |{{circa}} '''24 years'''{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|p=123. "Beckerath's recent calculation allows only 24 years for all three remaining kings, in clear contradiction of ''TC'' which gives 24 years to Huni alone plus six more for ''Hu-djefa''"}} |- !4 |60px |'''Khaba''' (?) |"'''Sedjes'''" "'''Hudjefa II'''" |Ramesside sources do not give the name of the 4th ruler, instead using the placeholder ''Sedjes'' and ''Hudjefa''. It may refer to Horus-'''Khaba''' (although some scholars link that name with Huni). Commissioned the unfinished Layer Pyramid during his short reign.{{sfnm|1a1=Wilkinson|1y=2005|1pp=84–7|2a1=Bunson|2y=2002|2p=197|3a1=Clayton|3y=2001|3p=40}} |- !5 |60px |'''Qahedjet''' (?) |'''Huni''' |First well-attested throne name; identified by Wilkinson as '''Qahedjet'''. Commissioned the Meidum Pyramid.{{sfnm|1a1=Wilkinson|1y=2005|1pp=84–7|2a1=Bunson|2y=2002|2p=174|3a1=Clayton|3y=2001|3pp=40–1}} |}'''Comparison of royal lists:''' {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" |+ ! rowspan="2" |Giza (5th dynasty) ! rowspan="2" |Abydos (19th) ! rowspan="2" |Saqqara (19th) ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Turin (19th) ! colspan="6" |Manetho (33rd) |- ! colspan="3" |Aricanus ! colspan="3" |Eusebius |- |– |Nebka |Djoser |Nebka |19y […] |Nεχερoφης |'''Necherophes''' |28 |Νεχερωχις |'''Necherochis''' |– |- |– |Djeser-za |Djoser-teti |{{font color|red|Djoser-it}} |19y, 1m |Toσoρθρoς |'''Tosorthros''' |29 |Σεσορθος |'''Sesorthos''' |– |- |Teti |Teti |Nebkare |Djoser-ti |6y,[…] |Tυρεις |'''Tyreis''' |7 |– | colspan="2" rowspan="6" |"The remaining six accomplished nothing worthy of mention" |- |– |''Sedjes'' |– |''Hudjefa II'' |6y […] |Nεχερoφης |'''Mesochris''' |17 |– |- |– |Neferkara |Huni |Hu(ni) |24y |Σωυφις |'''Soyphis''' |16 |– |- ! colspan="3" rowspan="5" | | colspan="2" |'''74 years total''' |Toσερτασις |'''Tosertasis''' |19 |– |- ! colspan="2" rowspan="4" | |Aχης |'''Aches''' |42 |– |- |Σηφoνρις |'''Sephouris''' |30 |– |- |Kερφερης |'''Kerpheres{{Efn-lr|''Mesochris'' and ''Soyphis'' appear to be duplicated names from Dynasty IV (''Mencheres'' and ''Souphis''), while ''Tosertasis'' appears to be a duplicate of ''Tesorthros''. The next names ''Aches'', ''Sephouris'' and ''Kerpheres'', are of unknown origin, but may as well be duplicates.}}''' |26 | colspan="3" | |- | colspan="3" |'''214 years''' | colspan="3" |'''198 years''' |- ! ! colspan="4" | | colspan="3" |'''Dynasties I–III''', '''769 years''' (actual sum is '''779 years''') | colspan="3" |'''Dynasties I–III''', '''747 years''' (actual sum is '''753 years''') |}

=== Fourth Dynasty === {{Main|Fourth Dynasty of Egypt}}

The Fourth Dynasty is renowned for its colossal monuments and pyramids, most notably the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. While the first four kings are well attested, there is some uncertainty regarding the successors of Khafre in later sources. However, the tomb of Sekhemkare, vizier and son of Khafre, records the correct succession from Khafre Sahure. Sekhemkare supposedly lived under five pharaohs, which implies that the latter kings did not reign long. Some tales of this period were recorded by the Greek historian Herodotus, although he notably places it ''after'' the New Kingdom period.

The exact chronology of this dynasty is disputed, as scholars disagree whether cattle counts were made annually or biennially at this time. The following numbers assume most were annual.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=124–143, 484–486, 491}}

'''Proposed dates''': {{Circa}} 2614–2479 BC (135 years),{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=283}} {{Circa}} 2575–2465 BC (110 years),{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=105}} {{Circa}} 2600–2450 BC (150 years),{{Sfn|University College London|2000}} {{Circa}} 2613–2494 BC (119 years),{{Sfn|Shaw|2003|p=481}} {{Circa}} 2543–2436 BC (107 years){{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=490–491}}

{{Legend|#E6E6FA|(#) {{snd}} Existence disputed}} {{Legend|#F2E0CE|(#) {{snd}} Status ambiguous}}

{| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Horus name ! width="15%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=124–143, 490–491}}{{Sfn|Wilkinson|2000|p=79}}{{efn-lr|name=regnal}} |- !1 |60px |Nebmaat |'''Sneferu''' |Possibly a son of Huni; reigned long enough to complete the Meidum, Bent, and Red Pyramids. Campaigned into Libya, Nubia, and the Sinai. Cartouche names were standardized during his reign.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=378|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=42–5|4a1=Tetley|4y=2017|4pp=292–300}} According to radiocarbon dating, his reign began in the range of 2649–2582 BC.<ref name="Ramsey" /> |{{circa}} 30 years{{efn-lr|A minimum of 24 years can be deduced from his cattle counts, but other evidence points to a minimum reign of 27 years. The Turin King List precisely gives him 24 years, but this is considered too short.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=124–143, 484–486, 491}} According to one reconstruction of the Annals, he reigned for a minimum of 34 years.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|p=25}} Some argue that he reigned up to 50 years.{{sfn|Tetley|2017|pp=292–300}} }} |- !2 |60px |Medjedu |'''Khufu''' |Son of Sneferu; builder of the Great Pyramid of Giza and protagonist of the 13th-dynasty Westcar Papyrus. Fought campaigns in the Sinai and initiated several building projects around Memphis. Also known by the Hellenized name '''Cheops''' by Herodotus, who describes him as a tyrant.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=203-4|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=45–50|4a1=Tetley|4y=2017|4pp=300–303}} According to radiocarbon dating, his reign began in the range of 2629–2558 BC.<ref name="Ramsey" /> |{{circa}} 30 years{{efn-lr|Perhaps 26 years;{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=124–143, 484–486, 491}} a recent finding suggests that he died shortly before completing 30 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://aeraweb.org/khufus-30-year-jubilee/|title=Khufu's 30-Year Jubilee: Newly Discovered Pieces of a Puzzle}}</ref> Turin records 23 years, Herodotus 50, Africanus 63.}} |- !3 |60px |Khepri |'''Djedefre''' |His name is alternatively read as '''Radjedef'''. Son of Khufu; first pharaoh to use a nomen. He also commissioned a pyramid at Abu Rawash, which was never fully completed.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=333|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=50–51}} |{{circa}} 10 years |- !4 |60px |Userib |'''Khafre''' |Brother of Djedefre; his pyramid is the second largest in Giza. Believed to be the builder of the Great Sphinx. His funerary complex was the largest at the Giza plateau.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=198|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=50–1}} Herodotus calls him '''Chephren''' and mistakenly refers to him as Khufu's brother.<ref name="her2" /> |Over 20 years |- !5 |60px |Kakhet |'''Menkaure''' |Son of Khafre; his pyramid is the third and smallest in Giza. His sarcophagus was lost at sea while being shipped to Europe.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=236-7|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=51–8}} Herodotus calls him '''Mycerinus''', and refers to him as a son of Khufu (rather than his grandson).<ref name="her2" /> |''Disputed'' {{circa}} 18 years (?){{efn-lr|The Turin King List records 18 or 28 years, and contemporary evidence points to at least 11 years. However, Hornung argues that the Palermo Stone gives him a short reign of only 6 years, which also coincides with Herodotus' figure.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=124–143, 484–486, 491}}}} |- !6 |60px |Shepsekhet |'''Shepseskaf''' |Son of Menkaure; finished his father's pyramid and mortuary complex. Commissioned the Tomb of Mastabat al-Fir'aun, Saqqara, which was left unfinished.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=372|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=58–9}} He was possibly succeeded by his wife Khentkaus I as regent.{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=200}} According to radiocarbon dating, his reign began in the range of 2556–2476 BC.<ref name="Ramsey" /> |{{circa}} 6 years |- ! colspan="6" | |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" !* |– |– |'''Bikheris''' |Recorded by Manetho as the sixth king, most likely Baufra, son of Khafre. Recorded in the short Wadi Hammamat king list (12th dynasty) as a successor of Khafre alongside Djedefhor, son of Khufu. Contemporary sources only refer to them as princes, so their inclusion must be an error.<ref>Donald B. Redford (1986): ''Pharaonic king-lists, annals, and day-books: a contribution to the study of the Egyptian sense of history'' (= ''SSEA publication, Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities.'' Band 4). Benben, Indiana, {{ISBN|0920168078}}, p. 237.</ref> |– |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" !* |– |– |'''Thamphthis''' |Recorded by Manetho as the eighth and final king. The Turin King List likewise records eight pharaohs, possibly other sons of Khufu. The Saqqara Tablet notably records ''nine'' kings, but only the first four names are preserved. |– |- bgcolor="#F2E0CE" !* |60px |– |'''Khentkaus I'''♀ |Queen of Egypt who is attested with title that can be translated as "''mother of two kings of Upper and Lower Egypt''" or "''mother of king of Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt, King of Upper and Lower Egypt''". The latter interpretation would mean she became pharaoh in her own right.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Krejčí |first1=Jaromír |last2=Arias Kytnarová |first2=Katarína |last3=Odler |first3=Martin |date=2015 |title=Archaeological excavation of the mastaba of Queen Khentkaus III (tomb AC 30) in Abusir |url=http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.desklight-cffa22d9-a49f-476b-8306-c643f41c100f |journal=Pražské egyptologické studie (Prague Egyptological Studies) |language=EN |issue=15 |pages=28–42 |issn=1214-3189}}</ref> |– |}'''Comparison of royal lists:''' {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" |+ ! rowspan="2" |Pharaoh ! rowspan="2" |Sekhemkare (5th dynasty)<ref name="minor">{{Cite web |last=Lundström |first=Peter |title=Minor Egyptian king lists |url=https://pharaoh.se/ancient-egypt/kinglist/other/ |website= Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt }}</ref> ! rowspan="2" |Wadi Hammamat (12th dynasty)<ref name="minor" /> ! colspan="4" |Ramesside (18–19th) ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Herodotus<ref name="her2" /> (27th dynasty) ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Manetho{{sfn|Lundström|2025}} (33rd dynasty) ! colspan="4" |Reign Years |- !Karnak !Abydos !Saqqara !Turin<ref name="turin4">[https://pharaoh.se/ancient-egypt/kinglist/turin/column-4/ Turin King List: column 4.]</ref> !Turin !Herod. !Afr. !Eusb. |- |Sneferu |– |– |Sneferu |Sneferu |Sneferu |Snofer(u) |– |– |1. Soris |Σωρις |24 |– |29 |– |- |Khufu |– |Khufu |Khufu |Khufu |Khufu |''Name lost'' |Cheops |Χεοπα |2. Souphis I |Σoυφις |23 |50 |63 |– |- |Djedefre |– |Djedefre |– |Djedefre |Djedefre |''Name lost'' |– |– |5. Rhatoises |Ρατoισης |8 |– |25 |– |- |Khafre |Khafra |Khafra |– |Khafre |Khafre |Kha[…] |Chephren |Χεφρηνα |3. Souphis II |Σoυφις |''Lost'' |56 |66 |– |- |Menkaure |Menkaura |Djedefhor |– |Menkaure |''Name lost'' |''Name lost'' |Mycerinus |Μυκερινον |4. Menkeres |Μενχερης |28 |6 |63 |– |- |''Bikheris'' |– |Baufra |– |– |''Name lost'' |''Name lost'' |– |– |6. Bikheres |Bιχερης |''Lost'' |– |22 |– |- |Shepseskaf |Shepseskaf |– |– |Shepseskaf |''Name lost'' |''Name lost'' |– |– |7. Seberkheres |Σεβερχερης |4 |– |7 |– |- |''Thamphthis'' |– |– |– |– |''Name lost'' |''Name lost'' |– |– |8. Thamphthis{{Efn-lr|Eusebius records 17 kings but mentions only Suphis (Khufu). Africanus gives the first three kings as Sneferu, Khufu, and Khafre, all of which were buried in the Giza pyramid complex. This suggests that Manetho's source was already corrupted or misread, as the three are given similar names (Soris/Souphis) and a reign length of about 60 years each (the number was likely the sum of several kings). The name "Suphis" (Σoυφις) is likely a corruption of "Kuphis" (Χoυφις).}} |Θαμφθις |2 |– |9 |– |- |– |– |– |– |– |''Name lost'' |– |– |– ! colspan="2" | |''90+'' ! |277 ('''284''') |'''448''' |- | colspan="9" rowspan="2" | | colspan="2" |Africanus''': Dyn. I–IV''', '''1046 years''' (actual sum is '''1063 years''') | colspan="4" rowspan="2" | |- | colspan="2" |Eusebius''': Dyn. I–IV''', '''1195 years''' (actual sum is '''1201 years''') |}

=== Fifth Dynasty === {{Main|Fifth Dynasty of Egypt}}

Starting with the reign of Neferirkare Kakai, pharaohs became mainly known by two names, a regnal (prenomen) and personal (nomen) name. The pharaohs of the Sixth Dynasty onwards are generally known by their nomen alone.

All variants of Manetho refer to the Fifth Dynasty as "kings from Elephantine". This is probably a misreading of "Sakhebu", a city near Heliopolis that was likely the hometown of Userkaf.{{sfn|Petrie|1897|p=70}}

'''Proposed dates''': {{Circa}} 2479–2322 BC (157 years),{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=283}} {{Circa}} 2465–2323 BC (142 years),{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=105}} {{Circa}} 2450–2300 BC (150 years),{{Sfn|University College London|2000}} {{Circa}} 2494–2345 BC (149 years),{{Sfn|Shaw|2003|p=481}} {{Circa}} 2435–2306 BC (129 years){{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|p=491}}

{{Legend|#F2E0CE|(#) {{snd}} Status ambiguous}}

=== Sixth Dynasty === {{Main|Sixth Dynasty of Egypt}}

By the Fifth Dynasty, the religious institution had established itself as the dominant force in society; a trend of growth in the bureaucracy and the priesthood, and a decline in the pharaoh's power had been established during Neferirkare Kakai's reign. During Djedkare Isesi's rule, officials were endowed with greater authority—evidenced by the opulent private tombs they constructed—eventually leading to the creation of a feudal system in effect. These established trends—decentralization of authority, coupled with growth in bureaucracy—intensified during the three decades of Unas's rule, which also witnessed economic decline.

'''Proposed dates''': {{Circa}} 2322–2191 BC (131 years),{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=283}} {{Circa}} 2323–2150 BC (173 years),{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=106}} {{Circa}} 2300–2181 BC (150 years),{{Sfn|University College London|2000}} {{Circa}} 2345–2181 BC (164 years),{{Sfn|Shaw|2003|p=481}} {{Circa}} 2305–2118 BC (187 years){{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|p=491}}

{{Legend|#E6E6FA|(#) {{snd}} Existence disputed}}

The Turin King List records a total of 52 kings up to Neferirkare, that is, 45 kings from Menes to Merenre Nemtyemsaf II,<ref name="turin5" /> although the list includes two fictitious kings in the Fourth Dynasty, thus totaling 43 kings. Africanus records a total of 48 kings, while Eusebius records about 70. This discrepancy is the result of a misunderstanding of the text, as later both Eusebius and Africanus record 192 kings before the Twelfth Dynasty.{{sfn|Lundström|2025}}

== First Intermediate period (c. 2200–2050 BC) == {{Main|First Intermediate Period of Egypt}}

The Old Kingdom rapidly collapsed after the death of Pepi II Neferkare, who supposedly reigned up to 94 years, longer than any monarch in history. The latter years of his reign were probably marked by inefficiency because of his advanced age. This was further exacerbated by the 4.2-kiloyear event, a climate shift around 2200 BC which caused widespread desertification and famine.

The kings of the 7th and 8th Dynasties, who represented the successors of the 6th Dynasty, tried to hold onto some power in Memphis but owed much of it to powerful nomarchs. After a couple of decades, they were overthrown by a new line of pharaohs based in Heracleopolis Magna. Some time after these events, a rival line based at Thebes revolted against their Northern overlords and united Upper Egypt. The Theban pharaoh Mentuhotep II, the son and successor of Intef III, defeated the Herakleopolitan pharaohs and reunited the Two Lands, thereby starting the Middle Kingdom.

=== Seventh and Eighth Dynasties === {{Main|Seventh Dynasty of Egypt|Eighth Dynasty of Egypt}}

Africanus and Eusebius record 70 kings in 70 days, which is clearly an embellishment.<ref name=manetho1/> Some historians dismiss the existence of a Seventh Dynasty, while others argue it could correspond to the "lacuna of 6 years" recorded in the Turin King List.{{sfn|Mladjov|2021a}} The following tables are based on {{harvnb|Beckerath|1999|pp=66–69 & 284}}, which is itself based on the Abydos King List. The Turin King List only records Netjerkare Siptah and the last 6 names.<ref name="turin5" /> This line ruled from Memphis, and it is thought that it lasted only about one generation, or about 30 years.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=482}} Manetho reports 27 kings for the Eighth Dynasty;<ref name=manetho1/> the number may be a corruption of "17 kings", the total of kings for this line. {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Personal name ! width="15%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes |- !1 |45px |Siptah |'''Netjerkare''' |Attested in contemporary records. Sometimes listed in Dynasty VII, if identified with Manetho's Nitocris. |- !2 |45px |'''Menkare''' |– |Attested in contemporary records. |- !3 |45px |'''Neferkare II''' |– |Attested in contemporary records. |- !4 |45px |Neby |'''Neferkare III''' Neby |Attested in contemporary records. |- !5 |45px |Shemai |'''Djedkare II''' Shemai |– |- !6 |45px |Khendu |'''Neferkare IV''' Khendu |– |- !7 |45px |'''Merenhor''' |– |– |- !8 |45px |'''Neferkamin I''' |– |Attested in contemporary records. |- !9 |45px |'''Nikare''' |– |Attested in contemporary records. |- !10 |45px |Tereru |'''Neferkare V''' Tereru |– |- !11 |45px |'''Neferkahor''' |– |Attested in contemporary records. |- !12 |45px |Pepiseneb |'''Neferkare VI''' Pepiseneb |Reigned for at least one year according to Kim Ryholt.<ref name="Ryholt2000"/> The Turin King List calls him '''Neferka'''. |- !13 |45px |Anu |'''Neferkamin II''' Anu |– |- !14 |45px |Ibi |'''Qakare''' |Attested by his pyramid at Saqqara. May have ruled 2 years.{{Efn-lr|The Turin King List gives both Qakare Ibi and Neferkauhor a reign of 2 years, 1 month, and 1 day.}} |- !15 |45px |– |'''Neferkaure''' |Attested in the Coptos Decrees.{{efn-lr|Bunson credits the Pyramid of Neferkare Neby to Neferkaure instead, and lists him as the founder of the Eight Dynasty, as well as the predecessor of Qakare.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=268}} }} Reigned 4 years and 2 months. |- !16 |45px |Khuwihapi |'''Neferkauhor''' |Attested by Coptos Decrees. May have ruled 2 years. |- !17 |45px |Pepi III |'''Neferirkare II''' |Nomen was found in 2014.<ref>Mostafa, Maha Farid (2014): ''The Mastaba of SmAj at Naga' Kom el-Koffar, Qift'', Vol. I, Cairo, {{ISBN|978-977642004-5}}, p. 157-161</ref> Ruled 1 year and half a month. |- |- ! colspan="5" |The position of the following pharaohs is unknown: |- !* |– |– |'''Sekhemkare I''' |Alternatively ''Anchkare''. |- !* |– |– |'''Wadjkare''' |Attested in the Coptos Decrees |- !* |– |– |'''Ity''' |Possibly a 9th Dynasty king.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=185}} Built a pyramid. |- !* |30px |– |'''Imhotep''' |His name was found in Wadi Hammamat. |- !* |– |'''Hotep''' |– |– |- !* |60px |– |'''Khui''' |Only attested in one inscription near Manfalut |- !* |– |'''Isu''' |– |– |- !* |– |'''Iytjenu''' |– |Only indirectly attested in Saqqara |} The Turin King List records the years from Teti until Neferirkare II as 181 years, 6 months, 3 days, with a lacuna of 6 years, totaling 187 years.{{Efn-lr|name=T678}} The total from Menes is given as 52 kings amounting to 955 years and 15 days,<ref name="turin5" /> but the number of years is certainly inflated.{{Efn-lr|name=EDP}} Diodorus Siculus ({{Circa}} 50 BC), most likely based on a similar tradition, writes that Menes was succeeded by 52 kings that ruled for 1040 years.<ref name="siculus" />:45 For the sum of the first eight dynasties, Manetho and Eusebius record 1639 and 1598 years, respectively, but these figures do not match the previous sums.{{sfn|Lundström|2025}}

=== Ninth and Tenth Dynasties === {{Main|Ninth Dynasty of Egypt|Tenth Dynasty of Egypt}}

Africanus records 19 kings for 409 years, but only lists one ''Achthoes'', a tyrant who was killed by a crocodile. Meanwhile, Eusebius records 4 kings in 100 years. For the next dynasty, they both record 19 kings for 185 years, but list none.<ref name=manetho1/> It is possible that the 9th and 10th dynasties were in fact a single dynasty that was duplicated by Manetho (or one of his scribes), resulting in two Heracleopolean dynasties of 19 kings.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=63–67}}{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=72}}<ref name="Malek">{{Cite journal |last=Málek |first=Jaromír |date=1982 |title=The Original Version of the Royal Canon of Turin |journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology |volume=68 |pages=93–106 |doi=10.2307/3821628 |jstor=3821628 |issn=0307-5133}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Lundström|2025}}</ref> The Turin King List records an unbroken line of 18 kings, but almost all names, as well as the sum of regnal years, are damaged.<ref name="turin5" /> A break between dynasties, while still possible, can't be pinpointed with any certainty. {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Personal name ! width="15%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes |- !1 |60px |Khety I{{Efn-lr|This is the numbering adopted by Bunson.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|pp=201–202}} Leprohon, using an older reconstruction, records seven kings named "Khety". He refers to Wahkare as "Khety V", Nebkaure as "Khety VII", and Merybre as "Khety VIII".{{sfn|Leprohon|2013|pp=50–52}}}} |'''Meryibre''' |Name lost in the Turin list; believed by some scholars to be the first king of the dynasty.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|pp=201–202}} |- !2 | colspan="4" |''Name lost'' |- !3 |– |– |'''Neferkare VII''' |– |- !4 |60px |Khety II |'''Nebkaure''' |Attested in the tale ''The Eloquent Peasant''.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|pp=201–202}} |- !5 |– |– |'''Setut'''[…] |Alternatively '''Senen'''. |- !6 |– |– |'''Neferkare'''[…] |Name lost in the Turin list. |- !7 |– |– |'''Mery'''[…] '''Khety'''[…] |– |- !8 |– |– |'''Shed'''[…] |– |- !9 |– |– |'''H'''[…] |– |- !10 | colspan="4" |''5 names lost'' |- !? |60px |– |'''Meryhathor''' (?) |Name lost in the Turin list; name found in a damaged graffiti at Hatnub. Hayes claims that the Turin King List records 5 kings for the Tenth Dynasty and places him as the founder.<ref name=Hayes2>{{Cite book |last=Hayes |first=William|chapter=The Heracleopolitan Kingdom|title=The Cambridge Ancient History|volume=1 (Part 2) |editor1-last=Edwards |editor1-first=I.E.S. |editor2-last=Gadd |editor2-first=C.J. |year=2006 |orig-date=1971 |publisher=CUP |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/the-cambridge-ancient-history-vol.-1-part-2/page/465|pages=464–468 }}</ref> However, there is no such division in the document and thus his position, as well as that of the supposed break between dynasties, is uncertain.<ref name="Malek"/> The exact reading of his name is disputed.{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=74}} |- !16 |– |– |'''Neferkare VIII''' |Name lost in the Turin list; possibly mentioned in the tomb of nomarch Ankhtifi |- !17 |60px |Khety III |'''Wahkare''' |Name lost in the Turin list; possible author of the ''Teaching for King Merykara''{{sfn|Bunson|2002|pp=201–202}} |- !18 |60px |– |'''Merikare''' |Name lost in the Turin list; main rival of the Theban pharaoh Mentuhotep II. Hayes claims that the Turin King List records an additional ruler after him,<ref name=Hayes2/> but this is certainly not the case.<ref name="Malek"/><ref>[https://pharaoh.se/ancient-egypt/kinglist/turin/column-5/ Turin King List: column 5–6]</ref> |}

=== Eleventh Dynasty (Thebes) === {{Main|Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt}}

According to Hornung, the Theban monarchy began no more than 40 years after the fall of the Old Kingdom.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=482}}

{{Legend|#FFE3F9|(#) {{snd}} Nomarch of Thebes}}

:: ''The Eleventh Dynasty consisted of sixteen kings of Diospolis, who reigned for 43 years. In succession to these, Ammenemes ruled for 16 years. Here ends the First Book of Manetho. Total for the reigns of 192 kings, 2300 years 70 days.''{{Efn-lr|"Sixteen kings for 43 years" is clearly a corruption of "six kings for 143 years", as stated in the Turin King List. The king list also includes a lacuna of 7 years that corresponds to the reign of Mentuhotep IV, whose name was lost.<ref name="turin6">[https://pharaoh.se/ancient-egypt/kinglist/turin/column-6/ Turin King List: column 6]</ref> Africanus and Eusebius both record the same number of kings and years (Eusebius writes 79 days). The actual sum of Africanus' kings is 200, and that of his years is 2292. This is over twice the number of kings and years calculated by Egyptologists. Amenemhat I, the founder of the Twelfth Dynasty, was moved to this place for unknown reasons, most likely a misunderstanding of the original text.}}

== Middle Kingdom (c. 2050–1800 BC) == {{Main|Middle Kingdom of Egypt}}

The kings of the 11th Dynasty ruled from Thebes and the kings of the 12th Dynasty ruled from Itjtawy, near Lisht. The periodization of the Middle Kingdom is somewhat disputed; some authors include only the Eleventh and Twelfth Dynasties,{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=284}}{{Sfn|Clayton|2001|p=90ff}} while others include the Eleventh, Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasties.{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=106}}{{Sfn|Shaw|2003|p=483}}

Egyptian chronology becomes more reliable from this point onward, although dates still differ depending on the author. The reign of Senusret III can securely be dated to the middle of the 19th century BC ({{Circa}} 1850, ± 25 years), thus dating the beginning of the 12th dynasty to the mid 20th century BC ({{Circa}} 1950), and the 11th dynasty to the mid 21st century BC ({{Circa}} 2050 BC). This is supported by radiocarbon dating, which shows that the Middle Kingdom likely began in the range of 2057–2040 BC, with more certainty between 2064 and 2019 BC.<ref name="Ramsey" /> The accession of Senusret III is dated to 1884–1860 BC, with more certainty between 1889 and 1836 BC.<ref name="Ramsey" />

=== Eleventh Dynasty cont. === The Turin King List records the duration of the whole dynasty as 143 years, starting with Mentuhotep I, and 70 years starting with Mentuhotep II.<ref name="turin6"/>

'''Proposed dates''': {{Circa}} 2046–1995 (51 years),{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=283}} {{Circa}} 2061–1991 BC (70 years),{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=106}} {{Circa}} 2046–1976 BC (70 years),{{Sfn|University College London|2000}} {{Circa}} 2055–1985 BC (70 years),{{Sfn|Shaw|2003|p=483}} {{Circa}} 2009–1940 BC (69 years){{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|p=491}}

{{Legend|#F2E0CE|(#) {{snd}} Status ambiguous}}

=== Twelfth Dynasty === {{Main|Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt}}

Starting from the Twelfth Dynasty, pharaohs often appointed their heirs as co-rulers before their own death. This is one of the main obstacles when reconstructing the chronology of ancient Egypt. According to radiocarbon dating, the dynasty certainly began between the years 2000 and 1950 BC, perhaps around 1980 BC.<ref name="Ramsey" /> The Turin King List gives the sum of years as 213, but does not take co-regencies into account.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=170–175}}

'''Proposed dates''': {{Circa}} 1976–1794/3 BC (182/3 years),{{Sfn|Shaw|2003|p=484}}{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=284}} {{Circa}} 1991–1783 (208 years),{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=106}} {{Circa}} 1985–1773 (212 years),{{Sfn|Shaw|2003|p=483}} {{Circa}} 1939–1760 BC (179 years){{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|p=491}} {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Personal name ! width="15%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=170–175, 491–492}} |- !1 |60px |'''Amenemhat I''' |Sehetepibre |Vizier of Mentuhotep IV. Moved the capital from Thebes to Itjtawy and was buried in a pyramid at Lisht. Also formally introduced the concept of co-regencies in the monarchy. Like his predecessor, his reign ended at the hands of court officials, who assassinated him before he could celebrate his first Sed festival.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=25–6|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=78–9}} |'''29 years''' |- !2 |60px |'''Senusret I''' |Kheperkare |Co-ruled 10 regnal years with his father, learned of his murder while campaigning in Libya and returned to the capital to avenge him, continuing to rule over a prosperous Egypt.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=362–3|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=79–82}} |'''45 years''' |- !3 |60px |'''Amenemhat II''' |Nubkaure |Faced the opposition of powerful nomarchs who attempted to regain power.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=362–3|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=83}} Probably co-ruled 2–3 years with his father.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=170–175}} However, this has been refuted by some scholars.{{sfn|Lloyd|2010|pp=92–93}} |'''35 years''' |- !4 |60px |'''Senusret II''' |Khakheperre |Co-ruled for 3 years with his father. Revitalized cultivation in Faiyum and gained the support of local elites. Also expanded Egyptian influence in the region, particularly over Syria and Nubia.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=363|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=82-3}} |'''7–8 years''' |- !5 |60px |'''Senusret III''' |Khakaure |His accession has been traditionally dated to 1878 BC, but this is rejected by modern scholars.{{efn-lr|1878 was the date calculated by Parker in 1977,<ref name="Parker77" /> but it has been shown that his "sequencing of the Illahun lunar dates was wrong".{{sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|p=439-457}} Various dates have been proposed over the years, all around 1850 BC: Hornung argues for '''1837/6''',{{sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|p=439-457}} while two independent studies argue for '''1847'''<ref name="Banjevic" /> or '''1886'''.<ref name=Ossowski/>}} Radiocarbon dating provides the range 1889–1836 BC.<ref name="Ramsey" /> One of the most famed and powerful pharaohs, a great warrior and administrator.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=363-4|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=84-7}} Tales of his Nubian conquest were likely one of the origins of the legendary Sesostris recorded by Herodotus.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Török |first=László |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d5CfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA65 |title=Herodotus in Nubia |date=2014 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-27388-7 |page=65}}</ref>{{Efn-lr|name=sesostris|The tale of Sesostris, who supposedly campaigned as far as Europe, was likely an Egyptian narrative to present an ideal ruler. According to Herodotus, Sesostris created a massive empire that stretched into Europe. Needless to say, pretty much all of Sesostris' deeds are believed to be unhistorical. He is thought to be a conflation of Egypt's greatest rulers (the Senusrets, Thutmose III and Ramesses II). Manetho identifies this "Sesostris" with Senusret III, the third king of his Twelfth Dynasty (omitting Amenemhat I and Senusret II).<ref name="Manetho2" />}} |'''38 years''' {{circa}} 1850 BC, ± 25 years |- !6 |60px |'''Amenemhat III''' |Nimaatre |Co-ruled 20 years with his father.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=170–175}} Also considered a great ruler, ruling at the zenith of the Middle Kingdom.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=27|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=87-9}} |'''45 years''' |- !7 |60px |'''Amenemhat IV''' |Maakherure |Co-ruled for around 1 year with his father.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=170–175}} Continued the family's project at Faiyum, but did not leave many written records.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=27|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=87-9}} |'''9 years''' '''3 months, 27 days''' |- !8 |60px |'''Sobekneferu'''♀ |Sobekkare |First confirmed female pharaoh. To strengthen her position she retroactively claimed to be her father's chosen heir and co-regent, while in reality she ascended the throne only after the death of her brother-husband, in the absence of male heirs.{{Sfn|Cooney|2018|p=90}} Perhaps the owner of the Northern Mazghuna pyramid, although she did not use it.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=380|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=89}} |'''3 years''' '''10 months, 24 days''' |} '''Manethonian royal lists''' {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" |+ ! rowspan="2" | ! rowspan="2" |Pharaoh ! colspan="4" |Manetho{{sfn|Lundström|2025}} ! rowspan="2" |Highest Year ! colspan="3" |Years reigned |- ! colspan="4" |Africanus & Eusebius !Turin !Afric. !Eus. |- !1 |'''Amenemhat I''' ''Sehetepibre'' |(Ammenemes) | colspan="3" |Aμμενεμης (not included) |30th |29 |(16) |(16) |- !2 |'''Senusret I''' ''Kheperkare'' |Sesonkhosis | colspan="3" |Σεσονχοσις |45th |45 |46 |46 |- !3 |'''Amenemhat II''' ''Nubkaure'' |Ammanemes | colspan="3" |Aμμανεμης |35th |30+ |38 |38 |- !4 |'''Senusret II''' ''Khakheperre'' |Sesostris | colspan="3" |Σεσωστρις |8/9th |19 |48 |48 |- !5 |'''Senusret III''' ''Khakaure'' |Lakhares |Λαχαρης |Lamaris |Λαμαρις |39th |30+ |8 |8 |- !6 |'''Amenemhat III''' ''Nimaatre'' |Ammeres | colspan="3" |Aμμερης |46th |40+ |8 | rowspan="3" |42 |- !7 |'''Amenemhat IV''' ''Maakherure'' |Ammenemes | colspan="3" |Aμμενεμης |10th |9 |8 |- !8 |'''Sobekneferu''' ''Sobekkare'' |Skemiophris | colspan="3" |Σκεμιoφρις |3rd |3 |4 |- ! colspan="2" rowspan="4" | | colspan="8" |'''Turin total''': 213 years, 1 month, 17 days |- | colspan="8" |'''Turin total minus co-regencies''': {{Circa}} 181 years{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=170–175}} |- | colspan="8" |'''Africanus total''': 160 years (176 years plus Amenemhat) |- | colspan="8" |'''Eusebius total''': 245 years (actual sum is 182 years, 198 plus Amenemhat) |}

== Second Intermediate period (c. 1800–1550 BC) == {{Main|Second Intermediate Period of Egypt}}

Reconstructing the chronology of the Second Intermediate period is even more difficult than the First, as there are very few and contradictory records. The Turin King List is the only one to include rulers of this period, but it is badly damaged after the Twelfth Dynasty. This period is best known for the rule of the Fifteenth Dynasty established by the Hyksos people of West Asia. It was a time of political rather than social upheavals.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=383}}

At some point during the weak Thirteenth Dynasty, the provincial ruling family in Xois, located in the Nile Delta, broke away to form Fourteenth Dynasty. Around the same time, the Asiatic people known as the Hyksos established themselves around the Delta, and soon after took control of Avaris (modern Tell el-Dab'a), beginning Fifteenth Dynasty. The Hyksos took over most of Lower Egypt and ended the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasties. They were also known as the "Great Hyksos" because of their dominance.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=351}} The power vacuum in Upper Egypt enabled the Sixteenth Dynasty to declare independence in Thebes, only to be overrun by the Hyksos shortly thereafter. Subsequently, as the Hyksos withdrew from Upper Egypt, a new native Egyptian house in Thebes set itself up as Seventeenth. This dynasty eventually drove the Hyksos back into Asia, starting the New Kingdom.

=== Thirteenth Dynasty === {{Main|Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt}}

As opposed to the previous dynasty, there are little to no historical records regarding this dynasty, with only a few kings leaving archeological records. The dynasty possibly originates from Canaan, as some rulers (Sekhemkare, Hotepibre) are called "Asiatics".{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=27}}{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=158}} Merneferre Ay, while not the final pharaoh, was the last king attested in Lower and Upper Egypt, later pharaohs are only attested in the south.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=175–181, 195–196}} The earlier part of the dynasty until Ay is sometimes considered part of the Middle kingdom, but more often the whole dynasty is considered part of the Second Intermediate period.

Manetho records "60 kings of Diospolis for 453 years". Notably, the number of kings appears to be somewhat correct, as the Turin King List records a minimum of '''51 kings''', which Ryholt rises to '''57'''.{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=72–74}}{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=175–181, 195–196}} However, only the first half of the names survives, and the reign lengths are also damaged. Manetho's total of 453 years is sometimes emended as 153, but there is no definitive proof of this.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=175–181, 195–196}} According to radiocarbon dating, the Thirteenth Dynasty began between the years 1800 and 1740 BC.<ref name="Ramsey" /> According to Hornung, Ay's reign ended around 1650 BC, at least 100 years after the beginning of the dynasty.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=175–181, 195–196}}

The succession is based on the reconstruction of Kim Ryholt. Almost all kings reigned for a very short time, for about 1 to 3 years each.{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=73–74, 197–198}} Ryholt also suggests that the division by Manetho is based not on a familiar break, but because of the rise of the Dynasty XIV.{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=75}} The exact succession of rulers is highly disputed.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|p=75}}

'''Proposed dates''': {{Circa}} 1794/3–1648/5 (146/8 years),{{Sfn|Beckerath |1999|p=484}} {{Circa}} 1793/73–after 1650/40+ (120+ years),{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=106}}{{Sfn|Shaw|2003|p=483}} {{Circa}} 1760–1630 BC (130 years),{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|p=492}} {{Circa}} 1803–1649 BC (154 years){{Sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=408}}

{{Legend|#E6E6FA|(#) {{snd}} Existence disputed}}

{| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Personal name ! width="15%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign<ref name="turin78" /> |- !1 |60px |Amenemhat '''Sobekhotep I''' |Sekhemre Khutawy |Listed as the 11th ruler in the Turin King List. However, its author may have confused his throne name (''Khutawy'') with that of Wegaf (''Khutawyra'')<ref name="turin78" />{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=175–181, 195–196}} Some sources thus refer to Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep as "'''Sobekhotep II'''", and Khaankhre Sobekhotep as "'''Sobekhotep I'''".{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=379}}{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=175–181, 195–196}} |'''2 years''' '''3 months, 24 days''' |- !2 |60px |Amenemhat '''Senebef''' |Sekhemkare |Ryholt suggests that the first two kings were in fact sons of Amenemhat IV, who he treats as an adoptive son of Amenemhat III. This would explain their double name, which Ryholt treats as filiative nomina.{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=209}} |– |- !3 |60px |– |'''Nerikare''' |Not recorded in the Turin King List, attested by one document dated to his Year 1.{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=195}} |– |- !4 |60px |Amenemhat V |'''Sekhemkare''' |Ryholt postulates that he was of non-royal birth.{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=195}} The Hyksos were already established in the Nile Delta by his reign. Bunson treats him as the same person as Ameny Qemau for unknown reasons.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=27}} |'''3 years''' |- !5 |60px |Ameny '''Qemau''' |– |Perhaps the son of Amenemhat V ("Ameny").{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=214}} Built a Pyramid in southern Dahshur. |– |- !6 |60px |Qemau Siharnedjheritef |'''Hotepibre''' |Perhaps the son of Qemau.{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=214}} |– |- !7 |– |'''Iufni''' |– |Origin unknown.{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=214}} |– |- !8 |60px |Ameny Antef '''Amenemhat VI''' |Seankhibre |His full name perhaps means "son of Antef, son of Ameny (Amenemhat)".{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=214}} Most likely the same king as '''Seankhibtawy Seankhibre'''.{{Sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=338}} |– |- !9 |60px |'''Nebnuni''' |Semenkare |Possibly of non-royal birth.{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=209}} |– |- !10 |60px |– |'''Sehetepibre''' |Known for a few cylinder seals. |'''a few months''' |- !11 |– |– |'''Sewadjkare I''' |Known only from the Turin King List |– |- !12 |– |– |'''Nedjemibre''' |Known only from the Turin King List |'''7 months''' |- !13 |60px |'''Sobekhotep II''' |Khaankhre |Cylinder seals and scarabs bearing his royal name have been discovered.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=379}} |– |- !14 |– |– |'''Renseneb''' |Probably a son of Amenemhat VI.{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=216}} |'''4 months''' |- !15 |60px |'''Hor''' |Awibre |Not recorded in the Turin King List, but attested on contemporary records. Was buried in the Pyramid Complex of Amenemhat III, Dahshur.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=170}} Known for his intact Ka statue. |– |- !16 |60px |''known by his Horus name'' '''Khabaw''' |Sekhemrekhutawy |Not recorded in the Turin King List, possibly a son and co-ruler of Hor.{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=216}} |– |- !17 |60px |''known by his Horus name'' '''Djedkheperew''' |– |Not recorded in the Turin King List, possibly a son of Hor. Known for building the "Osiris Bed", a sarcophagus set up for Osiris in the tomb of Djer. Later pharaohs erased his name.{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=216}} |– |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" !18 | rowspan="2" |60px |'''Seb''' |– | rowspan="2" |Proposed by Ryholt as successors of Djedkheperew; possibly did not exist. "Sebkay" may be a diminutive for throne name of Sedjefakare Kay Amenemhat VII,{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=175–181, 195–196}} but may also be the same king as '''Senebkay'''. | rowspan="2" |– |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" !19 |'''Kay''' |– |- !20 |60px |Kai '''Amenemhat VII''' |Sedjefakare |His name has been found in Tanis, Elephantine and Medamud.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=27}} |– |- !21 |60px |'''Wegaf''' |Khutawyre |Sometimes listed as the founder of the dynasty.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=430}} |– |- !22 |60px |'''Khendjer''' |Userkare |Possibly of non-royal birth.{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=220–221}} Had a small pyramid built for himself in Saqqara.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=200}} Three other unidentified small pyramids have been found near Khendjer's.{{sfn|Clayton|2001|p=91}} |– |- !23 |60px |'''Imyremeshaw''' |Smenkhkare |– |– |- !24 |60px |'''Intef IV''' |Sehetepkare |– |– |- !25 |60px |Seth |'''Meribre''' |– |– |- !26 |60px |'''Sobekhotep III''' |Sekhemre Sewadjtawy |Son of one Mentuhotep. Build a temple at Medamud and have statues erected in Nubia.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=379}}{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=222–224}} |'''4 years''' '''2 months''' […] |- !27 |60px |'''Neferhotep I''' |Khasekhemre |Son of one Haankhef and a royal woman; he was succeeded by his brothers Sihathor, and Sobekhotep IV.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|pp=267–8}}{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=225–231}} |'''11 years''' '''1 month''' […] |- !28 |60px |'''Sihathor''' |Menwadjre |Brother and possible co-ruler of Neferhotep.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=350}}{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=225–231}} |'''a few months''' |- !29 |60px |'''Sobekhotep IV''' |Khaneferre |Brother of Sihathor. Faced rebellions and campaigned in Nubia. Bunson believes the Hyksos conquered Avaris during his reign.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=379}}{{Efn-lr|Bunson omits Merhotepre Sobekhotep in the count of Sobekhoteps, hence applying the name "Sobekhotep V" to Khahotepre Sobkehotep.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=379}}}} |– |- !30 |60px |'''Sobekhotep V''' |Merhotepre |Parentage disputed; son of a woman named Nubhotepti.{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=231–232}} |– |- !31 |60px |'''Sobekhotep VI''' |Khahotepre |Son of Merhotepre Sobekhotep; left a stela Karnak.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=379}} |'''4 years''' '''8 months, 29 days''' |- !32 |60px |'''Ibiau''' |Wahibre |His name is attested in stelas and seals.{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=353–354}} |'''10 years''' '''8 months, 28 days''' |- !33 |60px |'''Ay I''' |Merneferre |Attested in several monuments in the Nile Valley. Bunson believes he was a native of Avaris and a vassal of the Hyksos.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=61}} Last pharaoh attested in Lower and Upper Egypt,{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=175–181, 195–196}} probably due to a rebellion.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=61}} |'''23 years''' '''8 months, 18 days''' |- ! colspan="6" | |- !34 |60px |'''Ini I''' |Merhotepre |Possibly a son of King Ay.{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=233–235}} Only attested in Upper Egypt.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=175–181, 195–196}} |'''2 years''' '''2–4 months, 9 days''' |- !35 |– |'''Sewadjtu''' |Sankhenre |Attested only on the Turin King List |'''3 years''' '''2–4 months''' |- !36 |– |'''Ined''' |Mersekhemre |Thought by some to be the same king as Neferhotep II.{{Sfn|Baker|2008|p=137}} |'''3 years''' '''1 month, 1 day''' |- !37 |– |'''Hori''' |Sewadjkare II |Attested only on the Turin King List |'''5 years''' […] '''months, 1 day''' |- !38 |40px |'''Sobekhotep VII''' |Merkawre |– |'''2 years''' […] '''months, 4 days''' |- ! colspan="6" | |- !46 | colspan="5" |'''''–8 names lost in the Turin King List–''''' |- ! colspan="6" | |- !47 |60px |– |'''Merkheperre''' |– |– |- !48 |– |– |'''Merkare''' |Last name preserved in the Turin King List |– |- ! colspan="6" | |- !57 | colspan="5" |'''''–9 names lost in the Turin King List–''''' |- ! colspan="6" |The position of the following pharaohs is unknown: |- !* |60px |'''Neferhotep II''' |Mersekhemre |Thought by some to be the same king as Ined.{{Sfn|Baker|2008|p=137}} |– |- !* |60px |'''Ini II''' |Mershepsesre |Full name attested in a single inscription from Karnak.{{Sfn|Baker|2008|p=139}} |– |- !* |60px |'''Senebmiu''' |Sewahenre |Full name attested in a tomb in Kurna, his prenomen is also listed in the Karnak King List.{{Sfn|Baker|2008|pp=381–382}} |– |- !* |60px |'''Mentuhotep V''' |Sewadjare |Full name attested in a single inscription.{{Sfn|Baker|2008|pp=231–232}} Beckearth calls him '''Mentuhotep VI'''.{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=104}} |– |- !* |60px |'''Sankhptahi''' |Seheqenre |Attested in a Memphite stela.{{Sfn|Baker|2008|p=149}} |– |- !* |60px |'''Dedumose I''' |Djedhotepre |Attested in a stela from Edfu.<ref>Barsanti, A. (1908). ''Stèle inédite au nom du roi Radadaouhotep Doudoumes'', in: ''ASAE'' 9 (1908), pl. 1-2</ref> |– |- !* |60px |'''Dedumose II''' |Djedneferre |Possibly a vassal of the Hyksos.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=95}} |– |- !* |60px |'''Montemsaf''' |Djedankhre |Attested by an inscribed block found in Gebelein.{{Sfn|Baker|2008|p=221}} |– |- !* |60px |'''Mentuhotep VI''' |Merankhre |Likely ruled in the 16th dynasty.{{Sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=158, 408–410}}{{Sfn|Baker|2008|p=232}} |– |- !* |60px |'''Senusret IV''' |Seneferibre |Perhaps ruled in the 17th dynasty.{{Sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=158, 408–410}} |– |- !* |50px |– |'''Nebmaatre''' |Perhaps ruled in the 17th dynasty.{{Sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=168, 170, 171, 179, 204, 400}} |– |- !* |60px |Pepi IV |'''Seneferankhre''' |Existence disputed; may have ruled in the 16th dynasty.{{Sfn|Baker|2008|pp=291–292}} but more likely during the First Intermediate period.{{Sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=324, 335. "A date in the FIP would appear more likely, although this would be somewhat early for a scarab-shaped seal"}} |– |- !* |50px |'''Sobekhotep IX''' |Maare |Only known from scarab seals.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lundström |first=Peter |title=Maara Sobekhotep in hieroglyphs |url=https://pharaoh.se/ancient-egypt/pharaoh/Maara-Sobekhotep/ |website= Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt}}</ref>{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|pp=102–107}} |– |}

'''Complete royal list of Dynasty XIII''' {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" |+ ! width="1%" |{{No.}} !Pharaoh (Ryholt){{sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=73–74, 408}}{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=175–181, 195–196}} !Karnak King List ! colspan="2" |Turin King List<ref name="turin78">[https://pharaoh.se/ancient-egypt/kinglist/turin/column-7/ Turin King List: column 7–8]</ref>{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=175–181, 195–196}} !Pharaoh (Beckerath){{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|pp=88–101}} ! width="1%" |{{No.}} |- !1 |Sekhemre Khutawy Amenemhat Sobekhotep I |Sekhemre Khutawy |Khutawyra |2 years, 3 months, 24 days |Wegaf !1 |- !2 |Sekhemkare Amenemhat Senebef | | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |Sekhemkare Am[…] (?) […] […] years […] {{font color|red|lacuna}} years, 6 years |Senebef !2 |- !3 |Nerikare | |Pantjeny !3 |- !4 |Sekhemkare Amenemhat V | | rowspan="2" |Amenemhat(ra) […] | rowspan="2" |3–4 years (+ '''lacuna''' ?) | rowspan="2" |Amenemhat V ! rowspan="2" |4 |- !5 |Ameny Qemau | |- !6 |Hotepibre | |Sehotepibre |1 [year ?] |Se-Hotepibre !5 |- !7 |Iufni | |Iufni |''Lost'' |Iufni !6 |- !8 |Seankhibre Amenemhat VI |Sankhibre |Sankhibre |[…] and 23 [days] |Amenemhat VI !7 |- !9 |Semenkare Nebnuni | |Semenkare |[…] and 22 [days] |Nebnuni !8 |- !10 |Sehetepibre | |Sehotepibre |1+ months and 27 days |Sehetepibre !9 |- !11 |Sewadjkare | |Sewadjkare |[…] and 21+ days |Sewadjkare !10 |- !12 |Nedjemibre | |Nedjemibre |0 years, 7 months |Nedjemibre !11 |- !13 |Khaankhre Sobekhotep II |Khaankhra |Sobek[hot]ep |''Lost'' |Sobekhotep I !12 |- !14 |Renseneb | |Ren[se]neb |0 years, 4 months |Renseneb !13 |- !15 |Awibre Hor | | rowspan="5" |Awtibre | rowspan="5" |[…] and 7 days (+ '''lacuna''' ?) | rowspan="5" |Hor I ! rowspan="5" |14 |- !16 |Horus-Khabaw | |- !17 |Horus-Djedkheperew | |- !18 |Seb (may not exist) | |- !19 |Kay (may not exist) | |- !20 |Sedjefakare Kay Amenemhat VII | |Sedjefa[…]kare |''Lost'' |Amenemhat VII !15 |- !21 |Khutawyre Wegaf |Khutawire |Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep |''Lost'' |Amenemhat Sobekhotep II !16 |- !22 |Userkare Khendjer | |User[ka]re Khendjer |''Lost'' |Khendjer !17 |- !23 |Smenkhkare Imyremeshaw | |[…]kare Imyremeshaw |[…] and 4 days |Smenkhkare !18 |- !24 |Sehetepkare Intef IV |Intef |[Sehotep]ka[ra] Intef |[…] and 3 days |Intef IV !19 |- !25 |Seth Meribre | |[Mer]ib[ra] Seth |[…] and 6 days |Seth !20 |- !26 |Sekhemre Sobekhotep III | |Sekhemkare Sobekhotep |4 years, 2 months, […] days |Sobekhotep III !21 |- !27 |Khasekhemre Neferhotep I |Khasekhemre |Khasekhemre Neferhotep |11 years, 1 month, […] days |Neferhotep I !22 |- !28 |Menwadjre Sihathor | |Sihathor |1+ months and 3 days |Sihathor !23 |- !29 |Khaneferre Sobekhotep IV |Khaneferre |Khaneferre Sobekhotep |''Lost'' |Sobekhotep IV !24 |- !30 |Merhotepre Sobekhotep V |Merhotepre |''Name lost'' |''Lost'' |– !* |- !31 |Khahotepre Sobekhotep VI |Khahotepre |Khahotepra |4 years, 8 months, 29 days |Sobekhotep V !25 |- !32 |Wahibre Ibiau | |Wahibre Jaib |10 years, 8 months, 28 days |Ibiau !26 |- !33 |Merneferre Ay I | |Merneferre |23 years, 8 months, 10 days |Ay I !27 |- ! colspan="5" | ! ! |- !34 |Merhotepre Ini | |Merhotepra |2 years, 2–4 months, 9 days |Sobekhotep VI / Ini ? !28 |- !35 |Sankhenre Sewadjtu | |Sankhenre Sewadjtu |3 years and 2–4 months |Sewadjtu !29 |- !36 |Mersekhemre Ined |Mersekhemre |Mersekhemre Ined |3 years, 1 month, 1 [day] |Ined / Neferhotep II ? !30 |- !37 |Sewadjkare Hori | |Sewadjkare Hori |5 years, […] and 8 days |Hori !31 |- !38 |Merkawre Sobekhotep VII |Merkaure |Merkau[re] Sobek[hotep] |2 years, […] and 4 days |Sobekhotep VII !32 |- !39 |– | |''Name lost'' |[…] and 11 days |''Lost'' !33 |- !40 |– | |''Name lost'' |''Lost'' |''Lost'' !34 |- !41 |– | |''Name lost'' |''Lost'' |''Lost'' !35 |- !42 | colspan="2" |Mersekhemre Neferhotep II (position uncertain) |''Name lost'' |''Lost'' |''Lost'' !36 |- !43 | colspan="2" |Mershepsesre Ini II (position uncertain) |''Name lost'' |''Lost'' | colspan="2" | |- !44 |Sewahenre Senebmiu (position uncertain) |Sewahenre |''Name lost'' |''Lost'' |''Lost'' !42 |- !45 |– | |''Name lost'' |''Lost'' |''Lost'' !43 |- !46 |– | |Mer […]re[…] |''Lost'' |''Lost'' !45 |- !47 |Merkheperre | |Mer-kheper-Ra |''Lost'' |Merkheperre !46 |- !48 |Merkare | |Merka[ra] |''Lost'' |Merkare !47 |- !49 |– | |''Name lost'' |''Lost'' | colspan="2" | |- !50 |Sewadjare Mentuhotep V |Sewadjare |[…]dj[…] |''Lost'' | colspan="2" | |- !51 |– | |[…]mes[…] |''Lost'' |Dedumose !37 |- !52 |Ibi | |[…]maatre Ibi […] |''Lost'' |Ibi II !38 |- !53 |Hor[…] | |[…]webenre Hor […] |''Lost'' |Hor II !39 |- !54 |– | |Se[…]kare […] |''Lost'' |Se[…]kare !40 |- !55 |Seheqenre Sankhptahi | |[…]qaenre […] |''Lost'' |Senebmiu !41 |- !56 |– | |[…]re […] |''Lost'' | colspan="2" | |- !57 |– | |[…]enre […] |''Lost'' |Secha'enre' !44 |- ! colspan="3" | | colspan="2" |"[…] ('''total of 51''') '''kings''' "[…] | colspan="2" | |}

=== Fourteenth Dynasty (Xois) === {{Main|Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt}}

[[File:Stele Merdjefare by Khruner.png|thumb|Drawing of an ancient Egyptian stele depicting Merdjefare, the only king of the 14th dynasty to leave a surviving portrait.]] Manetho records "76 kings of Xois for 184 years". Ryholt argues that these kings ruled from Avaris,{{Sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=5ff, 103–015}} but there is no strong evidence for this.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|p=169}} Almost nothing is known about the dynasty, and all its rulers appear to have had very short reigns. The following is the royal succession according to the Turin King List.<ref>[https://pharaoh.se/ancient-egypt/kinglist/turin/column-9/ Turin King List: columns 9–10.]</ref> The document records a minimum of '''51 kings''' (Ryholt raises the number to '''56'''),{{Sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=98}} many of whom ruled alongside Dynasties XIII and XV. They were also of Near Eastern origin.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=168–180}}

Only four rulers are contemporarily attested: Nehesy, Nebsenre, Merdjefare, and Sekheperenre.{{Sfn|Baker|2008|p=374}} Beckerath, who mostly agrees with Ryholt, records 16 additional names of disputed identity.{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|pp=108–110}} This dynasty notably includes some of the shortest recorded reigns; the shortest being that of Sekheperenre (61–65 days), which is also the shortest reign of a native pharaoh.

'''Proposed dates''': unknown–{{Circa}} 1645,{{Sfn|Beckerath |1999|p=485}} {{Circa}} 1773–1650 (123 years),{{Sfn|Shaw|2003|p=484}} {{Circa}} 1805–1649 (156 years){{Sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=408}}

=== Fifteenth Dynasty (Hyksos) === {{Main|Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt|Hyksos}}

The "Hyksos", literally meaning "rulers of foreign lands", were people who emerged from the Fertile Crescent and conquered much of Lower Egypt, as well as parts of Middle Egypt. They were excluded from contemporary Egyptian sources because they were perceived as foreign usurpers. The Turin King List records '''6 rulers of foreign lands''' ruling for roughly '''150 years''',{{Efn-lr|Thomas Schneider claims that the total is 108 years, but the editor notes that another reading could give 140 instead.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=192–195}} The number could be as high as 189.<ref name="turin1011"/>}} but the list is very damaged and much of the information is now lost.<ref name="turin1011">[https://pharaoh.se/ancient-egypt/kinglist/turin/column-11/ Turin King List: column 10–11.]</ref> Manetho, as quoted by Josephus, reported six "shepherd kings from Phoenicia" ruling for 254 years (the term "shepherd kings" appears to be the result of pronunciation changes).{{Sfn|Lloyd|2010|pp=103–104}} The following is the tentative reconstruction of Kim Ryholt, based on attested names bearing the title of "Hyksos".{{Sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=119–125}}{{efn-lr|Another obscure ruler, '''Anat-her''', is also attested with the title of ''Hyksos'' in his seals, but he lacks the complete royal titulary, mainly the nomen and prenomen. Beckerath places him in the 16th dynasty,{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=116}} but Ryholt argues that the lack of cartouche names suggests that he was only a chiefman of foreign origin.{{Sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=119–125}}}}

'''Proposed dates''': {{Circa}} 1648/5–1539/6 BC (109 years),{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=285}} {{Circa}} 1650–1550 BC (100 years),{{Sfn|Shaw|2003|p=484}} {{Circa}} 1649–1532 (117 years),{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=106}} unknown–{{Circa}} 1530 BC,{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|p=492}} {{Circa}} 1649–1540 (109 years),{{Sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=410}} {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Egyptian name ! width="15%" |Greek name ! width="50%" |Notes |- !1 |60px |'''Semqen''' (?) |'''Salitis''' Σάλιτις |Position and identity uncertain. |- !2 |60px |'''Aperanat''' (?) |Beon Βηων |Position and identity uncertain. |- !3 |– |'''Sakir-Har''' (?) |Apachnas Aπαχνας |Position and identity uncertain. |- !4 |60px |'''Khyan''' (?) |'''Iannas''' Iαννας |Ruled 10+ years according to the Turin King List. The name of his son, Yanassi, may have been confused with his own by Manetho. |- !5 |60px |'''Apepi''' |Apophis Aπωφις |Ruled 40+ years according to the Turin King List. |- !6 |60px |'''Khamudi''' |Assis Aσσις |Only name in the Turin King List; defeated by Ahmose I. |}

'''Reconstructions of Dynasty XV''' {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" |+ |- !# !Turin King List<ref name="turin1011" /> !Manetho{{sfn|Lundström|2025}} !Ryholt (1997) !Beckerath (1999){{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=114}} !Clayton (2001){{sfn|Clayton|2001|pp=93–94}} !Bunson (2002){{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=106}} !Hornung (2006){{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=192–195}} |- !1 |''Lost'' |''Salitis'' — 13 years |Semqen |''Salitis'' |Sheshi |''Salitis{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=351}}'' |Sarà-Dagan |- !2 |''Lost'' |''Beon'' — 44 years |Aperanat |''Beon'' |Yaqub-Har |Sheshi{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=372}} |*Bin-'Anu |- !3 |''Lost'' |''Apachnas'' — 36y, 7m |Sakir-Har |''Apakhnas'' |Khyan |Yaqub-Har{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=435}} |('Apaq-) Hajran |- !4 |''Lost'' — 10+ years |''Apophis'' — 61y, 2m |Khyan |Khyan |Apepi I |Khyan{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=202}} |Jinassi-Ad |- !5 |''Lost'' — 40+ years |''Iannas'' — 50y, 1m |'''Apepi''' |'''Apepi''' |'''Apepi''' ('''II''') |'''Apepi{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=44}}''' |'''Apepi''' |- !6 |'''Khamudi''' […] |''Assis'' — 49 years |'''Khamudi''' |'''Khamudi''' |– |'''Khamudi{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=199}}''' |'''Khamudi''' |}

'''Manetho's Dynasties XV to XVII'''

{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" |+ ! !Manetho's original<ref name="Malek"/> !Josephus !Africanus !Eusebius |- !Dynasty XV |6 shepherd kings |6 shepherd kings, 254 years |6 shepherd kings, 284 years |Kings of Thebes, 250 years |- !Dynasty XVI |32 shepherd kings |– |32 shepherd kings, 518 years |5 kings of Thebes, 190 years |- !Dynasty XVII |5 kings of Thebes |– |43 shepherd & Theban, 151 years |[6] shepherd kings, 103 years |- !Total |43 shepherds & Theban |Total: 511 years |Total: 953 years |Total: 543 years |}

The versions of Manetho differ significantly for this period. Eusebius notably places the rulers of Africanus' Dynasty XV to Dynasty XVII, likely to accommodate his Biblical chronology. According to Josephus, the Hyksos domination, that is, the period between Dynasties XV until the end of Dynasty XVII, lasted 511 years, while Africanus attributes 518 years to Dynasty XVI alone.<ref name="Manetho2">[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Manetho/History_of_Egypt/2*.html#ref49 ''Aegyptiaca'' Book II]</ref>{{sfn|Lundström|2025}} This is likely the summation of all three dynasties, because Josephus' sum of reigns for the Hyksos dynasty is actually 253 years and 10 months. This figure must be a century off, as the Turin King List only notes about 150 years.

=== Sixteenth Dynasty (Thebes) === {{Main|Sixteenth Dynasty of Egypt}}

According to Beckerath, the rulers of Dynasty XVI were vassals of the Hyksos.{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|pp=116–122}} According to Ryholt, the 16th dynasty, ruling from Thebes, consisted of '''15 kings''' recorded in the Turin King List, although most names are lost.{{Sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=158, 408–410}}<ref name="turin1011" /> Ryholt reconstruction has been criticized and it is not universally accepted.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=A Genealogical Chronology of the Seventeenth Dynasty|journal=Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt|date=2002|issn=0065-9991|pages=123–155|volume=39|doi=10.2307/40001152|first=Chris|last=Bennett |jstor=40001152 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Genealogy and the Chronology of the Second Intermediate Period|journal=Ägypten und Levante / Egypt and the Levant|date=2006|issn=1015-5104|pages=231–243|volume=16|first=Chris|last=Bennett |jstor=23790286 }}</ref> Virtually nothing is known about these rulers.

'''Proposed dates''': {{Circa}} 1640–1532 BC (108 years),{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=106}} {{Circa}} 1650–1580 BC (70 years),{{Sfn|Shaw|2003|p=484}} {{Circa}} 1649–1582 BC (67 years){{Sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=410}} {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Personal name ! width="15%" |Throne name ! width="15%" |Reign |- !1 | colspan="4" |''Name lost'' |- !2 |60px |'''Djehuty''' |Sekhemre Sementawy |'''3 years''' |- !3 |60px |'''Sobekhotep VIII''' |Sekhemre Seusertawy |'''16 years''' |- !4 |60px |'''Neferhotep III''' |Sekhemre Sankhtawy |'''1 year''' |- !5 |60px |'''Mentuhotepi''' |Seankhenre |'''1 year''' |- !6 |60px |'''Nebiryraw I''' |Sewadjenre |'''26 years''' |- !7 |60px |'''Nebiryraw II''' |Neferkare (?) |''Lost'' |- !8 |60px |– |'''Semenre''' |''Lost'' |- !9 |60px |'''Bebiankh''' |Seuserenre |'''12 years''' |- !10 |60px |'''Shedwaset''' |Sekhemre |''Lost'' |- !15 | colspan="4" |''five lines lost'' |}

'''Reconstructions for Dynasty XVI''' {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" |+ !# !Ryholt{{Sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=158, 408–410}} !Schneider{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=190–191}} !Karnak King List ! colspan="2" |Turin King List |- !1 |''Name lost'' |Sekhemraneferkhau Wepwawetemsaf | | colspan="2" |''Name lost'' |- !2 | colspan="2" |Sekhemre Sementawy Djehuty |Sekhemre Sementawy |Sekhemre […] |3 years […] |- !3 | colspan="2" |Sekhemre Seusertawy Sobekhotep VIII |Seusertawy |Sekhemre […] |16 [years] […] |- !4 | colspan="2" |Sekhemre Sankhtawy Neferhotep III | |Sekhemre S[…] |1 year […] |- !5 | colspan="2" |Seankhenre Mentuhotepi | |Se[…]en[…]re […] |1 year […] |- !6 | colspan="2" |Sewadjenre Nebiryraw I |Sewadjenre |Nebiriawre |26 years […] |- !7 | colspan="2" |Nebiryraw II | |Nebitawre […] |''Lost'' |- !8 | colspan="2" |Semenre | |Semenre |''Lost'' |- !9 | colspan="2" |Seuserenre Bebiankh |Seuserenre |Seuserenre |12 years […] |- !10 | colspan="2" |Sekhemre Shedwaset |Sekhemre |Sekhemre Shedwaset |''Lost'' |- !11 |Djedhotepre Dedumose I (uncertain) |Sekhemre Wadjkhaw Sobekemsaf I | |[…]re |''Lost'' |- !12 |Djedneferre Dedumose II (uncertain) |Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef | | colspan="2" |''Lost'' |- !13 |Djedankhre Montemsaf (uncertain) |Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef | |[…]re […] |''Lost'' |- !14 |Merankhre Mentuhotep VI (uncertain) |Nubkheperre Intef | | colspan="2" |''Lost'' |- !15 |Seneferibre Senusret IV (uncertain) |Sekhemre Wahkhau Rahotep | | colspan="2" |''Lost'' |- | colspan="4" | | colspan="2" |'''Total:''' ['''1''']'''5 kings''' […] |- ! colspan="6" | |}

'''Beckerath's Dynasty XVI'''{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|pp=116–122}} {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" |+ ! colspan="6" |Name |- |'Anat-Har |Yaqub-Har |Anati |Nubankhre |Wazad |Hibe |- |'Aper-'Anati |Jamu |Bebnum |Nikare II |Qur |Aped |- |Semqen |Jakebmu |Nebmaatre |[…]kare |Shenes |Hapi |- |Sakir-Har |Amu |Aahotepre |[…]kare |Inek |Shemsu |- |Apepi |Sneferankhre |Anetjerire |[…]kare |'A[…] |Meni[…] |- |Maaibre Sheshi |Hepu |Meribre |Sharek |[['Apepi|'Ap[epi]]] |Werqa |}

=== Abydos Dynasty === {{Main|Abydos Dynasty}}

The Turin King List records sixteen names after the Dynasty XVI, but the names do not match those of Dynasty XVII and thus likely refer to a different line. This dynasty is hypothesized by Kim Ryholt to have been a short-lived local line contemporaneous with the other dynasties.{{Sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=163–166, 264–265}}<ref name="turin1011" /> This has not been accepted by all scholars.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Wegner |first1=Josef |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fnhGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA342 |title=King Seneb-Kay's Tomb and the Necropolis of a Lost Dynasty at Abydos |last2=Cahail |first2=Kevin |date=2021 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |isbn=978-1-949057-10-2 |pages=341–343 }}</ref> {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Personal name ! width="15%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes |- !1 |– |– |'''Woser'''[…]'''re'''[…] |May belong to Senebkay.<ref name="turin1011" /> |- !2 |– |– |[…]'''Woser'''[…] |May be the same as Seneferibre Senusret IV.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=190–191}} |- ! colspan="5" | |- !? |60px |'''Wepwawetemsaf''' |Sekhemre-Neferkhau |May belong to the late 16th{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=190–191}}<ref name="maree">Marcel Marée (2010): ''A sculpture workshop at Abydos from the late Sixteenth or early Seventeenth Dynasty'', in: Marcel Marée (editor): ''The Second Intermediate period (Thirteenth-Seventeenth Dynasties), Current Research, Future Prospects'', Leuven, Paris, Walpole, MA. {{ISBN|978-90-429-2228-0}}. p. 247, 268</ref> or 13th Dynasty.<ref name="UCLsip">[https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt//chronology/2interkings/kings2intermediatebeckerath.html Kings of the Second Intermediate Period]. University College London</ref> |- !? |60px |'''Pantjeny''' |Sekhemre-Khutawy |May belong to the late 16th<ref name="maree" /> or 13th Dynasty.{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|pp=88–101}} |- !? |60px |'''Snaaib''' |Menkhaure |May belong to the late 13th Dynasty<ref name="UCLsip" />{{sfn|Beckerath|1997}} |- !? |60px |'''Senebkay''' |Woseribre |Tomb found in 2014.<ref name="pennmuseum2">{{cite press release |title=Giant Sarcophagus Leads Penn Museum Team in Egypt To the Tomb of a Previously Unknown Pharaoh |date=January 2014 |publisher=Penn Museum |url=http://www.penn.museum/press-releases/1032-pharaoh-senebkay-discovery-josef-wegner.html |access-date=16 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150420164031/http://www.penn.museum/press-releases/1032-pharaoh-senebkay-discovery-josef-wegner.html |archive-date=20 April 2015}}</ref> Possibly the same as Sebkay. |- !? |60px |'''Khuiqer''' |– |Attributed by Detlef Franke to the Abydos Dynasty.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schneider |first=T. |date=2009 |title=Das Ende der kurzen Chronologie: Eine kritische Bilanz der Debatte zur absoluten Datierung des Mittleren Reiches und der Zweiten Zwischenzeit |journal=Ägypten und Levante |volume=18 |pages=275–314 |doi=10.1553/aeundl18s275 |issn=1015-5104 }}</ref> |- ! colspan="5" | |- !11 |– |– |[…]'''hebre''' |– |- !12 |– | colspan="2" |''Name lost'' |Reigned 2 years.<ref name="turin1011" /> |- !13 |– | colspan="2" |''Name lost'' |Reigned 2 years.<ref name="turin1011" /> |- !14 |– | colspan="2" |''Name lost'' |Reigned 4 years.<ref name="turin1011" /> |- !15 |– |– |[…]'''tere'''[…] |Reigned 3 years.<ref name="turin1011" /> |- !16 |– |– |[…]'''nre''' |Last king recorded in the Turin King List.<ref name="turin1011" /> |} The Turin King List ends here, recording a total of 223 kings. According to the reconstructions used here, the original Egyptian annals recorded roughly 243 kings until this point (and 270 up to Ramesses II). The whole section after Dynasty XVI is badly damaged, and thus Ryholt's reconstruction can't be proven with certainty. The total for Dynasty I–XVI thus amounts to '''227 kings''' for a period of {{frac|1|1|2}} millennia.

=== Seventeenth Dynasty (Thebes) === {{Main|Seventeenth Dynasty of Egypt}}

The succession of the last three kings of the Seventeenth Dynasty is attested in the Tomb of Khabekhnet and Table of Qenhirkhopshef, but the placement of the previous ruler is problematic. The Karnak King List includes the throne names of Sekhemre Wahkhau Rahotep, Sobekemsaf I, and Nubkheperre Intef, but they are not in order. These Theban kings ruled an area from Elephantine to Abydos.'''{{sfn|Clayton|2001|p=37}}''' They likely began as minor vassals of the Hyksos, as their origins are very obscure. The last kings fought and defeated the Hyksos, and established the New Kingdom of Egypt.

Kyholt identified 9 kings of this line, although the exact order is uncertain. Beckerath included 6 additional names belonging to kings that Ryholt placed on the previous dynasties (Sekhemre Sementawy Djehuty, Seankhenre Mentuhotepi, Nebiryraw I, Nebiryraw II, Semenre, and Bebiankh).{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|pp=124–131}} Hornung postulates that the rulers between Dynasties XIII and XVIII ruled for roughly a century.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=181–192}}

'''Proposed dates''': {{Circa}} 1645–1550 BC (95 years),{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=286}} {{Circa}} 1640–1550 BC (90 years),{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=106}} {{Circa}} 1580–1550 BC (30 years){{Sfn|Shaw|2003|p=484}}{{Sfn|Ryholt|1997|p=410}} {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Personal name ! width="15%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=181–192}} |- !1 |60px |'''Rahotep''' |Sekhemre Wahkhau |Believed by Kyholt to be the founder of the dynasty.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=181–192}} Probably reigned close to Sekhemrekhutawy Pantjeny and Wepwawetemsaf, who produced stelas similar to his.<ref name="maree2">Marée, Marcel (2010). "A sculpture workshop at Abydos from the late Sixteenth or early Seventeenth Dynasty." ''[https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Second_Intermediate_Period_thirteent.html?id=FT98cAAACAAJ&redir_esc=y The Second Intermediate period (Thirteenth-Seventeenth Dynasties), Current Research, Future Prospects]'', Leuven. {{ISBN|978-90-429-2228-0}}. p. 247, 268</ref> According to Bunson, he erected a pyramid at the necropolis of Thebes.{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|pp=333–334}} |– |- !2 |60px |'''Sobekemsaf I''' |Sekhemre-Wadjkhaw |May be part of Dynasty XVI.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=181–192}} |– |- !3 |60px |'''Sobekemsaf II''' |Sekhemre-Shedtawy |May be part of Dynasty XVI.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=181–192}} Tomb was robbed during the reign of Ramesses IX |{{circa}} 7 years |- ! colspan="6" | |- !4 |60px |'''Intef V''' |Sekhemre-Wepmaat |Known for issuing the Coptos Decree to punish one Teti, Son of Minhotep.{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=181}} Hornung calls him '''Intef VI'''.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=181–192}} |– |- !5 |60px |'''Intef VI''' |Nubkheperre |Probably a son of Sobekemsaf I,{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=181}} and brother of Intef VII.{{sfn|Ryholt|1997|pp=270–271}} Hornung calls him '''Intef VIII'''.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=181–192}} |{{circa}} 3 years |- !6 |60px |'''Intef VII''' |Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat |Probably the father of Senakhtenre Ahmose; ruled in opposition to the Hyksos ruler Apepi.{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=181}} Hornung calls him '''Intef VII'''.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=181–192}} |– |- ! colspan="6" | |- !7 |60px |'''Ahmose''' "the Elder" |Senakhtenre |Tomb and name discovered in 2012.<ref>[http://www.cfeetk.cnrs.fr/uk/index.php?page=senakhtenre A Pharaoh Of The Seventeenth Dynasty Identified At Karnak] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120311054112/http://www.cfeetk.cnrs.fr/uk/index.php?page=senakhtenre|date=2012-03-11}} CFEETK</ref> Previously thought to be named '''Tao''', thus making his son and successor ''Tao II''.<ref>Biston-Moulin, Sébastien (2012). « [http://www.enim-egyptologie.fr/index.php?page=enim-5&n=6 Le roi Sénakht-en-Rê Ahmès de la XVIIe dynastie] », ''ENiM'' 5, pp. 61–71.</ref> Said to have been part of a "second group" of Dynasty XVII.{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=395}} |{{circa}} 4 years |- !8 |60px |'''Tao''' "the Brave" |Seqenenre |Well attested in contemporary sources, father of Ahmose I and Kamose. He was killed during his war against the Hyksos.{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=395}} |– |- !9 |60px |'''Kamose''' |Wadjkheperre |Son of Tao and brother of Ahmose I. Achieved great military victories against the Hyksos. He died either of battle wounds or because of natural causes.{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|pp=192–193}} Adopted the horse, introduced by the Hyksos, as part of the Egyptian military.{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=171}} |{{Circa}} 1543–1540 BC (~'''3 years''') |}

== New Kingdom (c. 1550–1075 BC) == {{Main|New Kingdom of Egypt}}

The New Kingdom is considered the greatest period in Egyptian history. It began with the expulsion of the Hyksos, and it saw Egypt's greatest territorial extent. The Egyptians expanded far into Nubia in the south, and held wide territories in the Near East. Three of the best-known pharaohs originate from this period. These are Akhenaten, whose exclusive worship of the Aten is often interpreted as the first instance of monotheism, Tutankhamun, known for the discovery of his nearly intact tomb, and Ramesses II the Great, who attempted to recover the territories in the Levant that had been held in the Eighteenth Dynasty. His reconquest led to the Battle of Kadesh, where he led the Egyptian armies against the Hittite king Muwatalli II. The ensuing Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty is the oldest of its kind.

The accession of Ahmose I and the beginning of the New Kingdom can be securely dated to {{Circa}} 1550 BC (± 10 years), which is also the date adopted by most scholars. Radiocarbon studies have yielded two intervals for Ahmose's date of accession: 1570–1544 BC<ref name="Ramsey" /> and 1564–1528 BC.<ref name=QUILES/> While most scholars use Shaw's figure of {{circa}} 1550 BC, Hornung argues in favor of an slightly later date, {{circa}} 1540 BC. Many of the reign lengths given by Manetho, as preserved by Josephus, appear to be confirmed by contemporary sources. The years are mostly derived only from the highest known year of each pharaoh, meaning that there is still some uncertainty on their exactitude.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=197–217, 492–493}}

=== Eighteenth Dynasty (Thutmoside) === {{Main|Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt}}

The Eighteenth dynasty lasted roughly 250 years and was the longest-reigning native Egyptian dynasty.{{efn-lr|The longest-reigning dynasty overall was the Ptolemaic, which ruled for 275 years. Another foreign dynasty, the Twenty-second, ruled {{circa}} 200 years. After the 18th dynasty, the longest-reigning native dynasties was the Twelfth, which ruled {{Circa}} 180 years. Additionally, the exact duration of the First dynasty is uncertain but it might have lasted between 170 and 375 years, the latter option exceeding all known durations of any ancient Egyptian dynasty.<ref name="Dee Wengrow2" />}} It started as a continuation of the Seventeen dynasty, with Ahmose I being the brother of Kamose. However, the death of Amenhotep I without known children ended the male line, bringing the common-born Thutmose I to the throne. Thutmose probably married into the royal family by marrying two presumed daughters of Ahmose I, Ahmose and Mutnofret.{{Sfn|Cooney|2018|pp=103–104}}{{sfn|Dodson|Hilton|2004|pp=126,129, 139}} If the identification of Mutnofret as a child of Ahmose is correct, that would mean that–via her issue–the family composed of members of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth dynasties ruled Egypt for nearly three centuries, until Tutankhamun's death.

'''Proposed dates''': 1550–1307 BC (243 years),{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=106}} 1550–1295 BC (255 years),{{Sfn|Shaw|2003|pp=484–485}} 1550–1292 BC (258 years),{{Sfn|University College London|2000}}{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=286}} 1539–1292 BC (247 years).{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=197–217, 492–493}} Regnal years may still be off by one or two years at most.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=197–217, 492–493}} {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Personal name ! width="15%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=197–217, 492–493}}{{sfn|Krauss|2007}} |- !1 |60px |'''Ahmose I''' |Nebpehtire |Son of Seqenenre Tao and brother of Kamose, began his rule as a child and ruled for a decade under the regency of his mother Ahhotep I. Expelled the Hyksos and reunified Egypt during his second decade of rule.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|p=198}} Also built the last Egyptian pyramid. Died aged around 35, which would place his accession at age 10. Left an almost intact mummy.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=15-6|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=97–101}} |{{Circa}} 1540–1515 BC (~'''25 years''') |- !2 |60px |'''Amenhotep I''' |Djeserkare |Son of Ahmose I and Ahmose-Nefertari, who probably ruled as regent briefly. Rebuilt several temples in Upper Egypt, particularly in Karnak. Was also the first pharaoh to separate his tomb from his mortuary temple and burial complex.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=29–30|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=101}} Died aged around 35, which would place his accession at age 15.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Saleem |first1=Sahar N. |author-link1=Sahar Saleem |last2=Hawass |first2=Zahi |author-link2=Zahi Hawass |title=Digital Unwrapping of the Mummy of King Amenhotep I (1525–1504 BC) Using CT |journal=Frontiers in Medicine |date=2021 |volume=8 |page=2292 |doi=10.3389/fmed.2021.778498 |pmid=35028305 |pmc=8748262 |issn=2296-858X|doi-access=free }}</ref> Left an intact mummy that has never been unwrapped.{{sfn|Shaw|Nicholson|1995|p=28}} |{{Circa}} 1514–1494 BC (~'''20 years''') |- ! colspan="6" | |- !3 |60px |'''Thutmose I''' Khamyre |Aakheperkare |Possible son-in-law of Ahmose I by his marriages to Queen Ahmose and Queen Mutnofret. Continued the building and military projects of his predecessor, but further expanded Egyptian power over foreign territories, campaigning into the Levant.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=414-5|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=101-2}} His mummy was once thought to have been recovered, but it turned out to be incompatible with Thutmose I.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hawass |first1=Zahi A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b4N9DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |title=Scanning the Pharaohs: CT Imaging of the New Kingdom Royal Mummies |last2=Saleem |first2=Sahar |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-977-416-673-0 |pages=47–51}}</ref> |{{Circa}} 1493–1483 BC (~'''10 years''') |- !4 |60px |'''Thutmose II''' Neferkhau |Aakheperenre |Son of Thutmose I; his reign was dominated by his wife and half-sister Hatshepsut. Left a mummy estimated to be around 30 years old.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=415|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=102}} |{{Circa}} 1482–1480 BC (~'''2–3 years''') |- !5 |60px |'''Thutmose III''' "the Great" Neferkheperu |Menkheperre |Began his rule as child under the regency and co-rule of Hatshepsut. One of the most powerful pharaohs, he conquered much of the Near East from the Euphrates to Nubia, marking the geographical peak of the Egyptian empire. His multiple military campaigns are recorded in detail in the Annals of Thutmose III.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=415–16|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=415–17, 108–11}} Tales of his military conquest are possibly one of the origins of the legendary king Sesostris recorded by Herodotus.{{Efn-lr|name=sesostris}} |28 April 1479– 25 March 1425 BC{{Efn-lr|Thutmose III's reign is known to the day thanks to official records and astronomical calculations. His reign began in Year 1, I Shemu (9th month), day 4, and ended in Year 54, III Peret (7th month), day 30.{{sfn|Beckerath|1997|p=189}}{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=197–217, 492–493}} Beckerath claims that it is a "chronological certainty" that his accession was on 28 April 1479, and then calculates that his death occurred on 11 March 1425.{{sfn|Beckerath|1997|pp=121, 126, 189}} However, the actual length between the two dates is 53 years and 331 days (10 months + 26 days + 5 intercalary days), giving 25 March if reckoning from 28 April 1479. The sole reign of Thutmose III began on Year 22, II Peret (6th month), day 10,{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=197–217, 492–493}} and thus lasted 32 years and 50 days. The Egyptian calendar does not match the Gregorian calendar; each of the 12 months was exactly 30 days, and there was an intercalary month of 5 days to complete the 365-cycle.}} ('''{{Age in years and days|-1479|4|28|-1425|3|25}}''') |- !6 |60px |Khenemet Amun '''Hatshepsut'''♀ |Maatkare |Second known female ruler of Egypt, called the "most successful queen-pharaoh". Began as regent of his stepson Thutmose III, but quickly sidelined him and adopted masculine titles. Reigned over a prosperous Egypt and conducted several grand building projects, such as her Mortuary Temple at Deir el-Bahari. Probably died of natural causes. Later pharaohs tried to erase the memory of her reign, perhaps as a rejection of female rule.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=161-2|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=104-7}} |28 April 1479– c. January 1457 BC (including regency){{Efn-lr|Hatshepsut became pharaoh between Year 2 and 7 of Thutmose III,{{sfn|Cooney|2018|p=131}} but her official regnal count retroactively included into her reign the time she had served as regent, therefore his date of ascension –Year 1, I Shemu (9th month), day 4– also became hers. Her reign is thought to have ended on Year 22, II Peret (6th month), day 10.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=197–217, 492–493}} James Peter Allen equals this to 16 January 1458 BC,<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Roehrig |editor-first1=Catharine H. |title=Hatshepsut: From Queen to Pharaoh |date=2005 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |isbn=978-0300111392|page=261|url=https://books.google.com.pe/books?id=pvhNq307q9gC}}</ref> but Beckerath dates her death to January 1457 BC,{{sfn|Beckerath|1997|pp=121, 126, 189}} which closely follows the actual sum of days. Her official reign lasted 21 years and 281 days (9 months + 6 days + 5 intercalary days).}} ('''~21 years''', ''de jure ''~'''14–19 years''') |- !7 |60px |'''Amenhotep II''' Heqaiunu |Aakheperure |Son of Thutmose III; described as an athletic man. Continued to launch military campaigns.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=30-1|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=112-3}} |{{circa}} 1425–1400 BC{{efn-lr|It is unclear if Amenhotep began his rule as co-ruler for a couple of years. If he was named co-ruler, his reign likely began the day after his father's death, i.e. Year 1 IV Peret (8th month), day 1. If not, it may have begun in Year 3, III Shemu (9th month), day 15.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=197–217, 492–493}} }} (~'''25 years''') |- !8 |60px |'''Thutmose IV''' |Menkheperure |Son of Amenhotep II. Remembered for restoring the Great Sphinx of Giza and writing the Dream Stele. Established peaceful relations with the Mitanni state, opposing the Hittite Empire.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=415|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=417–18, 113–4}} |{{circa}} 1400–1390 BC (~'''10 years''') |- !9 |60px |'''Amenhotep III''' "the Great" Heqawaset |Nebmaatre |Considered one of the greatest pharaohs; ruled at the peak of the Egyptian Empire, when the country reached its economic, artistic, and military height. Some of his foreign affairs are recorded in the Amarna letters.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=31|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=115-9}} |{{circa}} 1390–1353 BC (~'''37 years''') |- ! colspan="6" |Amarna period |- !10 |60px |'''Akhenaten''' |Neferkheperure Waenre |Sometimes called the first monotheist. Began his reign as '''Amenhotep IV''', but quickly changed it to express his devotion to the sun-god Aten, whom he placed at the top of the Egyptian pantheon. Also built a new capital, Akhetaten (now Amarna). His religious reforms were not widely accepted, and later pharaohs tried to erase all memory of his reign. Was also a patron of the distinctive Amarna art.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=18–19|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=120-6}} |{{circa}} December 1353– {{circa}} September 1336 BC{{Efn-lr|The reign of Akhenaten began on the first 8 days of Peret (5th month) and likely ended on Year 17, II Akhet (2nd month), a date "corresponding to August 22 to September 20 [Julian] in 1336 BC".{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=197–217}} }} ('''16 years, 10 months''') |- !11 |60px |'''Smenkhkare''' Djoser Kheperu |Ankhkheperure |Disputed family background and sex, viewed variously as Akenaten's son, brother, or wife. Sometimes identified with female Pharaoh Neferneferuaten who ruled from Thebes. Attested mainly in Amarna. Might have been Akhenaten's co-regent.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=379|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=126-7}}{{sfn|Dodson|Hilton|2004|pp=150–151}}{{sfn|Naunton|2018|pp=167–170, 180–182}}{{sfn|Cooney|2018|pp=194–197}} |{{circa}} 1336–1334 BC (~'''2 years''') |- !12 |60px |'''Neferneferuaten'''♀ |Ankhetkheperure Merwaenre |Third female pharaoh of Egypt. She is sometimes identified with King Smenkhkare, who shared the male form of her throne name. "Neferneferuaten" is believed to be a regnal name adopted most likely by Nefertiti, Akhenaten's main wife.{{sfn|Naunton|2018|pp=168–170}}<ref name="ALLEN_AMARNA">Allen, James P.; [https://web.archive.org/web/20130701103124/http://cassian.memphis.edu/history/murnane/Allen.pdf ''The Amarna Succession''] (2006); in P. Brand (ed.), ''Causing His Name to Live: Studies in Egyptian Epigraphy and History in Memory of William J. Murnane''; [http://cassian.memphis.edu/history/murnane/Allen.pdf Archived from the original] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530135402/http://cassian.memphis.edu/history/murnane/|date=30 May 2013}}</ref>{{sfn|Cooney|2018|pp=194–197}} |{{circa}} 1334–1333 BC ('''a few years''') |- !13 |60px |'''Tutankhamun''' Heqaiunu-shemau |Nebkheperure |Arguably the most famous male pharaoh in modern times.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tyldesley |first=Joyce |title=Tutankhamen's Curse: The Developing History of an Egyptian King |publisher=Profile Books |year=2012 |isbn=978-1847657978 |chapter=Introduction: Tutankhamen's Many Curses |quote=Our overwhelming interest in Tutankhamen has effectively distorted our perception of the past so that, almost century after his rediscovery, and more than 3,000 years after his death, 'Tut' {{snd}} we are so familiar with him that we even accord him a friendly nickname {{snd}} remains the ultimate ancient-world celebrity. Only Nefertiti and Cleopatra VII can approach his superstar status.}}</ref> His tomb was found almost intact thanks to the entrance being buried in antiquity. Born as '''Tutankhaten''' to uncertain parents (possibly Akhenaten and his sister),{{sfn|Naunton|2018|pp=187–189}} his reign saw the reversal of several of Akhenaten's policies. He changed his name and abandoned Amarna in favour of Thebes, where he died aged about 18.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=413-4|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=128-35}} |{{circa}} 1333–1324 BC ('''about a decade''') |- !14 |60px |Itnetjer '''Ay II''' |Kheperkheperure Irmaat |Vizier since the reign of Akhenaten, speculated to be his father-in-law as possible father to Queen Nefertiti; married Tutankhamun's wife Ankhesenamun, who might have been also his own granddaughter. His tomb was later destroyed by his successor.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=61|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=136-7}} |{{circa}} 1323–1320 BC (~'''3 years''') |- ! colspan="6" |End of Amarna period |- !15 |alt="head of Horemheb"|60px |'''Horemheb''' Meryamun |Djeserkheperure Setepenre |Senior official; married Mutnedjmet, speculated to be sister of Nefertiti and daughter of Ay. Initiated a vigorous campaign of ''damnatio memoriae'' ("condemnation of memory") against the Armana rulers, even dating his own reign from the death of Amenhotep III, effectively erasing 34 years of history.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=170–171|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=137-9}} |{{circa}} 1319–1292 BC ('''26 years, ''x'' months''') |}

'''Comparison of Manethonian royal lists''' {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" |+ ! colspan="2" |Pharaoh and years ! rowspan="20" | ! colspan="3" |Josephus ! rowspan="20" | ! colspan="3" |Africanus ! rowspan="20" | ! colspan="3" |Eusebius ! rowspan="20" | |- |'''Ahmose I''' |~25 |(1st) '''Tethmosis''' |Τεθμωσις |25y 4m |(1st) '''Amos''' |Aμως |{{abbr|25|Not actually given in Africanus; the number is deduced from Manetho's other copyists, as well as Africanus' own sum of years.}} |(1st) '''Amosis''' |Aμωσις |25 |- |'''Amenhotep I''' |~20 |(2nd) '''Chebron''' |Χεβρων |13y |(2nd) '''Chebros''' |Χεβρως |13 |(2nd) '''Chebron''' |Χεβρων |13 |- |'''Thutmose I''' |~10 |(3rd) '''Amenophis''' |Aμενωφις |20y 7m |(3rd) '''Amenophthis''' |Αμενωφθις |24 |(3rd) '''Ammenophis''' |Aμμενωφίς |21 |- |'''Thutmose II''' |~2 |(4th) '''Amesses♀''' |Aμεσσης |21y 9m |(4th) '''Amensis''' |Αμενσις |22 |(4th) '''Miphres''' |Μιφρης |12 |- |'''Hatshepsut♀''' |~21 |(5th) '''Mephres''' |Μηφρης |12y 9m |(5th) '''Misaphris''' |Μισαφρις |13 | colspan="3" |– |- | colspan="2" |Sum of years: ~78 years ! | colspan="2" |(Sum: 91 years, 5 months){{Efn-lr|This is the sum of Josephus' figures; the subdivision is only found in Africanus and Eusebius. Josephus' total, excluding Queen Hatshepsut, is 71 years, 8 months. The original text likely counted the years between Ahmose I and the beginning of Thutmose III's sole reign, acknowledging that Hatshepsut ruled as senior co-ruler. However, Manetho's scribes misunderstood the text. Africanus' subtotal is notably off by several years, while Eusebius completely omits Hatshepsut.}} ! | colspan="2" |Sum: {{abbr|69 years|The correct sum should be 97; the total excluding Queen Hatshepsut is 75 years.}} ! | colspan="2" |Sum: 71 years |- |'''Thutmose III''' |32y 1m |(6) '''Mephramouthosis''' |Μηφραμουθωσις |25y 10m |(6) '''Misphragmuthosis''' |Μισφραγμουθωσις |26 |(5) '''Myspharmuthosis''' |Μισφραγμουθωσις |26 |- |'''Amenhotep II''' |~25 |(7) '''Thmosis''' |Θμωσις |9y 8m |(7) '''Touthmosis''' |Τουθμωσις |9 |(6) '''Touthmosis''' |Τουθμωσις |9 |- |'''Thutmose IV''' |~10 |(8) '''Amenophis''' |Aμένωφις |30y 10m |(8) '''Amenophis''' |Αμενωφις |31 |(7) '''Amenophis''' |Aμενωφις |31 |- |'''Amenhotep III''' |~37 |(9) '''Oros''' |Ωρος |36y 5m |(9) '''Oros''' |Ωρος |37 |(8) '''Oros''' |Ωρος |36 |- |'''Akhenaten''' |16y 10m |(10) '''Akenkheres♀''' |Aκεγχερης |12y 1m |(10) '''Akherres''' |Αχερρης |32 |(9) '''Akhenkherses''' |Aχενχερσης |12 |- |'''Smenkhkare''' |~2 |(11) '''Rhathotis''' |Pαθωτις |9y |(11) '''Rathos''' |Ραθως |6 |(10) '''Athoris''' |Aθωρις |39 |- |'''Neferneferuaten'''♀ |~1 |(12) '''Akenkheres''' |Aκεγχηρης |12y 5m |(12) '''Chebres''' |Χεβρης |12 |(11) '''Khenkheres''' |Χενχερης |16 |- |'''Tutankhamun''' |~9 |(13) '''Akenkheres''' |Aκεγχηρης |12y 3m |(13) '''Akherres''' |Aχερρης |12 |(12) '''Akherres''' |Aχερρης |8 |- |'''Ay II''' |~3 |– |– |– |– |– |– |(13) '''Kherres''' |Χερρης |15 |- |'''Horemheb''' |~27 |(14) '''Armais''' |Aρμαις |4y 1m |(14) '''Armesis''' |Aρμεσης |5 |(14) '''Armais''' |Aρμαις |5 |- | colspan="2" |Sum of years: ~240 years ! | colspan="2" |(Sum: 246 years) |(15) '''Ramesses''' |Ραμεσσης |19 |(15) '''Rhamesses''' |Ραμεσσης |68 |- |'''Ramesses I''' |~1 |(1st) '''Rhamesses''' |Pαμεσσης |1y 4m |(16) '''Amenophath''' |Αμενωφαθ |19 |(16) '''Ammenophis''' |Aμμενωφις |40 |- |'''Ramesses II''' |66y 2m |(2nd) '''Armesses Miamun''' |Aρμεσσης Μιαμουν |66y 2m ! | colspan="2" |Sum: {{abbr|263 years|This is actually the sum of the first 13 kings, which amounts to 262 years. Adding the reign of the 14th king raises the number to 267 years.}} ! | colspan="2" |Sum: {{abbr|348 years|The sum of the first thirteen kings is 263 years, just as Africanus. The "correct" sum of years would be 376.}} |} '''Reconstructed regnal list of Manetho'''<ref name="weigall" />{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=197–217, 492–493}}<ref>Greenberg, Gary (1999). [https://ggreenberg.tripod.com/ancientne/manetho1.html Manetho's Eighteenth Dynasty: Putting the Pieces Back Together].</ref><ref name="Manetho2" /> {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" |+ !# ! colspan="2" |Historical Pharaoh ! ! colspan="3" |Manetho |- !1 |'''Ahmose I''' |~25 ! |(1st) '''Amosis''' |Aμωσις |25y 4m |- !2 |'''Amenhotep I''' |~20 ! |(3rd) '''Amenophis''' |Aμενωφις |20y 7m |- !3 |'''Thutmose I''' ''Kheperen'' |~10 ! |(5th) '''Mephres'''{{Efn-lr|name=Manetho18}} |Μηφρης |12y 9m |- !4 |'''Thutmose II''' ''Kheperen'' |~3 ! |(2nd) '''Chebron'''{{Efn-lr|The name "Chebren" is a corruption of ''Kheperen'', derived from the throne name of Thutmose I and II. The name "Mephres" is a corruption of ''Menkheperre'', the throne name of Thutmose III.<ref name=weigall>{{Cite book |last=Weigall |first=Arthur E. P. Brome |author-link=Arthur Weigall |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.77331/page/n265/mode/2up |title=A History of the Pharaohs |date=1925 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn= |pages=234–238}}</ref> Most scholars believe that "Chebron" refers to Thutmose II.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=197-217, 492-493}} ''Mephramouthosis'' is thus probably a corruption of ''Menkheperre Thutmosis'' (Thutmose III). His reign probably corresponds to Josephus' "30 years", itself derived from his sole reign.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=197–217, 492–493}}|name=Manetho18}} |Χεβρων |13y |- !5 |'''Hatshepsut♀''' |21y 9m ! |(4th) '''Amesses♀''' |Aμεσσης |21y 9m |- ! | colspan="6" | |- !6 |'''Thutmose III''' ''Menkheperre'' |32y 1m ! |(6th) '''Mephramouthosis{{Efn-lr|name=Manetho18}}''' |Μηφραμουθωσις |(8th) 30y 10m |- !7 |'''Amenhotep II''' |~25 ! |(8th) '''Amenophis''' |Aμένωφις |(6th) 25y 10m |- !8 |'''Thutmose IV''' |~10 ! |(7th) '''Thmosis''' |Θμωσις |(7th) 9y 8m |- !9 |'''Amenhotep III''' |~37 ! |(9th) '''Oros''' |Ωρος |(9th) 36y 5m |- !10 |'''Akhenaten''' |16y 10m ! |(12th) '''Akenkheres''' |Aκεγχηρης |12y 5m |- !11 |'''Smenkhkare''' |~2 ! |(13th) '''Akenkheres''' |Aκεγχηρης |12y 3m |- !12 |'''Neferneferuaten'''♀ |~2 ! |(10th) '''Akenkheres♀''' |Aκεγχερης |12y 1m |- !13 |'''Tutankhamun''' |~9 ! |(11th) '''Rhathotis''' |Pαθωτις |9y |- !14 |'''Ay II''' |~3 ! |(14th) '''Armais''' |Aρμαις |4y 1m |- !15 |'''Horemheb''' |~27 ! |– |– |– |- ! colspan="2" | |~245 ! ! colspan="2" | |246 years |}

Despite being the best-documented period in Egypt's history, almost all of Manetho's names and reign lengths were mixed. His sources were likely already corrupted due to the ''damnatio memoriae'' imposed over the Amarna rulers, and co-regency may have caused additional confusion. The period {{Circa}} 1540–1292 BC spans 248 years; the sum of estimates reigns amounts to a minimum of 245 years, which closely matches Josephus' sum of 246 years.

=== Nineteenth Dynasty (Ramesside) === {{Main|Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt}}

The Nineteenth Dynasty ruled from approximately 1292 to 1190 BC and includes one of the most famous pharaohs: Ramesses the Great. {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Personal name ! width="15%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=197–217, 492–493}}{{sfn|Krauss|2007}} |- !1 |60px |'''Ramesses I''' |Menpehtire |Vizier and chosen successor of Horemheb, with whom he briefly shared the throne. Had a rather brief and unremarkable reign.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=334|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=140-1}} |{{circa}} 1292–1291 BC (~'''1 year''') |- !2 |60px |'''Seti I''' Merenptah |Menmaatre |Also served as vizier and military commander before succeeding his father. Led several military campaigns and faced the Hittites. His tomb is the largest in the Valley of the Kings.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=334|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=367-8}} |{{circa}} 1290–1279 BC{{Efn-lr|It is often stated that his coronation took place on III Shemu 24,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lull |first1=José |last2=Navarro-López |first2=Diana |date=2024 |title=The reign of Sety I from the absolute chronology. A chronological exercise from oDeM 21 |url=https://revistascientificas.filo.uba.ar/index.php/rihao/article/view/16269 |journal=Revista del Instituto de Historia Antigua Oriental 'Dr. Abraham Rosenvasser' |issue=25 |doi=10.34096/rihao.n25.16269 |issn=2683-9660}}</ref> although it may refer to his death.<ref name=Demaree/>}} (~'''11 years''') |- !3 |60px |'''Ramesses II''' "the Great" Meryamun |Usermaatre Setepenre |Regarded as one of the most powerful pharaohs of Egypt, as well as its longest-reigning and longest-living monarch, possibly only behind Pepi II Neferkare. Also had one of the longest reigns in recorded history. Conducted more military campaigns and built more monuments than any other pharaoh. Also known by the Greek name '''Ozymandias''', after the first part of his prenomen ''Usermaatre''. Known to have had about 100 children. Died aged around 91, which would place his accession at age 25. He was also one of the few pharaohs to be deified in their lifetime.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=334–335|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=146–155}} |31 May 1279– 13 August 1213 BC{{Efn-lr|Ramesses II began his reign on Year 1, III Shemu (11th month), day 27, which Beckerath equals to 31 May 1279 BC,{{sfn|Beckerath|1997|pp=103–108, 190}} and died on Year 67, II Akhet (2nd month), day 6.<ref name=Demaree>Demarée, R. J. (2016). [https://www.academia.edu/41692064/ANNOUNCEMENT_OF_THE_PASSING_OF_RAMESSES_II Announcement of the Passing of Ramesses II], ''JEOL'' '''46''': 121–125.</ref> This equates to a total of 66 years, 2 months, 14 days according to the Egyptian calendar, or 66 years and 74 days.}} ('''66 years, 74 days''') |- !4 |60px |'''Merneptah''' Hotephermaat |Baenre Meryamun |The 13th son of Ramesses II, was already an old man when he took the throne. Faced the first wide attack of the Sea Peoples.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=238, 357|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=156–8}} |1213–1203{{Efn-lr|Merneptah's reign began between 19/I Akhet and 13/II Akhet, which perfectly aligns with Ramesses II's death on 6/II Akhet. His highest date is likely 7/IV/ Akhet, Year 10. Beckerath gives his death as 3 May 1203, but this is solely based on Manetho. The date is derived from adding 10 years (Manetho writes 19) and 6 months to the aforementioned 13/II Akhet, which Beckerath calculates as 3 August 1213.{{sfn|Beckerath|1997|pp=103–108, 190}} Because of this, his exact date of death remains uncertain.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=212–214}}}} ('''9 years, ''x'' months''') |- !5 |60px |'''Seti II''' Meryenptah |Userkheperure Setepenre |Faced an internal coup orchestrated by his son or brother Amenmesse at the beginning of his reign, but defeated him and erased him from official records.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=369|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=158-9}}{{sfn|Dodson|Hilton|2004|pp=178–180}} |{{circa}} 1203–1198 BC{{Efn-lr|The accession of Seti II probably took place on, or shortly after, the 29th day of II Peret (6th month). His death was announced in Thebes in Year 6, I Peret (5th month), day 19. His successor began his reign on I Peret, day 1–3, which places Seti's death at the end of IV Akhet (4th month).{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=212–214}} The exact chronology of events surrounding Amenmesse's usurpation is not clear. Beckerath proposes that the reign of Seti II actually began ''after'' Amenmesse's, {{circa}} December 1200/1199.{{sfn|Beckerath|1997|pp=103–108, 190}}}} ('''5 years, ~10 months''') |- !6 |60px |'''Amenmesse''' Heqawaset |Menmire Setepenre |Rival king in opposition to his brother or father Seti II; exact chronology disputed.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=212–213}}{{sfn|Dodson|Hilton|2004|pp=178–180}}{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=33|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=158}} |{{circa}} 1203–1200 BC{{Efn-lr|Amenmesse's accession took place around II Shemu (10th month), more precisely between 27/I/Shemu and 18/III/ Shemu. His last known date is Year 4, 29/III/ Shemu.{{sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=212–214}} Beckerath proposes that the reign of Amenmesse began on 3 May 1203, immediately after that of Merneptah.{{sfn|Beckerath|1997|pp=103–108, 190}}}} ('''3 years, 1–2 months''') |- !7 |60px |Merneptah '''Siptah''' |Akhenre Setepenre (Sekhaienre Meryamun) |Son of Seti II (or Amenmesse),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aldred |first1=Cyril |author-link= Cyril Aldred |year=1963 |title=The Parentage of King Siptah |url= |journal=JEA |volume=49 |issue= |pages=41–48 |doi=10.2307/3855698 |jstor=3855698 }}</ref> installed by Chancellor Bay under the regency of Tausret.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=375|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=159}} Began his reign as '''Ramesses Siptah''', but quickly changed it, possibly to claim direct descent from Merneptah.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Richard H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kBhpAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 |title=Tausret: Forgotten Queen and Pharaoh of Egypt |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-992315-1 |page=29}}</ref> |{{circa}} 1198–1192 BC{{Efn-lr|Siptah began his reign on I Peret (5th month), day 1–3, and died on Year 7, II Akhet, day 10–12. Some authors argue that he died on Year 6.{{sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=212–214}} }} ('''6 years, 285 days''') |- !8 |60px |'''Tausret''' Setepenmut♀ |Sitre Meritamun |Fourth female ruler of Egypt and last native queen regnant. Seti II's widow, initially regent for Siptah, then briefly sole pharaoh after his death. Like Hatshepsut before her, records of her reign were destroyed by later pharaohs.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=418|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=159}} |{{circa}} 1198–1191 BC (including regency){{Efn-lr|Tausret probably died on I Shemu (9th month), Year 8. While her reign ''de jure'' lasted 2–4 years, she retroactively reckoned it as a continuation of Siptah's, who reigned from the start of I Peret (5th month).{{sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=212–214}}{{sfn|Cooney|2018|pp=238–239}}}} ('''7 years, 4 months''', ''de jure'' '''~2 years''') |} '''Manethonian royal lists''' {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" |+ !# ! colspan="2" |Pharaoh and years ! rowspan="9" | ! colspan="3" |Josephus ! rowspan="9" | ! colspan="3" |Africanus ! rowspan="9" | ! colspan="3" |Eusebius |- !1 |'''Ramesses I''' |~1 |'''Rhamesses''' |Pαμεσσης |1y 4m |'''Sethos''' |Σεθως |51 |'''Sethos''' |Σεθως |55 |- !2 |'''Seti I''' |~11 |– |– |– |'''Rapsakes''' |Ραψακης |61 |'''Rampses''' |Ραμψης |66 |- !3 |'''Ramesses II''' ''Meryamun'' |66y 2m |'''Armesses Miamun''' |Aρμεσσης Μιαμουν |66y 2m |'''Amenephthes''' |Aμενεφθης |20 |'''Ammenephthis''' |Aμμενεφθίς |40 |- !4 |'''Merneptah''' |9 |'''Amenophis''' |Aμενωφις |19y 6m |'''Ramesses''' |Ραψακης |60 |– |– |– |- !5 |'''Seti II''' |5 |'''Sethos''' |Σεθως |59y |'''Ammenemnes''' |Aμμενεμνης |5 |'''Ammenemes''' |Aμμενεμης |26 |- !6 |('''Amenmesse''') |(3) | colspan="3" rowspan="3" | |'''Thouoris''' |Θουωρις |7 |'''Thouoris''' |Θουωρις |7 |- !7 |'''Siptah''' & '''Tausret''' |7 | colspan="3" |Total of years: 209 (sum is 204) | colspan="3" |Total of years: 194 years |- ! | colspan="2" |Total of years: ~102 years{{Efn-lr|The main difficulty in determining the exact duration of the dynasty is the lack of data for the first two pharaohs. The simple sum of total years gives 99 years, but the addition of months raises this figure to roughly 102 years, while the subtraction of dates (1292–1191) gives 101 years. Manetho's original number was probably "104 years", which was corrupted into "204" by Africanus, and "194" by Eusebius.}} | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" | |} Here ends the Second Book of Manetho, which records 96 kings, ruling for 2121 years according to Africanus (92 kings in 1121 years according to Eusebius). However, the correct sum of Africanus' dynasties comes to a puzzling 246 kings for 2221 years.{{sfn|Lundström|2025}}<ref name="Manetho2" /> The reconstructed chronology for Dynasties XII to XIX shows that about 190 kings ruled for roughly 560 years.

=== Twentieth Dynasty (Ramesside) === {{Main|Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt}}

The Twentieth Dynasty ruled from roughly 1190 to 1077 BC.{{sfn|Krauss|2007}} Shaw dated the dynasty to 1186–1069 BC.{{Sfn|Shaw|2003|p=485}}

{{Legend|#E6E6FA|(#) {{snd}} Existence disputed}}

{| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Personal name ! width="15%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=197–217, 492–493}}{{sfn|Krauss|2007}} |- !1 |60px |'''Setnakhte''' Meryamunre |Userkhaure Setepenre |An elderly man of unknown origin, perhaps a descendant of Ramesses II. Presented himself as a restorer after the unpopular reign of Queen Tausret. May have taken the throne after a brief period of anarchy.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=367|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=160}} |{{circa}} 1190–1188 BC{{Efn-lr|Setnakhte probably began his reign on II Shemu and died on Year 3, I Shemu, day 25, shortly before completing his 3rd regnal year.{{sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=212–214}} }} ('''2 years, 11 months''') |- !2 |60px |'''Ramesses III''' Heqaiunu |Usermaatre Meryamun |Arguably the last great Egyptian pharaoh, he reigned during the Late Bronze Age collapse that saw the collapse of several neighboring civilizations. Defended Egypt from the Sea Peoples, but ended up being assassinated during the Harem conspiracy led by Queen Tiye and their son Pentawer.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=336–338|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=161–171}} |{{circa}} 1187–1157 BC{{Efn-lr|Ramesses III began his reign on I Shemu, day 26, and likely died in Year 32, III Shemu, day 14.{{sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=212–214}} }} ('''31 years, 48 days''') |- !3 |60px |'''Ramesses IV''' Heqamaat Meryamun |Heqamaatre Setepenamun |Son of Ramesses III, executed the Harem conspirators after assuming the throne.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=336–338|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=161–171}} |{{circa}} 1156–1150 BC{{Efn-lr|Ramesses IV began his reign on III Shemu (11th month), day 15, and died in Year 7, around IV Peret (8th month). There is uncertainty about the exact chronology; his death may have occurred as early as I Peret (5th month).{{sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=212–214}} }} ('''6 years, ~9 months''') |- !4 |60px |'''Ramesses V''' Amunherkhepeshef |Usermaatre Sekheperenre |Son of Ramesses IV, his reign saw an epidemic of smallpox that likely ended with his life, as well as many members of his family.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=336–338|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=161–171}} |{{circa}} 1149–1146 BC{{Efn-lr|Ramesses V began his reign between I Peret (5th month) and IV Peret (8th month), and ended in Year 3, II Peret (6th month). Krauss assigns him a reign of 3 years 10 months, accepting an accession date in IV Peret.{{sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=212–214}} }} ('''3 years, ~10 months''') |- !5 |60px |'''Ramesses VI''' Amunherkhepeshef Netjerheqaiunu |Nebmaatre Meryamun |Son of Ramesses III and uncle of Ramesses V, he likely usurped the throne after a civil war, which further contributed to the economic decline of Egypt.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=336–338|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=161–171}} |{{circa}} 1145–1139 BC{{Efn-lr|Ramesses VI began his reign around II Peret, day 8, and died sometime after Year 8, II Peret, day 11. Additional evidence points to a reign of 7 years and 9 months.{{sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=212–214}} }} ('''7 years, 9 months''') |- !6 |60px |'''Ramesses VII''' Itiamun Netjerheqaiunu |Usermaatre Setpenre Meryamun |Son of Ramesses VI, the end of his reign likely saw a succession crisis.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=336–338|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=161–171}} |{{circa}} 1138–1131 BC{{Efn-lr|name=R7|The accession date of Ramesses VII is highly disputed. Beckerath dates it to the end of III Peret (7th month). His highest known date may have been Year 8, IV Shemu, day 25, but it has been argued that it belongs to Ramesses IX instead. The accession date of Ramesses VIII is also disputed, having been dated between I Peret (5th month) and I Akhet (1st month), or potentially earlier. He died on I Akhet, day 20, potentially having reigned for a full year.{{sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=212–214}} }} ('''7 years, 5–10 months?''') |- !7 |60px |'''Ramesses VIII''' Sethherkhepeshef Meryamun |Usermaatre Akhenamun |Last surviving son of Ramesses III, ruled very briefly.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=336–338|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=161–171}} |{{circa}} 1130 BC{{Efn-lr|name=R7}} ('''1 year or less''') |- !8 |60px |'''Ramesses IX''' Khaemwaset Mereramun |Neferkare Setpenre |Grandson of Ramesses III thru his father Montuherkhopshef, last pharaoh to rule over Nubia. By this time, the High Priest of Amun had already become the ''de facto'' rulers of Egypt.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=336–338|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=161–171}} |{{circa}} 1129–1111 BC{{Efn-lr|The reign of Ramesses IX probably began on I Akhet (1st month), day 21, and ended in Year 19, I Peret (5th month), day 26.{{sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=212–214}} }} ('''18 years, 125 days''') |- !9 |60px |'''Ramesses X''' Amunherkhepeshef Meryamun |Khepermaatre Setepenre |Son of Ramesses IX, the Libyans invaded Thebes during his reign.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=336–338|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=161–171}} |{{circa}} 1110–1107 BC{{Efn-lr|The reign of Ramesses X probably began on I Peret (5th month), day 26, and ended sometime after Year 3, IV Akhet (4 month). However, he may have ruled until Year 4.{{sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=212–214}} A figure of 3 years and 10 months have been proposed by Demarée.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Demarée|first=Robert J.|title=Two Papyrus Fragments with Historically Relevant Data|journal=Rivista del Museo Egizio|year=2023|volume=7|doi=10.29353/rime.2023.5078|url=https://rivista.museoegizio.it/article/two-papyrus-fragments-with-historically-relevant-data/|doi-access=free|archive-date=1 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231201124322/https://rivista.museoegizio.it/article/two-papyrus-fragments-with-historically-relevant-data/|url-status=live}}</ref>}} ('''3 years, 10 months?''') |- !10 |60px |'''Ramesses XI''' Khamwaset Meryamun Netjerheqaiunu |Menmaatre Setepenptah |Son of Ramesses X, faced a massive revolt in Thebes. Egypt was already split by his reign, with the priests of Amun ruling over the south.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=336–338|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=161–171}} |{{circa}} 1106–1077 BC{{Efn-lr|The reign of Ramesses XI probably began on III or IV Shemu (11th or 12th month), and ended sometime after his 28th year; the exact date is uncertain.{{sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=212–214}}}} (~'''29 years?''') |- ! colspan="6" | |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" !* |60px |'''Ramesses XII''' Mereramun |Usermaatre Heqawaset |Theorized by Ian Mladjov to have been a short-lived king. Only attested in a single inscription, which is itself the subject of much debate.<ref>Mladjov, Ian (2017), "[https://more.bham.ac.uk/birminghamegyptology/wp-content/uploads/sites/54/2013/01/Mladjov-2017-The-Transition-between-the-Twentieth-and-Twenty-First-Dynasties-Revisited.pdf The Transition between the Twentieth and Twenty-First Dynasties Revisited]," ''Birmingham Egyptology Journal'' 5: 1–23.</ref> May be a variant of Ramesses II's name.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ramesside Inscriptions, Translated and Annotated Notes and Comments|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8b6GI3DaJJwC|publisher=Wiley|date=1998|isbn=978-0-631-18435-5|pages=381–383|first=K. A.|last=Kitchen|volume=2}}</ref> |– |}

For the Twentieth Dynasty, Africanus records 12 kings ruling for 135 years. This actually coincides perfectly with the period between Merneptah (1213 BC) and Ramesses XI (1078 BC).{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=197–217, 492–493}} The sum of reigns is roughly 110 years.

== Third Intermediate period (c. 1075–664 BC) == {{Main|Third Intermediate Period of Egypt}}

Following the Late Bronze Age collapse, the Egyptian Empire collapsed and fragmented once more. The rulers of the Twenty-first Dynasty claimed to rule over all of Egypt, but in practice their influence was limited to Lower Egypt, with the High Priests of Amun ruling over Upper Egypt. The Twenty-second Dynasty maintained control over Egypt for a few decades, but their power soon deteriorated due to infighting. This led to the rise of several competing royal lines in Thebes, Heracleopolis, Hermopolis, Leontopolis, and Tanis, which are collectively known as the Twenty-third Dynasty. Another short-lived line, from Sais, is referred to as the Twenty-fourth Dynasty.

The fragmentation of Egypt came to an end with the arrival of the Nubian kings of Kush, who conquered Egypt {{circa}} 745 BC . This was the first time all of Egypt was ruled by foreigners (the Hyksos mostly ruled in Lower Upper), although the Nubians were highly Egyptianized and considered themselves legitimate pharaohs, even reviving the tradition of pyramid building (the last pyramid was built by Ahmose I nearly 800 years before).

While not as chaotic as the previous two intermediate periods, the lack of official king lists makes it difficult to reconstruct the exact succession of rulers. The only surviving king list is that of Manetho, which is likely based on a biased source dated to the Kushite period.<ref name="Adams">Adams, Matthew. (2011). [https://repositorio.uca.edu.ar/bitstream/123456789/7456/1/manetho-twenty-third-dynasty-egypt.pdf Manetho's 23rd Dynasty and the Legitimization of Kushite Rule over Egypt]. ''Antiguo Oriente''. '''9'''.</ref> Note that the sum of items does not match the stated total of years.{{sfn|Lundström|2025}}

'''Manetho's Dynasties XXI to XXV''' {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" |+ !Dynasty XXI !Dynasty XXII !Dynasty XXIII !Dynasty XXIV & XXV |- |'''7 kings of Tanis, 130 years''' * ''Smendes'', 26 years.

* ''Psousennes'',⁠ {{abbr|41 years|Africanus gives 46 years, but this does not match the stated total.}}.

* ''Nephelkheres'', 4 years.

* ''Amenophthis'', 9 years.

* ''Osokhor'', 6 years.

* ''Psinakhes'', 9 years

* ''Psousennes'', {{abbr|35 years|Africanus gives 14 years, but this does not match the stated total.}}. |'''9 kings of Bubastus, 120 years''' * ''Sesônchis'', 21 years.

* ''Osorthôn'',⁠ 15 years.

* Three kings, 25 years.

* ''Takelôthis'', 13 years.

* Three kings, 42 years. |'''4 kings of Tanis, {{abbr|120 years|Africanus' sum of items comes to 130 years.}}''' * ''Petoubatēs'', {{abbr|40 years|Eusebius gives 25 years}}

* ''Osorkhō'', {{abbr|8 years|Eusebius gives 9 years}}

* ''Psammous'', 10 years.

* ''Zēt'', 31 years. |'''1 king of Sais''' * ''Bokhkhoris'', 6 years.

----'''3 kings of Ethiopia, {{abbr|40 years|Eusebius gives 44 years}}''' * ''Sabakon'', {{abbr|8 years|Eusebius gives 12 years}}

* ''Sebikhos'', {{abbr|14 years|Eusebius gives 12 years}}

* ''Tarkos'', {{abbr|18 years|Eusebius gives 20 years}} |}

=== Twenty-first Dynasty (Tanis) === {{Main|Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt}}

Most scholars date the 21st dynasty to {{Circa}} 1070–945 BC;{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=107}}{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=283}}{{Sfn|University College London|2000}}{{sfn|Clayton|2001|p=164}} Ian Shaw dates it to {{Circa}} 1069–945 BC.{{Sfn|Shaw|2003|p=485 (1069–945 BC)}} The native Egyptian names are given in small ''italics''.

==== High Priests of Amun ==== The High Priests of Amun at Thebes were the ''de facto'' rulers of Upper Egypt during the Twenty-first dynasty, writing their names in cartouches, being buried in royal tombs, and passing their office to their sons. They likely did not consider themselves actual pharaohs, but their use of royal titles implied an equivalent level of authority. Dates are taken from Payraudeau (2020),{{Sfn|Payraudeau|2020|pp=555–557}} which may not perfectly align with Hornung's. There is insufficient evidence to reconstruct a reliable chronology of these rulers.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=218–233}} {{Legend|#FFE3F9|(#) {{snd}} only ever High Priest of Amun}}{{Legend|#E6E6FA|(#) {{snd}} Existence disputed}} {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#DDA0DD" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="20%" |Priest ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign{{Sfn|Payraudeau|2020|pp=555–557}} |- style="background:#FFE3F9" !(1) |60px |'''Piankh''' |Previously believed to be a son-in-law of Herihor,{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=307|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=176}} but the evidence for this has been refuted, and scholars now believe that Piankh actually ruled before Herihor.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jansen-Winkeln |first=Karl |date=1992 |title=Das Ende des Neuen Reiches |url=https://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/propylaeumdok/2326/ |journal=Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde |volume=119 |pages=22–37 |doi=10.11588/propylaeumdok.00002326}}</ref>{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=218–233}}<ref name="Broekman">{{Cite journal |last=Broekman |first=Gerard P. F. |date=2012 |title=The Theban High-Priestly Succession in the First Half of the Twenty-First Dynasty |journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology |volume=98 |pages=195–209 |doi=10.1177/030751331209800111 |jstor=24645010 |issn=0307-5133}}</ref><ref>Palmer, J.L. (2014). [https://more.bham.ac.uk/birminghamegyptology/wp-content/uploads/sites/54/2013/01/Jennifer-Palmer-The-High-Priests-of-Amun-at-the-End-of-the-Twentieth-Dynasty.pdf The High Priests of Amun at the End of the Twentieth Dynasty]. ''Birmingham Egyptology Journal'' '''2'''. pp. 1–22.</ref>{{sfn|Payraudeau|2020|pp=555–557}} According to another theory, Piankh may have served as High Priest during Herihor's reign,<ref>Morkot, R., & James, P. (2010). [https://www.centuries.co.uk/herihors-kingship.pdf Herihor's Kingship and the High Priest of Amun Piankh]. ''Journal of Egyptian History'', 3(2), 231–260. {{doi|10.1163/187416610X541718}}</ref> but this is also uncertain.<ref>Gregory, S. (2013). [https://www.academia.edu/4751983/Piankh_and_Herihor_Art_Ostraca_and_Accession_in_Perspective Piankh and Herihor: Art, Ostraca, and Accession in Perspective]. ''Birmingham Egyptology Journal'' '''1''': 5–18.</ref> |''uncertain'' (under '''Ramesses XI''') |- !(2) |60px |'''Herihor''' Siamun |Officer under Ramesses XI, adopted royal titulary at Thebes, possibly after the death of Ramesses XI,<ref name="Broekman" /> thus becoming ruler in the South alongside the Tanite pharaoh in the North.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=166|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=175}} |{{circa}} 1070–1063 BC (High Priest) {{circa}} 1063–1054 BC (Pharaoh) (~16 years, ''de jure'' ~9 years) |- !(3) |60px |'''Pinedjem I''' Meryamun |Son of Piankh, and father of Pharaoh Psusennes I. Assumed full pharaonic titulature.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=307–308|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=176-7}} |{{circa}} 1063–1054 BC (High Priest) {{circa}} 1054–1032 BC (Pharaoh) (~31 years, ''de jure'' ~22 years) |- style="background:#FFE3F9" !(4) |60px |'''Masaharta''' |Son of Pinedjem I.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|1p=227|2p=178}} |{{Circa}} 1054–1046 BC (~8 years) |- style="background:#FFE3F9" !(5) |– |'''Djedkhonsuefankh''' |Son of Pinedjem I.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|1p=237|2p=178}} |{{Circa}} 1046–1045 BC (~1 year) |- !(6) |60px |'''Menkheperre''' |Son of Pinedjem I and brother of Djedkhonsuefankh, whom he succeeded.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|1p=237|2p=178}} Adopted pharaonic titles.{{sfn|Dodson|Hilton|2004|p=207}} |{{Circa}} 1045–990 BC (~55 years) |- style="background:#FFE3F9" !(7) |60px |'''Smendes II''' ''Nesbanebdjed'' |Son of Menkheperre, succeeded him as an old man.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|1p=378|2p=178}} |{{Circa}} 990–988 BC (~2 years) |- style="background:#FFE3F9" !(8) |60px |'''Pinedjem II''' |Likely a son of Menkheperre.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=312|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=178}} |{{Circa}} 988–966 BC (~22 years) |- style="background:#E6E6FA" !(9) |– |'''Psusennes III''' ''Pasebakhaenniut'' |Son of Pinedjem II; most likely the same person as Pharaoh Psusennes II.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=218–233, 474–475, 493}}{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=312|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=178}} |{{Circa}} 966–943 BC (~23 years) |}

=== Twenty-second Dynasty (Libyan) === {{Main|Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt}}

The succession of kings of this dynasty is highly disputed; the following reconstruction is mostly based on Hornung, but dates follow Frédéric Payraudeau (2020).{{efn-lr|In the table of rulers at the end of his book, Hornung follows Beckerath in listing 9 kings for Dynasty 22. However, the individual chapter discussing the same dynasty gives a different succession.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=234–264, 473–494}}{{sfn|Beckerath|1999|pp=184–199}} There, Karl Jansen-Winkeln explains that three kings named "Shoshenq" should be placed between Osorkon and Takelot I. However, the dates in the table of rulers follow Rolf Krauss, who placed a single "Shoshenq II" after Takelot and gave him a single regnal year.{{sfn|Krauss|2007}} Frédéric Payraudeau places two kings named "Shoshenq" after Takelot and gives them about 8 years of combined rule. As a result, the reign of Osorkon II is given as 865–830 by Payraudeau, and 872–842 by Krauss. {{Sfn|Payraudeau|2020|pp=555–557}} The chronology of the first two kings is more certain, the combined reign of Shoshenq I and Osorkon I is given as 943–987 and 943–988, respectively.{{Sfn|Payraudeau|2020|pp=555–557}}{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=234–264, 473–494}}}} Other scholars date the dynasty {{Circa}} 945–715 BC, after Shaw.{{Sfn|Shaw|2003|p=486}}{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=106}}{{Sfn|Kitchen|2009|p=588}} Despite the political turmoil of this period, this dynasty managed to last for roughly 200 years, being exceeded only by the Eighteenth and the Ptolemaic dynasties.

{{Legend|#F2E0CE|(#) {{snd}} Status ambiguous}}

The exact succession of rulers during the period of Dynasties 22 and 23 is highly disputed:

'''Comparison of modern regnal lists''' {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" |+ !Kitchen 1972{{Sfn|Kitchen|2009|p=588}} !Beckerath 1999{{sfn|Beckerath|1999|pp=184–199}} !Shaw 2000{{Sfn|Shaw|2003|p=486}} !London 2000{{Sfn|University College London|2000}} !Mladjov 2021{{Sfn|Mladjov|2021b}} |- |'''Dynasty 22''' # '''Shoshenq I''' 945–924 # '''Osorkon I''' 924–889 # '''Shoshenq II''' 890 # '''Takeloth I''' 889–874 # '''Osorkon II''' 874–850 # '''Harsiese''' 870–860 # '''Takeloth II''' 850–825 # '''Shoshenq III''' 825–773 # '''Pimay''' 773–767 # '''Shoshenq V''' 767–730 # '''Osorkon IV''' 730–715/3

----'''Dynasty 23''' # '''Pedubast I''' 818–793 # '''Iuput I''' 804–803 # '''Shoshenq IV''' 793–787 # '''Osorkon III''' 787–759 # '''Takelot III''' 764–757 # '''Rudamun''' 757–754 # '''Iuput II''' 754–720 # '''Shoshenq VI''' (??) |'''Dynasty 22''' # '''Shoshenq I''' 945–924 # '''Osorkon I''' 924–890 # '''Takelot I''' 890–877 # '''Shoshenq II''' 877–775 # '''Osorkon II''' 875–837 # '''Shoshenq III''' 837–798/5 # '''Shoshenq IIIa''' 798–785 # '''Pami''' 785–774 # '''Shoshenq V''' 774–736

'''Upper Egyptian line'''

# '''Takelot II''' 841–816 # '''Pedubast I''' 830–805/00 # '''Iuput I''', 816–800 # '''Shoshenq IV''' 805/0–790 # '''Osorkon III''', 790–762 # '''Takelot III''', 767–755 # '''Rudamun''', 755–735 # '''Ini''' 735–730

'''Unplaced'''

'''Shoshenq''', '''Harsiese''', Shepenupet (?, Shoshenq VI (? ----'''Dynasty 23''' # '''Pedubast I''' 756–730 # '''Osorkon IV''' 730–722 # '''Psammus?''' 722–712 (?) |'''Dynasty 22''' # '''Shoshenq I''' 945– # '''Osorkon I''' # '''Takelot I''' # '''Osorkon II''' # '''Takelot II''' # '''Shoshenq III''' # '''Pimay''' # '''Shoshenq V''' # '''Osorkon IV''' −715

----'''Dynasty 23''' # '''Pedubast I''' 818– # '''Iuput I''' # '''Shoshenq IV''' # '''Osorkon III''' # '''Takelot III''' # '''Rudamun''' # '''Peftjauawybast''' # '''Iuput II''' −715 |'''Dynasty 22''' # '''Shoshenq I''' 945–924 # '''Osorkon I''' 924–890 # '''Takelot I''' 890–877 # '''Shoshenq II''' 877–875 # '''Osorkon II''' 875–837 # '''Shoshenq III''' 837–798/5 # '''Shoshenq IIIa''' 798–785 # '''Pami''' 785–774 # '''Shoshenq V''' *774–736

'''Upper Egyptian line'''

# '''Horsiese''' 870–850 # '''Takelot II''' 841–816 # '''Padibast''' 830–80/800 # '''Iuput I''' 816–800 # '''Shoshenq VI''' 805/0–790 # '''Osorkon III''', 790–762 # '''Takelot III''', 767–755 # '''Rudamun''', 755–735 # '''Ini''', 735–730

----'''Dynasty 23''' # '''Pedubast II''' 756–730 # '''Iuput II''' 756–724 # '''Osorkon IV''' 730–722 # '''Psammus?''' 722–712 | rowspan="3" |'''Dynasty 22''' # '''Shoshenq I''' 943–922 # '''Osorkon II''' 922–889 # '''Takelot I''' 889–876 # '''Osorkon III''' 876–841 # '''Harsiese''' 873 # '''Shoshenq II''' *865 # '''Shoshenq III''' 841–803 # '''Shoshenq V''' 799–790 # '''Pami''' 790–782 # '''Shoshenq VI''' 782–746

'''Kings in Upper Egypt'''

# '''Takelot II''' 845–820 # '''Iuput I''' 820–809 # '''Osorkon IV''' 800–773 # '''Takelot III''' 773–763 # '''Rudamun''' 763–755 # '''Ini''' 775–750

'''Rival line'''

# '''Pedubast I''' 834–812 # '''Shoshenq IV''' 809–806

----'''Dynasty 23 at Memphis''' # '''Pedubast II''' 774– # '''Osorkon V''' # '''Pami''' #* (to Dyn. XXIV/XXV?) # '''Gemenefkhonsbak''' # '''Pedubast II'''

'''Lentopolis'''

# '''Iuput II''' # Penamun # Wenamun #* (to Dyn. XXVI)

'''Heracleopolis'''

# '''Peftjauawybast''' #* (to Dyn. XXVI)

'''Hermopolis'''

# '''Nimlot I''' # '''Djehutyemhat''' #* (to Dyn. XXV?) # '''Nimlot II''' # '''Pedinemty''' #* (to Dyn. XXVI) |- !Bunson 2002{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=107}} !Hornung 2006{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=234–264, 473–494}} !Krauss 2007{{sfn|Krauss|2007}} !Lloyd 2010{{Sfn|Lloyd|2010|p=xxxviii}} |- |'''Dynasty 22''' # '''Shoshenq I''' 945–924 # '''Osorkon I''' 924–909 # '''Takelot I''' 909–883 # '''Shoshenq II''' 883 # '''Osorkon II''' 883–855 # '''Takelot II''' 860–835 # '''Shoshenq III''' 835–783 # '''Pami''' 783–773 # '''Shoshenq V''' 773–735 # '''Osorkon IV''' 735–712

----'''Dynasty 23''' # '''Pedubast I''' 828–803 # '''Iuput I''' # '''Shoshenq IV''' # '''Osorkon III''' 777–749 # '''Takelot III''' # '''Rudamun''' # '''Iuput II''' # '''Nimlot''' # '''Peftjauawybast''' 740–25 |'''Dynasty 22''' # '''Shoshenq I''' # '''Osorkon I''' # '''Shoshenq''' ('''II''') # '''Shoshenq''' ('''IIb''') #* '''Shoshenq''' ('''IIc''') # '''Takelot I''' # '''Osorkon II''' # '''Shoshenq III''' # '''Shoshenq IIIb''' ('''IV''') # '''Pami''' # '''Shoshenq V'''

----'''Dyn. 23 (UE) and rivals''' # '''Takelot II''' # '''Iuput I''' # '''Osorkon III''' # '''Takelot III''' # '''Pedubast I''' # '''Shoshenq VI''' # '''Rudamun''' # '''Ini'''

'''Lower Egypt'''

# '''Pedubast I''' (?) {{circa}} 730 # '''Osorkon IV''' |'''Dynasty 22''' # '''Shoshenq I''' 943–923 # '''Osorkon I''' 922–888 # '''Takelot I''' 887–874 # '''Shoshenq II''' 873 # '''Osorkon II''' 872–842 # '''Takelot II''' 845–821 # '''Shoshenq III''' 841–789 # '''Pami''' 790–784 # '''Shoshenq V''' 783–746 |'''Dynasty 22''' # '''Shoshenq I''' 945–939 # '''Osorkon I''' 924–889 # '''Shoshenq IIa''' # '''Shoshenq IIb''' # '''Shoshenq IIIc''' # '''Takeloth I''' 887–874 # '''Osorkon II''' 874–835 # '''Shoshenq III''' 835–797 # '''Shoshenq IIIa''' 797–783 # '''Pimay''' 783–776 # '''Shoshenq V''' 776–739 |}

'''Graphic list of the various rival dynasties (c. 880–650 BC)''' {| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align:center" |+ ! colspan="2" |Lower Egypt ! colspan="2" |Upper Egypt |- !Rival lines !Tanis !Thebes !Rival lines |- | rowspan="13" |– | colspan="2" |''Twenty-second Dynasty'' '''Takelot I''' 887–873 BC (?) | rowspan="3" |– |- |'''Shoshenq II*''' 873–865 BC (?) |''Theban 23rd Dyn.'' '''Harsiese''' 870–860 BC |- | colspan="2" |'''Osorkon II''' 865–830 BC |- | rowspan="3" |'''Shoshenq III''' 830–791 BC |'''Takelot II''' 834–809 BC | rowspan="2" |'''Pedubast I''' 822–799 BC |- |'''Iuput I''' 809–798 BC |- |'''Shoshenq III''' 798–791 BC |'''Shoshenq VI''' 799–793 BC |- |'''Shoshenq IV''' 791–778 BC | rowspan="2" |'''Osorkon III''' 791–764 BC | rowspan="4" |– |- |'''Pami''' 778–769 BC |- | rowspan="5" |'''Shoshenq V''' 769–731 BC |'''Takelot III''' 764–756 BC |- |'''Rudamun''' 756–750 BC |- |'''Ini''' 750–745 BC (?) |'''Peftjauawybast''' '''(Herac.)''' 750–720 BC |- | rowspan="5" |''Twenty-fifth Dynasty'' '''Piye''' 743–715 BC |'''Djehutyemhat''' '''(Hermo.)''' 745–735 BC |- |'''Nimlot''' '''(Hermo.)''' 735–725 BC |- |'''Iuput II''' '''(Leon.)''' 735–715 BC | rowspan="2" |''Tanite 23rd Dynasty'' '''Pedubast II''' 730–725 BC | rowspan="3" |'''Piye''' 720–715 BC |- | rowspan="2" |''Twenty-fourth Dynasty'' '''Tefnakht I''' '''(Sais)''' 726–718 BC |- |'''Osorkon IV''' 725–716 BC |- | colspan="2" |'''Bakenranef''' '''(Sais/Tanis)''' 718–712 BC | colspan="2" |'''Shebitku''' 714–705 BC |- |– |'''Pami II''' 712–702 BC | colspan="2" |'''Shabaka''' 705–690 BC |- ! colspan="4" |''Egypt unified by the Twenty-fifth Dynasty'' |- |– | rowspan="2" |'''Gemenefkhonsbak''', '''Sekhemkare'''/'''Pedubast III''' (ephemeral rebels) | colspan="2" rowspan="2" |'''Taharqa''' 690–664 BC |- |'''Necho I''' '''(Sais)''' ?–664 BC |- |'''Psamtik I''' '''(Sais)''' 664–610 BC |– | colspan="2" |'''Tantamani''' 664–656 BC |- ! colspan="4" |''Egypt unified by the Twenty-sixth Dynasty'' |}

=== Twenty-third Dynasty (Libyan) === {{Main|Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt}}

The designation "Twenty-Third Dynasty" is applied variously by scholars to branches of the Twenty-Second Dynasty ruling in mostly Upper Egypt (at least intermittently at Thebes), to various local rulers based at Heracleopolis Magna, Hermopolis, Leontopolis, and to a line of kings who succeeded the Twenty-Second Dynasty at Tanis, all of Libyan origin. The following is the most recent reconstruction by Frédéric Payraudeau (2020). There are roughly 20 kings attested around this period, but this may vary significantly depending on the author (compare the lists given above). See also the discussion of David Aston<ref>Aston, D. (2009). [https://www.academia.edu/39997245/Takeloth_II_A_King_of_the_Heracleopolitan_Theban_23rd_Dynasty_Revisited Takeloth II A King of the Heracleopolitan/Theban 23rd Dynasty Revisited]. O. Kaper, R. Demarée and G. Broekman Eds. ''The Libyan Period in Egypt''. Leiden: 1–28.</ref> and Karl Jansen-Winkeln.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=234–264}}

{{Legend|#E6E6FA|(#) {{snd}} Existence disputed}}

'''Rulers of Thebes'''{{Sfn|Payraudeau|2020|pp=34, 155–161, 162–163, 556}} {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Personal name ! width="15%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign |- !1 |60px |'''Harsiese A''' Meryamun |Hedjkheperre Setepenamun |An obscure rival pharaoh at Thebes; sometimes placed in Dynasty XXII. Bunson identifies him as a son of Shoshenq II and an ally of the usurper Pedubast I.{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=159}} |{{Circa}} 870–860 BC (~20 years) |- ! colspan="6" | |- !2 |60px |'''Takelot II''' Siese Meryamun |Hedjkheperre Setpenre |Initially thought to have been a son and successor of Osorkon II. Bunson claims that he defeated Harsiese.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=393|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=187}} |{{Circa}} 834–809 BC (~25 years) |- !3 |– |'''Iuput I''' Meryamun |– |Initially thought to be a co-ruler of Pedubast I,{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=185}} most likely the successor of Takelot II.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=218–233, 474–475, 493}} |{{Circa}} 809–798 BC (~11 years) |- ! colspan="6" |Rival Upper Egyptian line |- !(1) |60px |Meryamun '''Pedubast I''' |Usermaatre Setpenamun |Revolted in Year 11 of Takelot II and briefly took over Thebes between Years 15 and 25.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=234–264}} Initially thought to be the first king of the 23rd Dynasty, having previously been High Priest under Takelot II.{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=298}} Records show that he may have ruled with the support of Shoshenq III of the 22nd dynasty.<ref name="Kaper">Kaper, Olaf & Demarée, Robert (2005), "[https://www.exorientelux.nl/download/JEOL/JEOL39_Kaper_Demaree.pdf A Donation Stela in the Name of Takeloth III from Amheida, Dakhleh Oasis]," ''JEOL'' '''39''', pp. 19–37.</ref> |{{Circa}} 822–799 BC (~23 years) |- !(2) |– |'''Shoshenq VI''' Meryamun |Usermaatre Meryamun |Likely a son of Petubast I.{{Sfn|Payraudeau|2020|p=562}} An obscure Upper Egyptian king; Hornung calls him '''Shoshenq IV'''.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=234–264}} |{{Circa}} 799–793 BC (~5 years) |- ! colspan="6" |''interruption by rival line, then Shoshenq III of the 22nd Dynasty'' |- !4 |60px |'''Osorkon III''' Meryamun Saiset |Usermaatre Setpenamun |Son of Takelot II; recovered Thebes, then proclaimed himself king. Manethos' king "'''Psammous'''" may be based on his daughter, Shepenupet I, the God's Wife of Amun.<ref name="Adams" /> |{{Circa}} 791–764 BC (~27 years) |- !5 |60px |'''Takelot III''' Meryamun Saiset |Usermaatre Setpenamun |Son and co-ruler of Osorkon III, alternatively placed as an obscure ruler of Heracleopolis.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=393|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=187}} |{{Circa}} 768–756 BC (~12 years) |- !6 |60px |Meryamun '''Rudamun''' |Usermaatre Setpenamun |Son of Osorkon III and brother of Takelot III. Bunson places him in Leontopolis.{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=348}} |{{Circa}} 756–750 BC (~6 years) |- ! colspan="6" | |- !7 |60px |'''Ini III''' |Menkheperre |An obscure Theban pharaoh who ruled as far as Elephantine. Chronology uncertain; either the successor of Rudamun or a vassal under Piye, the founder of the Kushite 25th Dynasty. Suffered a ''damnatio memoriae'', possibly after the uprising of Tefnakht I.{{Sfn|Payraudeau|2020|pp=113–131, 162–163}} |{{circa}} 750–745 BC ''or'' 720–715 BC (~5 years) |- ! colspan="6" | |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" !* |60px |'''Shoshenq VII''' Siese Meryamun |Uasnetjerre Setepenre (?) Hedjkheperre Setepenre (?) |Likely did not exist; probably a corruption of Shoshenq III's name.{{sfn|Beckerath|1999|pp=184–199}} | |}

'''Rulers of Heracleopolis'''{{Sfn|Payraudeau|2020|pp=35, 161–162, 556}} {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Personal name ! width="15%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign |- !1 |60px |'''Peftjauawybast''' |Neferkare |Son-in-law of Rudamun. Was defeated by Piye, as depicted in the Stele of Piye, but was allowed to rule as the local governor of Heracleopolis.{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=298}}{{Sfn|Payraudeau|2020|p=162}} |{{Circa}} 750–720 BC (~30 years) |} '''Rulers of''' '''Hermopolis{{Sfn|Payraudeau|2020|pp=35, 161, 556}}''' {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Personal name ! width="15%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign |- !1 |60px |'''Djehutyemhat''' |Neferkheperre Khaikhau |Order uncertain. Originally a vassal of Dynasty XXII in Hermopolis, he proclaimed himself king with the support of the Theban elite.{{Sfn|Payraudeau|2020|p=161}} |{{Circa}} 745–735 BC (~10 years) |- !2 |60px |'''Nimlot''' |– |Possibly a son of Osorkon III that proclaimed himself king after his death.{{Sfn|Kitchen|2009|p=352 (§ 313)}} Joined the coalition of Tefnakht of Sais. Submitted to Piye, as depicted in the Stele of Piye, and was allowed to rule as the local governor of Hermopolis.{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=278}} |{{Circa}} 735–720 BC (~15 years) |- ! colspan="6" | |- !* |– |'''Pedinemty''' |– |Order uncertain. Kitchen suggested that he may have been a successor to Djehutyemhat.{{Sfn|Kitchen|2009|p=583 (§ 525)}} Beckerath suggested he ruled at the time of Dynasty XXV at Lycopolis.{{sfn|Beckerath|1999|pp=204-205}} |{{circa}} 700 BC (?) |} '''Rulers of''' '''Leontopolis{{Sfn|Payraudeau|2020|pp=35, 150–151, 557}}''' {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Personal name ! width="15%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign |- !1 |60px |'''Iuput II''' Meryamun Saiset |Usermaatre Setepenre |Submitted to Piye, as depicted in the Stele of Piye, and was allowed to rule as the local governor of Leontopolis.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=185|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=189}} |{{Circa}} 735–715 BC (~20 years) |} '''Rulers of Tanis'''{{Sfn|Payraudeau|2020|pp=36, 151–155, 210, 536}}

This is the line recognized by Manetho as the legitimate successors of the 22nd dynasty. {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Personal name ! width="15%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign |- !1 |60px |'''Pedubast II''' |Sehetepibenre |Took the throne after the death of Shoshenq V, the last king of the 22nd dynasty. Manetho calls him '''Petoubatēs''', and records that "in his reign the Olympic festival⁠ (776 BC) was first celebrated."<ref name="Manetho3">[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Manetho/History_of_Egypt/3*.html ''Aegyptiaca'' Book III.]</ref> He is mentioned in Assyrian records around the reign of Ashurbanipal.<ref name="Kaper" /> |{{Circa}} 730–725 BC (~5 years) |- !2 |60px |'''Osorkon IV''' |Usermaatre |Manetho calls him '''Osorkhō''' and records that "the Egyptians called him Heracles".<ref name="Manetho3" /> Submitted to Piye, as depicted in the Stele of Piye, and was allowed to rule as the local governor of Tanis.{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=298}} |{{Circa}} 725–716 BC (~9 years) |- ! colspan="6" |''interruption by Bakenranef of the 24th Dynasty (?)'' |- !3 |– |'''Pami II''' |Neferkare |Possibly Manetho's '''Psammous'''. Precise dating and position uncertain.{{Sfn|Payraudeau|2020|pp=36, 151–155, 210, 536}} Rebelled against Shebitku, but was ultimately defeated by Shabaka. Most likely the same as the obscure Tanite king '''Neferkare'''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Meffre |first1=Raphaële |last2=Payraudeau |first2=Frédéric |date=2018 |title=Enquête épigraphique, stylistique et historique sur les blocs du lac sacré de Mout à Tanis |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/bsfe_0037-9379_2018_num_199_1_2767 |journal=Bulletin de la Société française d'égyptologie |volume=199 |issue=1 |pages=128–143 |doi=10.3406/bsfe.2018.2767}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Meffre |first1=Raphaële |last2=Payraudeau |first2=Frédéric |date=2019 |title=Un nouveau roi à la fin de l'époque libyenne: Pami II |url=https://poj.peeters-leuven.be/content.php?url=article&id=3287256&journal_code=RE |journal=Revue d'Égyptologie |volume=69 |pages=147–157 |doi=10.2143/RE.69.0.3287256}}</ref> |{{Circa}} 712–702 BC (~10 years) |- ! colspan="6" |''interruption by the Kushites of the 25th Dynasty (?)'' |- !4 |60px |'''Gemenefkhonsbak''' |Shepseskare Irenre |May have reigned at Athribis rather than Tanis.{{Sfn|Payraudeau|2020|pp=36, 210}} | rowspan="3" |{{Circa}} 670 BC (?) ('''uncertain''') |- !5 |– |– |'''Sekhemkare''' | rowspan="2" |May or may not be the same person.{{Sfn|Payraudeau|2020|pp=36, 151–155, 210, 536}} |- !6 |– |'''Pedubast III''' |– |}

'''Rulers of''' '''Terenouthis''' ('''date uncertain''') {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Personal name ! width="15%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign |- !1 |62x62px |'''Penamun''' |Merytawyre (?) |Unknown placement, known only by his cartouche in Terenouthis. Beckerath suggests he was a local ruler during Dynasty XXV.{{sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=212}} Kitchen proposes he ruled much later during Dynasty XXVII, or possibly later.{{sfn|Kitchen|2009|pp=97-98 (§ 78-79)}} |{{Circa}} 750–650 BC (Beckerath) after 500 BC (Kitchen) |}

=== Twenty-fourth Dynasty (1st Saite) === {{Main|Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt}}

This was a short-lived dynasty located in the western Delta, at Sais. It was actually a vassal of the 25th dynasty.

'''Proposed dates''': {{Circa}} 740–712 BC (28 years);{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=287}} {{Circa}} 736–723 BC (13 years),{{sfn|Krauss|2007}}{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=234–264, 473–494}} {{Circa}} 727–715 BC (12 years).{{sfn|Shaw|2003|p=486}} {{Circa}} 727–713 BC (14 years).{{sfn|Kitchen|2009|p=589}} {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Personal name ! width="15%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign{{efn-lr|Payraudeau gives the reign of Bakenranef as 716–712 BC.{{Sfn|Payraudeau|2020|pp=555–557}} However, this does not match the contemporary evidence. One stela records Year 8 of Tefnakht (some authors have argued that the king should be identified as Tefnakht II, but this seems unlikely), and another records Year 6 of Bakenranef, which matches Manetho's figure.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=234–264. Note that Hornung bases his chronology on an older reconstruction that places Shabaka as Piye's direct successor}} Payraudeau follows Anthony Spalinger in dating the end of the Kushite conquest to 712 BC. However, he seemingly dismisses Bakenranef’s stela and assigns him only 4 years. Spalinger gives his reign as 718–712 BC, which implies that Tefnakht began his reign in 726 BC.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Spalinger |first=Anthony |date=1973 |title=The Year 712 B.C. and its Implications for Egyptian History |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40001021 |journal=Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt |volume=10 |pages=95–101 |doi=10.2307/40001021 |issn=0065-9991}}</ref> }} |- !1 |60px |'''Tefnakht I''' |Shepsesre |Chief of the Ma, a Libyan tribe. Already controlled much of the southwest {{circa}} 735 BC.{{Sfn|Payraudeau|2020|pp=149, 555}} Led a coalition of Egyptian kings (Iuput II of Leontopolis, Peftjauawybast of Heracleopolis, and Nimlot of Hermopolis) to repel the invading Nubians.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=397|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=189}} Was defeated and then became a vassal king under Piye.{{Sfn|Kitchen|2009|pp=138–141 (§ 112)}} |{{Circa}} 726–718 BC (~8 years) |- !2 |60px |'''Bakenranef''' |Wahkare |Manetho calls him '''Bocchoris''' and assigns him 6 years, while also recording him as the sole member of the dynasty.<ref name="Manetho3" /> Likely a brother of Tefnakht, he was defeated in battle by Piye. He was initially allowed to rule in Sais, but Piye's successor, Shebitku, hunted him down and burned him alive.{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=64}} |{{Circa}} 718–712 BC (~6 years) |}

=== Twenty-fifth Dynasty (Nubian) === {{Main|Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt}}

Following the collapse of the New Kingdom, the Nubians, a people from modern-day Sudan, founded the Kingdom of Kush. One of its rulers, Piye, invaded Lower Egypt and took the title of pharaoh, although the Nubians already controlled Upper Egypt in the early years of his reign. Kashta, Piye's father, is sometimes also listed as part of the dynasty. The capital during this dynasty was Memphis.

Manetho claims that the 25th Dynasty ruled for 40 years, but this is about half of its actual duration. This dynasty is also mentioned by Herodotus, who records "eighteen Ethiopian kings", and by Diodorus Siculus, who writes that "four Ethiopians held the throne, not consecutively but with intervals between, for a little less than thirty-six years in all."<ref name="her2"/>:100<ref name="siculus" />:44 The accession of Taharqa can be securely dated to '''690 BC''', marking the first certain year in Egyptian history according to Hornung.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=234–264, 473–494}} Dates follow Payraudeau.{{Sfn|Payraudeau|2020|pp=555–557}}

'''Proposed dates''': {{Circa}} 753–655 BC (98 years),{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=234–264, 473–494}} {{Circa}} 747–656 BC (91 years),{{sfn|Shaw|2003|p=486}}{{Sfn|Kitchen|2009|p=589}} {{Circa}} 746–655 BC (91 years);{{Sfn|Beckerath|1999|p=287}} {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Personal name ! width="15%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign{{Sfn|Payraudeau|2020|pp=555–557}} |- !1 |60px |'''Piye''' |Usermaatre |Also called '''Piankhi'''; likely Manetho's '''Set''' recorded at the end of Dynasty XXIII.<ref name="Adams" /> Son of the Kushite king Kashta; conquered Thebes and defeated the coalition of Egyptian kings led by Tefnakht. Presented himself not as a conqueror, but as a restorer. His dynasty saw a renaissance of Egyptian arts, and its rulers revived the old tradition of pyramid building (see Nubian pyramids).{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=307|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=190–192}} |{{Circa}} 743–713 BC (~30 years) |- !2 |60px |'''Shebitku''' |Djedkaure |Believed to be Shabaka's successor until the 2010s.<ref name="Payraudeau14">Payraudeau, F. (2014) "[https://web.archive.org/web/20200519183710/https://nehet.fr/NEHET1/NEHET%201-05-Payraudeau.pdf Retour sur la succession Shabaqo—Shabataqo]." ''NeHeT'' '''1''': 115–127.</ref><ref name="Jurman">Jurman, C. (2017). [https://www.academia.edu/44208909/The_Order_of_the_Kushite_Kings_According_to_Sources_from_the_Eastern_Desert_and_Thebes_Or_Shabataka_was_here_first The Order of the Kushite Kings According to Sources from the Eastern Desert and Thebes. Or: Shabataka was here first]. ''Journal of Egyptian History'' '''10'''(2), 124–151.</ref> Likely Herodotus' '''Sethos'''.<ref name="her2" /> Fought the Assyrian king Sennacherib with the aid of the Palestinians and Phoenicians.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=370|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=192}} |{{Circa}} 713–705 BC (~8 years) |- !3 |60px |'''Shabaka''' |Neferkare |Believed to be Shabaka's predecessor until the 2010s.<ref name="Payraudeau14" /><ref name="Jurman" /> Commissioned the Shabaka Stone.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=369|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=192}} |{{Circa}} 705–690 BC (~15 years) |- !4 |60px |'''Taharqa''' |Nefertemkhure |Son of Piye; fought and eventually lost to the Assyrian king Esarhaddon, who took and sacked Memphis. Taharqa fled to the south and failed to regain Memphis from Ashurbanipal, Esarhaddon's successor. Retired to Nubia shortly before his own death.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=192–193|1pp=392–393}} |'''690'''–'''664 BC''' ('''26 years''') |- !5 |60px |'''Tantamani''' |Bakare |Nephew and co-ruler of Taharqa. Recovered Thebes, Aswan, and Memphis, but was defeated again by the Assyrians. Thebes was looted, and he retired to Nubia.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=395|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=193}} Not recorded by Manetho.<ref name="Manetho3" /> |'''664'''–'''656 BC''' ('''8 years''') |}

=== Proto-Saite Dynasty === While modern scholars recognize Psamtik I as the founder of the 26th Dynasty, Manetho records four kings before him. They likely correspond to local rulers and Nubian/Assyrian vassals.

{{Legend|#F2E0CE|(#) {{snd}} Status ambiguous}}

== Late period (664–332 BC) == {{Main|Late Period of Egypt}}

The Twenty-fifth Dynasty ended after the Assyrian conquest of Egypt. In 671 BC, Memphis, the capital of the first dynasties, was plundered by Esarhaddon, and the sack of Thebes followed a few years later. Despite this, a new dynasty, the Twenty-sixth, managed to restore Egypt's influence in the region and repelled the Assyrians and Babylonians. Still, they all eventually fell to the Achaemenid Persians, who became the Twenty-seventh Dynasty in 525 BC. Persian rule was interrupted by three short-lived dynasties (the 28th, 29th, and 30th) ruling for six decades, between 404 and 342 BC. The first one was founded by Amyrtaeus, and the last one ended with Nectanebo II, the last native ruler of Egypt until the 20th century.

The chronology starting from Taharqa, the penultimate Nubian king, can be fixed thanks to the Canon of Kings of Ptolemy, which is itself based on ancient Babylonian sources and fits perfectly with Manetho's reign lengths. The only period with disputed chronology is the restored native Egyptian rule between the 27th and 31st Dynasties; all other dates are fixed.

=== Twenty-sixth Dynasty (Saite) === {{Main|Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt}}

The 26th Dynasty was the last great native Egyptian dynasty and ruled from 664 to 525 BC. Many of these pharaohs are better known by their Hellenized names; native Egyptian names are given in small ''italics''.

=== Twenty-seventh Dynasty (Achaemenid) === {{Main|Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt|Achaemenid dynasty}}

The first Persian domination lasted from 525 to 404 BC. {{Legend|#FFE3F9|(#) {{snd}} Regent}}{{Legend|#FCFCD7|(#) {{snd}} Rebel}} {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="18%" |Personal name ! width="12%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=265–283, 473–495}}{{sfn|Dandamaev|1989|pp=351–353}} |- !1 |60px |'''Cambyses''' Kembud |Mesutre |Son of Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Empire. Reigned from December 530 BC and conquered Egypt after defeating Psamtik III at the Battle of Pelusium. Described as a tyrant in both Egyptian and Greek sources. Died in uncertain circumstances while traveling to crush a rebellion in Syria.<ref name="cambyses">{{cite encyclopedia |year=1990 |title=Cambyses II |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. IV, Fasc. 7 |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/cambyses-opers |last=Dandamayev |first=Muhammad A. |pages=726–729}}</ref>{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=79|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=198–199}} |{{circa}} August 525–July 522 BC{{efn-lr|name=cambyses}} (2 years, 11 months) |- !2 |60px |'''Bardiya'''{{efn-lr|name=PN}} |– |Also called "'''Gaumata''' the Magi" (priest), claimed by Darius I to be an usurper who impersonated the son of Cyrus the Great. Revolted on 11 March 522 BC and briefly took the throne from Cambyses.<ref>{{citation |last=Dandamayev |first=M. A. |title=Encyclopedia Iranica |pages=785–786 |year=1988 |series=vol. 3, fasc. 8 |chapter=Bardiya |chapter-url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bardiya-son-of-cyrus |location=Costa Mesa |publisher=Mazda}}.</ref>{{sfn|Dandamaev|1989|pp=83–102}}<ref name="gaumata">{{citation |last=Briant |first=Pierre |title=Encyclopedia Iranica |pages=333–335 |year=2000 |series=vol. X, fasc. 3 |chapter=Gaumāta |chapter-url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/gaumata- |location=New York |publisher=Routledge, Kegan Paul}}.</ref> Not included in most modern king lists.{{sfnm|1a1=Beckerath|1y=1999|1pp=220–221, 297|2a1=Shaw|2y=2003|2p=487|3a1=Bunson|3y=2002|3p=107|4a1=Clayton|4y=2001|4p=198|5a1=Lloyd|5y=2010|5p=xxxix}}{{efn-lr|Babylonian documents confirm the brief rule of Bardiya,<ref name=gaumata/> but he does not appear in any Egyptian records. However, it's still possible that news of Bardiya's accession reached Egypt at some point. For instance, the reign of emperors Gordian I and Gordian II lasted only 20 days. Still, news of their accession managed to travel from Rome to Alexandria in time to be included in official documents for roughly one month (such travel took around 25 days by ship).<ref name=rea>{{Cite journal|last=Rea|first=J. R.|date=1972|title=O. Leid. 144 and the Chronology of A. D. 238|journal=Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik|volume=9|pages=1–19|jstor=20180380}}</ref>}} |{{circa}} July–29 September 522 BC (2 months) |- !3 |60px |'''Darius I''' "the Great" Deriush |Setutre |Alleged son of Cambyses, took the throne after killing his rivals. Died in October 486, at the age of 64, while traveling to put down an Egyptian revolt.{{sfn|Dandamaev|1989|p=179}}{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=93–94|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=199–200}} |29 September 522– October 486 BC (36 years, 1 month) |- !4 |60px |'''Xerxes I''' "the Great" Kheshyresh |– |Son of Darius I, never visited Egypt personally. Put down rebellions in both Egypt and Persia. Was murdered by Artabanus.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p434=83–94|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=200}} |October 486– August 465 BC (20 years, 10 months) |- bgcolor="#FFE3F9" !* |– |'''Artabanus'''{{efn-lr|name=PN|The nomen is not attested in hieroglyphs.{{sfn|Beckerath|1999|pp=220–247}}}} |– |Recorded by ancient chronographers as an ephemeral king who ruled for 7 months, but was actually only the power behind the throne.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Neuffer |first=Julia |date=1968-01-01 |title=The Accession of Artaxerxes I |url=https://digitalcommons.andrews.edu/auss/vol6/iss1/5 |journal=Andrews University Seminary Studies (AUSS) |volume=6 |issue=1 |issn=0003-2980}}</ref> Not included in any of the modern king lists.{{sfnm|1a1=Beckerath|1y=1999|1pp=220-221, 297|2a1=Shaw|2y=2003|2p=487|3a1=Bunson|3y=2002|3p=107|4a1=Clayton|4y=2001|4p=198|5a1=Lloyd|5y=2010|5p=xxxix|6a1=Mladjov|6y=2021b}} |465 BC (7 months, '''as regent''') |- !5 |60px |'''Artaxerxes I''' ''Artekhshesesh'' |– |Son of Xerxes, killed Artabanus in hand-to-hand combat. Faced massive rebellions in Egypt.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=55|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=199–200}} |August 465– {{circa}} December 424 BC (41 years, ~2 months) |- !6 |60px |'''Xerxes II''' Kheshyresh{{efn-lr|name=PN}} |– |Ruled 2 months according to Manetho,<ref name="Manetho3" /> more precisely, 45 days around December 425 BC.{{sfn|Dandamaev|1989|pp=258–259}} The second-shortest-reigning pharaohs, only behind the 18 days of Ptolemy XI Alexander II. |{{circa}} December 424– {{circa}} January 423 BC (45 days) |- !7 |60px |'''Sogdianus'''{{efn-lr|name=PN}} |– |Ruled 7 months according to Manetho,<ref name="Manetho3" /> but in reality only one month at most.{{sfn|Dandamaev|1989|pp=258–259}} |{{circa}} January–February 423 BC (~1 month) |- !8 |60px |'''Darius II''' ('''Ochus''') Deriush{{efn-lr|name=PN}} |– |Son of Artaxerxes I, usurped the throne from the rightful heir and fought against the Persian aristocracy to maintain control. The Egyptians successfully revolted after his death.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=93–94|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=199–200}} |February 423– March 404 BC (19 years, ~1 month) |}

==== Native rebels ==== {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="18%" |Personal name ! width="12%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=265–283, 473–495}}{{sfn|Dandamaev|1989|pp=351–353}} |- style="background:#FCFCD7" !* |60px |'''Pedubast IV''' |Seheruibre |Also called '''Petubastis III'''. A native Egyptian rebel in the Delta.<ref name="kaper2">{{cite book |last=Kaper |first=Olaf E. |title=Political memory in and after the Persian empire (SLB monograph, no. 13) |date=2015 |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |isbn=978-0-88414-089-4 |editor-last1=Silverman |editor-first1=Jason M. |pages=125–149 |chapter=Petubastis IV in the Dakhla Oasis |editor-last2=Waerzeggers |editor-first2=Caroline |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/politicalmemoryi0000unse/page/124}}</ref> |{{circa}} 522–520 BC (2 years) |- style="background:#FCFCD7" !* |– |'''Psammetichus IV''' |Ahmose (?) Nebkaenre (?) |A proposed native Egyptian rebel leader. Exact dates unknown.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=265–283, 473–495}} |480s BC |- style="background:#FCFCD7" !* |60px |'''Inaros II''' |– |Possibly a prince of Heliopolis, grandson of Psamtik III, and son of Psamtik IV. Rebelled against Artaxerxes I and took control over modern Alexandria. Was defeated by Megabyzus and crucified in Persia.{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=179}} |{{circa}} 454 BC |}

=== Twenty-eighth Dynasty === {{Main|Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt}}

The Twenty-eighth Dynasty lasted roughly 6 years and consisted of a single pharaoh: {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Personal name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign |- !1 |60px |'''Amyrtaeus''' ''Amenirdisu'' |Proclaimed himself pharaoh on the death of Darius II and established himself in Sais. Was defeated and executed by Nepherites.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=36|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=202}} |{{circa}} 404–399 BC (5–6 years) |}

=== Twenty-ninth Dynasty === {{Main|Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt}}

The Twenty-ninth Dynasty ruled from 399/8 to 380 BC: {{Legend|#E6E6FA|(#) {{snd}} Existence disputed}} {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Personal name ! width="15%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign |- !1 |60px |'''Nepherites I''' ''Nefaarud'' |Baenre Merynetjeru |Established himself at Mendes, captured Amyrtaeus and executed him at Memphis.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=275|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=202}} |{{circa}} 399–393 BC (5–6 years) |- !3 |60px |'''Hakor''' |Khnemmaatre Setepenkhnemu |Lineage and position uncertain. Probably the original heir and successor of Nepherites I.<ref name="Ray">{{cite journal |last=Ray |first=John D. |author-link=John D. Ray |year=1986 |title=Psammuthis and Hakoris |journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology |volume=72 |pages=149–158 |doi=10.1177/030751338607200112 |jstor=3821486}}</ref>{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=156, 312. Bunson contradicts himself by first referring to Psammuthes (whom he erroneously calls "Psammetichus") as "the designated son and heir of Nephrites I", but later claims that he "[set] aside the designated heir"}}{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|pp=280, 594. Achoris (Hakor) is first placed as the immediate successor of Nepherites I, but later as the successor of Psammuthis}} |{{Circa}} 393–380 BC (12–13 years) |- !3 |60px |'''Psammuthes''' |Userre Setepenptah |Briefly usurped the throne from the rightful heir.<ref name="Ray" /> Manetho claims he ruled 1 year.<ref name="Manetho3" /> |{{Circa}} 393 BC (1 year or less) |- !4 |– |'''Nepherites II''' ''Nefaarud'' |– |Son of Hakor, only ruled for 4 months before being overthrown by Nectanebo I.{{Sfn|Bunson|2002|p=275}} |{{circa}} 380 BC (4 months) |- ! colspan="6" | |- bgcolor="#E6E6FA" !* |– |'''Muthis''' |– |Only listed in the ''Aegyptiaca''; most likely a mistake by Manetho or his scribes. Alternatively, another claimant to the throne during the reign of Hakor.<ref name="Ray" /> |"''1 year''" |}

=== Thirtieth Dynasty === {{Main|Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt}}

The Thirtieth Dynasty was the last native Egyptian dynasty and lasted from {{circa}} 380 to 342 BC. {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="15%" |Personal name ! width="15%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign{{efn-lr|The date of the end of the Thirtieth Dynasty is universally given as 343/342 BC (late 343 to early 342).{{sfnm|1a1=Beckerath|1y=1999|1pp=283–288, 297|2a1=Shaw|2y=2003|2pp=481–488|3a1=Bunson|3y=2002|3pp=105–108|4a1=Clayton|4y=2001|4p=201|5a1=Lloyd|5y=2010|5p=xxxix|6a1=Hornung|6a2=Krauss|6a3=Warburton|6pp=490–495|6y=2006|7a1=Mladjov|7y=2021b}} Leo Depuydt proposed 340/339 BC as a new date for the second Persian conquest.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mørkholm |first=Otto |title=Early Hellenistic Coinage: From the Accession of Alexander to the Peace of Apamea (336-188 B.C.) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=0-521-39504-6 |page=197 |orig-date=1991}}</ref> The summation of Manetho's reigns for the 28th to 30th Dynasties, assuming they are all correct, amounts to 64 years,<ref name="Manetho3" /> which closely matches the 65 years between 404 BC and 339 BC. However, Depuydt's rearrangement has not been widely adopted. Damien Agut-Labordère has labeled it as "not convincing",<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Radner |first1=Karen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TPGxEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA752 |title=The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East: Volume V |last2=Moeller |first2=Nadine |last3=Potts |first3=Daniel T. |date=2023-04-07 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-068766-3 |pages=752 (n62)}}</ref> while Payraudeau has also favoured 342 BC.{{sfn |Payraudeau |2020 |pp=38-40, 333, 342-344}}}} |- !1 |60px |'''Nectanebo I''' ''Nakhtnebef'' |Kheperkare |Seized power in Sebennytos. Managed to stop a Persian invasion of the Nile.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=266|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=203–205}} |{{circa}} 380–362 BC (17–18 years) |- !2 |60px |'''Teos''' ''Djedhor Setep-en-Anhur'' |Irimaatenre |Son and brief co-ruler of Nectanebo I; was forced to abdicate as part of a general uproar against his heavy tax policies.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=401|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=203}} |{{circa}} 362–360 BC (1–2 years) |- !3 |60px |'''Nectanebo II''' ''Nakhthorhebyt Merihathor'' |Snedjemibre Setepenanhur |Last native ruler of Egypt until the Egyptian revolution of 1952; usurped the throne from his uncle. Managed to repel the Persians for a time, but was ultimately defeated at the Battle of Pelusium, escaping to Nubia before disappearing. Later stories portrayed him as the secret father of Alexander the Great.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=266|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=203–205}} |{{circa}} 360–342 BC (17–18 years) |}

=== Thirty-first Dynasty (2nd Achaemenid) === {{Main|Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt}}

The second Persian domination lasted from 342 to 332 BC. {{Legend|#FCFCD7|(#) {{snd}} Rebel}} {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="18%" |Personal name ! width="15%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign |- !1 |60px |'''Artaxerxes III''' ('''Ochus''') ''Artekhshesesh''{{efn-lr|name=PN}} |– |Son of Artaxerxes II and grandson of Darius II, invaded Egypt in 351 BC. Described as a cruel tyrant by ancient sources; he was poisoned with his sons by a court official.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=55}} |{{circa}} 342–338 BC (3–4 years) |- !2 |60px |'''Artaxerxes IV''' ('''Arses''') Artekhshesesh{{efn-lr|name=PN}} |– |Youngest son of Artaxerxes III, survived the conspiracy of Bagoas. Tried to poison the eunuch, but was murdered with his family.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=46}} |338–336 BC (2 years) |- !3 |60px |'''Darius III''' ('''Codoman''') Deriush |– |Cousin of Arses, took the throne after forcing Bagoas to drink his own poison. Faced the invading forces of Alexander III of Macedon and was defeated at the Battles of Issus and then Gaugamela. Was ultimately murdered by his own men.{{sfn|Bunson|2002|p=94}} |336–332 BC (4 years) |}

== Hellenistic period (332–30 BC) == {{Main|Hellenistic period}}

The Macedonian Greeks under Alexander the Great ushered in the Hellenistic period with his conquest of Persia and Egypt in 332 BC, creating one of the largest empires in history. However, this empire quickly fragmented after his sudden death in 323 BC, which led to the chaotic Wars of the Diadochi. Ptolemy, one of Alexander's generals, claimed the pharaonic titles and established the Ptolemaic Kingdom, the last and longest-reigning dynasty of Egypt. The former Persian territories were absorbed into the Hellenic Seleucid Empire, which bordered Egypt to the East. Both states would eventually fall to the Roman Republic over the course of the 1st century BC.

=== Thirty-second Dynasty (Argead) === {{Main|Argead dynasty}}

The Argeads ruled Egypt from 332 to 305 BC. Like their predecessors, the Hellenistic rulers used the ''Sa-Ra'' title (nomen) to display their Egyptized personal names. {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="16%" |Personal name ! width="13%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign |- !1 |60px |'''Alexander III''' "the Great" Aluksindres |Setepenre Meryamun |Succeeded his father Philip II of Macedon in 336 BC, at the age of 20. Conquered most of the known world at the time; he was received in Egypt as a liberator. Founded the city of Alexandria, the new capital and the first of many with his name. Died suddenly in Babylon, allegedly from a fever. Ptolemy I Soter buried him in Alexandria, although his tomb has not been found.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=206–207|1pp=20–21}} |November 332–11 June 323 BC{{efn-lr|The Siege of Gaza, at Egypt's eastern frontier, took place in October 332 BC, after which Alexander spent several months in Egypt.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Danien |first=Elin C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GPF8xp_RAZAC&pg=PA41 |title=The World of Philip and Alexander |author-link=Elin C. Danien |date=1990 |publisher=UPenn Museum of Archaeology |isbn=978-0-934718-94-3 |pages=41–61 }}</ref> His coronation therefore cannot have occurred earlier than November. Notably, this timing would have aligned his accession with the Egyptian New Year, which fell on 14 November in 332 BC.{{Sfn|Hornung|Krauss|Warburton|2006|p=281}} His death certainly took place on 11 June 323 BC.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Depuydt |first=Leo |date=1997 |title=The Time of Death of Alexander the Great: 11 June 323 B.C. (−322), ca. 4:00–5:00 PM |journal=Die Welt des Orients |volume=28 |pages=117–135 |jstor=25683643 |issn=0043-2547}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=A contemporary account of the death of Alexander |url=https://www.livius.org/sources/content/oriental-varia/a-contemporary-account-of-the-death-of-alexander/ |access-date=5 November 2019 |publisher=Livius.org}}</ref>}} (8 years, 7 months) |- !2 |60px |'''Philip III''' Arrhidaeus Pelupuisa |Setepenre Meryamun |Half-brother of Alexander, murdered by Olympias, the queen mother.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=306|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=206–207}} |323–317 BC (6 years) |- !3 |60px |'''Alexander IV''' Aluksindres |Haaibre Setepenamun |Posthumous child of Alexander; murdered with his mother by General Cassander.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=206–207|1pp=20–21}} |317–305 BC{{Efn-lr|Some scholars have argued that he was killed around 310 BC, but continued to be posthumously recognized as king. He was probably killed in 305/304, around the same time that Ptolemy claimed the title of king.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tolley |first=Harry |date=2019 |title=The End of the Satrapies: The Date of Alexander IV's Death |url=https://www.athensjournals.gr/history/2019-5-4-3-Tolley.pdf |journal=Athens Journal of History |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=259–278 |doi=10.30958/ajhis.5-4-3}}</ref>}} (12 years) |}

=== Thirty-third Dynasty (Ptolemaic) === {{Main|Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemaic Kingdom}}

The second Hellenistic dynasty, the Ptolemaic, ruled Egypt for nearly 275 years, from 305/4 BC to 30 BC. It was the longest-reigning dynasty of Egypt, followed closely by the Eighteenth. The most famous member of this dynasty was Cleopatra VII, better known simply as Cleopatra, who was successively the lover of Julius Caesar and, after his death, of Mark Antony, having children with both of them. She strove to create a dynastic and political union with Rome, but the assassination of Caesar and the defeat of Antony doomed their plans. Egypt was ultimately conquered by the Romans under Octavian, who would become the Roman emperor Augustus. All members of the Ptolemaic dynasty shared the same names, but adopted one or several Greek epithets on accession. Regnal numbers are only a modern convention. {{Legend|#CEDFF2|(#) {{snd}} Minor co-regent}}{{Legend|#F2E0CE|(#) {{snd}} Status ambiguous}}{{Legend|#FCFCD7|(#) {{snd}} Rebel}} {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="5%" |Image ! width="16%" |Personal name ! width="13%" |Throne name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign{{sfn|Bennett|2013}} |- !1 |60px |'''Ptolemy I''' Soter Ptolemis |Setepenre Meryamun |Friend and companion of Alexander, ruled as satrap after his death and proclaimed himself king in the midst of the Wars of the Diadochi. Stole Alexander's body and buried him in Alexandria, claiming to follow his last will. Commissioned the Lighthouse of Alexandria, one of the Seven Wonders, and the Library of Alexandria. Died aged around 85.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=314–315|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=208–210|3a1=Bennett|3y=2013|3loc=Ptolemy I}} |304–282 BC{{efn-lr|The exact chronology of Ptolemy's coronation is problematic, but it most likely took place between November 305 and July 304, possibly {{circa}} June. Regnal years during the Late dynastic period were all antedated so that a king's accession always coincided with the New Year; as such, Ptolemy's reign officially began on 7 November 305 BC. His death has been dated to January 282, although April/June is also possible. Various Greek authors write that he abdicated {{circa}} 285 BC, but this is uncertain and often disregarded by modern scholars.{{sfn|Bennett|2013|loc=Ptolemy I}}}} (22 years) |- !2 |60px |'''Ptolemy II''' Philadelphus Ptolemis |Userkare Meryamun |Son of Ptolemy I Soter and Berenice I, named co-ruler in 284. Initially married to Arsinoe I, named ''Philadelphus'' ("sibling-loving") after marrying his own sister, Arsinoe II. Completed his father's projects in Alexandria. Died at the age of 62.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=315|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=210|3a1=Bennett|3y=2013|3loc=Ptolemy II}} |{{circa}} 28 February 284– 28 January 246 BC (37 years, ~11 months) |- bgcolor="#F2E0CE" !* |60px |'''Arsinoe II''' Philadelphos♀ Arsinat |Khnemet Ibenmaat Meret Netjeru |Sister-wife of Ptolemy II Philadelphus. She was given pharaonic titles (possibly posthumous),<ref name="Sally">{{cite book |last=Ashton |first=Sally-Ann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FO_fBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA112 |pages=112–113 |title=The Last Queens of Egypt: Cleopatra's Royal House |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-86873-6}}</ref>{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=46|2a1=Bennett|2y=2013|2loc=Arsinoe II}} but was not recorded as sovereign by Hellenistic administration of the country.{{Sfn|Sewell-Lasater|2020|pp=106-108, 125-128}} |{{circa}} 273/2–July 270/68 BC |- bgcolor="#CEDFF2" !3 |– |'''Ptolemy''' Epigonos |– |Co-ruler of Ptolemy II Philadelphus; demoted after revolting with Timarchus of Miletus. Possibly a son of Arsinoe II, was allowed to rule Telmessos and died aged 60.{{sfn|Bennett|2013|loc=Ptolemy "the Son"}} |{{circa}} 267–259 BC (8 years, under Ptolemy II) |- !4 |60px |'''Ptolemy III''' Euergetes Ptolemis Ankhdjet Meryptah |Iwaensenwy Netjerwy Setepenre Sekhemankhenamun |Son of Ptolemy II Philadelphus and Arsinoe I; expanded Ptolemaic power and campaigned as far as Babylon, at the hearth of the Seleucid Empire.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=315–316|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=210–211|3a1=Bennett|3y=2013|3loc=Ptolemy III}} |28 January 246–{{circa}} December 222 BC (23 years, ~11 months) |- bgcolor="#F2E0CE" !* |60px |'''Berenice II''' Euergetis♀ Bereniket Netjeret Menkhet Meret Netjerut |– |Wife of Ptolemy III Euergetes, female vizier,{{Sfn|Sewell-Lasater|2020|p=166, 456}} and Queen regnant of Cyrene. She is attested to have pharaonic titles, but was not recorded as sovereign by Hellenistic administration of the country.<ref name="Sally"/>{{Sfn|Sewell-Lasater|2020|pp=186-189, 445, 456}} Served for 5 years as regent of Ptolemy IV Philopator, who poisoned her.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=69|2a1=Bennett|2y=2013|2loc=Brenice II}} |{{circa}} 246–221 BC |- !5 |60px |'''Ptolemy IV''' Philopator Ptolemis Ankhdjet Meryptah |Iwaennetjerwymenekhwy Setepenptah Userkare Sekhemankhamun |Son of Ptolemy III Euergetes and Berenice II. Effective power was held by Sosibius and Agathocles, who manipulated him into poisoning his own mother and brother. Faced the massive revolt of Horwennefer in 205 BC. Died at the age of 44 after a life of excesses.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=316|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=211|3a1=Bennett|3y=2013|3loc=Ptolemy IV}} |{{circa}} December 222–July 204 BC (17 years, 8 months) |- bgcolor="#F2E0CE" !* |60px |'''Arsinoe III''' Thea Philopator♀ Arsinat |– |Sister-wife of Ptolemy IV Philopator. She was given the title of "female ruler",<ref name="Sally"/> but was not recorded as sovereign by Hellenistic administration of the country.{{Sfn|Sewell-Lasater|2020|pp=16, 196-197, 205, 445-446}} Murdered at the instigation of Sosibius.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=46|2a1=Bennett|2y=2013|2loc=Arsinoe III}} |{{circa}} 220–204 BC |- !6 |60px |'''Ptolemy V''' Epiphanes Eucharistus Ptolemis Ankhdjet Meryptah |Iwaennetjerwymerwyit Setepenptah Userkare Sekhemankhamun |Son of Ptolemy IV Philopator and Arsinoe III, born and named co-ruler in 210 BC. Succeeded in August 204 and ruled under successive regencies until November 197 BC.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=316|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=211|3a1=Bennett|3y=2013|3loc=Ptolemy V}} |November 210– September 180 BC (29 years, 10 months) |- bgcolor="#F2E0CE" !* |60px |'''Cleopatra I''' Thea Epiphanes Syra♀ Qleopadrat |– |Wife of Ptolemy V Epiphanes, regent of her son Ptolemy VI Philometor during his minority, and female vizier.{{Sfn|Sewell-Lasater|2020|pp=245,456}} She was given pharaonic titles,<ref name="Sally"/> but was not recorded in Hellenistic administration of country as sovereign, until the reign of her son, when her exact status is disputed.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=83|2a1=Bennett|2y=2013|2loc=Cleopatra I}}{{Sfn|Sewell-Lasater|2020|pp=16, 245-246, 440}} |{{circa}} 193–177 BC |- !7 |60px |'''Ptolemy VI''' Philometor Ptolemis Ankhdjet Meryptah |Iwaennetjerwyperu Setepenptahkheperi Irymaatamunre |Son of Ptolemy V Epiphanes and Cleopatra I Syra. Succeeded at age 6 and ruled under the regency of his mother until October 177 BC, but was only declared of age in about January 169 BC. Was briefly deposed by Ptolemy VIII Physcon in late 164 BC, but was quickly restored with Roman aid. Died after falling from his horse.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=316–317|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=211–212|3a1=Bennett|3y=2013|3loc=Ptolemy VI}} |September 180– November 164 BC ('''1st reign''': 16 years, 2 months) ----163–{{circa}} July 145 BC ('''2nd reign''': 18 years) |- bgcolor="#F2E0CE" !* |60px |'''Ptolemy VII''' Neos Philopator |Panetjerhunu Meryetef |Also known as Ptolemy Memphites. Formerly thought to have been a short-lived co-ruler, possibly a son of Ptolemy VIII Physcon and Cleopatra II. Posthumously added to the cult of the deified royals.<ref>Chauveau, M. (2000). "Encore Ptolémée «VII» et le dieu Neos Philopatôr!," ''Revue d'Égyptologie'' '''51''': 257–261.</ref>{{sfn|Bennett|2013|loc=Ptolemy Memphites}} |''never reigned'' |- !8 |60px |'''Ptolemy VIII''' Euergetes II Tryphon "Physcon" Ptolemis Ankhdjet Meryptah |Iwaennetjerwyperwy Setepenptah Irymaatre Sekhemankhenamun |Brother of Ptolemy VI Philometor, declared co-ruler in 170 BC alongside Cleopatra II. Nicknamed "the Fat" ('''Physcon'''); his reign was plagued by court intrigue. Expelled his co-rulers {{circa}} November 164, but was himself deposed a few months later. Restored in 145–130 and again in 127–116. Died on 28 June 116 BC, aged nearly 70.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=317|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=213–214|3a1=Bennett|3y=2013|3loc=Ptolemy VIII}}{{sfn|Bennett|2013|loc=Cleopatra II}} |5 October 170–163 BC ('''1st reign''': 13 years) ----145–130 BC ('''2nd reign''': 15 years) ----127–28 June 116 BC ('''3rd reign''': 11 years) |- bgcolor="#CEDFF2" !9 |– |'''Ptolemy''' Eupator |– |Child of Ptolemy VI Philometor, died shortly after being named co-ruler.{{sfn|Bennett|2013|loc=Ptolemy Eupator}} |{{circa}} March–July 152 BC (~4 months) |- !10 |60px |'''Cleopatra II''' Philometor Soteira♀ Qleopadrat |– |First confirmed queen regnant of the dynasty.{{Sfn|Sewell-Lasater|2020|p=274-275, Appendix A}} Sister-wife of Ptolemy VI Philometor, then wife of Ptolemy VIII Physcon, who briefly deposed her in late 164 BC. They reconciled in 145 BC, on the death of Ptolemy VI Philometor, but in 131 BC she deposed him and became sole ruler. She was deposed in 127 BC, but returned in early 124 BC. Then co-ruled alongside Cleopatra III, Ptolemy VIII Physcon, and briefly Ptolemy IX Soter until 116 BC.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=83|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=213–214|3a1=Bennett|3y=2013|3loc=Cleopatra III}} Had one of the longest reigns.{{efn-lr|The sum of Cleopatra II's reigns amounts to 58 years, the longest reign alongside Pepi II Neferkare (64) and Ramesses II (66), as well as one of the longest-reigning monarchs in history.}} |5 October 170–164 BC ('''1st reign''': 14 years) ----163–127 BC ('''2nd reign''': 36 years) ----124–116 BC ('''3rd reign''': 8 years) |- !11 |60px |'''Cleopatra III''' Euergetis{{efn-lr|Also called '''Cleopatra Philometor Soteira''' when associated with her son Ptolemy IX Soter.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=83–84|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=213–214|3a1=Bennett|3y=2013|3loc=Cleopatra III}}}}♀ Qleopadrat |– |Daughter of Ptolemy VI Philometor and Cleopatra II, married her uncle-stepfather Ptolemy VIII Physcon. Declared co-ruler in 142/140 BC. Was exiled in 130 BC, but returned in 127 BC and became regent for her son Ptolemy IX Soter in 116 BC. In 107 BC, she deposed him in favour of another son, Ptolemy X Alexander I. Was killed during the ensuing civil war by Ptolemy X Alexander I.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=83–84|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=213–214|3a1=Bennett|3y=2013|3loc=Cleopatra III}} |{{circa}} 140–130 BC ('''1st reign''': ~10 years) ----127–{{circa}} September 101 BC ('''2nd reign''': ~26 years) |- !12 |60px |'''Ptolemy IX''' Soter II "Lathyros" Ptolemis Ankhdjet Meryptah |Iwaennetjermenekhnetjeret Meretmutesnedjetet Setepenptah Irimaatre Sekhemankhamun |Son of Ptolemy VIII Physcon and Cleopatra III; nicknamed "chickpea" ('''Lathyros'''). Was exiled in 107 BC, but retook the throne on the death of Ptolemy X Alexander I.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=317|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=214|3a1=Bennett|3y=2013|3loc=Ptolemy IX}} |28 June 116–{{circa}} October 107 BC ('''1st reign''': 9 years, 3 months) ----{{circa}} November 88– {{circa}} December 81 BC ('''2nd reign''': 7 years, ~1 month) |- !13 |60px |'''Ptolemy X''' Alexander I Ptolemis Aleksentres |Iwaennetjermenekhenetjeret Menkhetre Setepenptah Irimaatre Senenankhenamun |Son of Ptolemy VIII Physcon and Cleopatra III, whom he married. Became senior ruler in 101 BC, after the death of Cleopatra III, alongside Berenice III. Was expelled from Alexandria by Ptolemy IX Soter, dying at sea while attempting to escape to Cyprus.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=317|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=214|3a1=Bennett|3y=2013|3loc=Ptolemy X}} |September 107–{{circa}} May 88 BC (18 years, ~8 months) |- !14 |60px |'''Berenice III'''♀ Irypatet Werethesut Birniket |– |Daughter of Ptolemy IX Soter. Named co-ruler with her uncle-husband Ptolemy X Alexander I. Was expelled in 88 BC, but was allowed to return in 81 BC as co-ruler of her father. Briefly ruled as sole monarch for 4 months in 80 BC before being killed by Ptolemy XI Alexander II.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=69–70|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=214–215|3a1=Bennett|3y=2013|3loc=Berenice III}} |{{nowrap|October 101–{{circa}} May 88 BC}} ('''1st reign''': 12 years, ~7 months) ---- {{circa}} July 81–{{circa}} April 80 BC ('''2nd reign''': ~9 months) |- !15 |60px |'''Ptolemy XI''' Alexander II Ptolemis Aleksentres{{efn-lr|name=PN}} |– |The shortest-reigning pharaoh. Son of Ptolemy X Alexander I and Berenice III, installed as king with the support of the Roman dictator Sulla. Was killed on his 19th day by the Alexandrian mob after murdering his mother.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=314–318|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=209–217|3a1=Bennett|3y=2013|3loc=Ptolemy XI}} |{{circa}} April 80 BC (18 days) |- !16 |60px |'''Ptolemy XII''' Neos Dionysus "Auletes" Ptolemis Ankhdjet Meryptahset |Iwa'enpanetjernehem Setepenptah Irimaatenre Sekhemankhamun |Son of Ptolemy IX Soter and a concubine (possibly Cleopatra IV); nicknamed "the Flautist" ('''Auletes'''). Deposed by Cleopatra VI and Berenice IV after an unpopular reign; later restored with the help of the Roman general Pompey. Left his official will in Rome.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=318|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=215|3a1=Bennett|3y=2013|3loc=Ptolemy XII}} |{{circa}} April 80–{{circa}} June 58 BC ('''1st reign''': 22 years, ~2 months) ----{{circa}} February 55–{{circa}} March 51 BC ('''2nd reign''': 4 years, ~1 month) |- !17 |60px |'''Cleopatra V''' Tryphaena♀ Qleopadrat |– |Daughter of Ptolemy IX Soter or Ptolemy X Alexander I, wife of Ptolemy XII Auletes, and mother of Berenice IV. Theorised to be the same person as Cleopatra VI; co-ruled with Ptolemy XII Auletes until her death or removal in 69 BC{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=84|2a1=Bennett|2y=2013|2loc=Cleopatra V}} |{{circa}} April 80–{{circa}} October 69 BC (11 years, ~6 months) |- !18 |– |'''Cleopatra VI '''Tryphaena II♀ Qleopadrat{{efn-lr|name=PN}} |– |Co-ruler with Berenice IV. Recorded by Porphyry of Tyre to be Berenice's sister, but most likely identical instead with her mother, Cleopatra V.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=84|2a1=Bennett|2y=2013|2loc=Cleopatra V}} |{{circa}} June 58–{{circa}} August 57 BC (1 year, ~2 months) |- !19 |– |'''Berenice IV''' Epiphaneia♀ Bereniket{{efn-lr|name=PN}} |– |Daughter of Ptolemy XII Auletes and Cleopatra V (VI). Proclaimed co-ruler in 58 BC; deposed and executed on the return of her father.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=70|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2p=215|3a1=Bennett|3y=2013|3loc=Berenice IV}} |{{circa}} June 58–{{circa}} February 55 BC (2 years, ~8 months) |- bgcolor="#F2E0CE" !* |– |'''Seleucus''' Kybiosactes |– |The first husband of Berenice IV. Called her co-ruler by Eusebius.<ref>Eusebius, ''Chronography'', 60</ref> Died a week after the wedding, as a result of murder or illness.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://instonebrewer.com/TyndaleSites/Egypt/ptolemies/berenice_iv.htm#Berenice.16 |title=Berenice IV |access-date=2026-04-28 |website=instonebrewer.com}}</ref> |{{circa}} 57/56 BC (1 week) |- bgcolor="#F2E0CE" !* |– |'''Archelaus''' | |The second husband of Berenice IV. He was called her co-ruler by Strabo and Eusebius,<ref>Eusebius, ''Chronography'', 60</ref><ref>Strabo, ''Geography'', 17.1.11</ref> but there is no surviving evidence of this in the administrative records from the period.{{sfn|Sewell-Lasater|2020|page=413}} Died in battle.{{sfn|Dodson|Hilton|2004|page=275}} |{{circa}} 56 – January/February 55 BC (~6 months) |- !20 |60px |'''Cleopatra VII''' Thea Philopator♀ Qleopadrat Netjeret Meret ites |– |''De facto'' last pharaoh. Daughter of Ptolemy XII Auletes, she succeeded him aged 18 and ruled as senior pharaoh with her brothers and eldest son. In 48 BC she fought and defeated her sister Arsinoe IV with the support of Roman dictator Julius Caesar, who fathered her first-born son and heir (Caesarion). After Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, she allied with and married Mark Antony during the wars of the Second Triumvirate. Their actions led Octavian, Caesar's heir, to declare war in 32 BC; both were defeated and they are believed to have commited suicide in August 30 BC.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=84–85|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=216–217|3a1=Bennett|3y=2013|3loc=Cleopatra VII}}{{Sfn|Cooney|2018|p=258, 301-305}} |{{circa}} March 51– 12 August 30 BC{{Efn-lr|Most authors date Claeopatra's accession to 51 BC. Some authors have proposed a brief co-regency with her father in 52 BC, but the evidence isn't conclusive. Her reign was technically interrupted by a few months during 48 BC.{{sfn|Bennett|2013|loc=Ptolemy XII}} Cleopatra almost certainly died on the 17th day of the Egyptian month Mesori, which corresponds to 10 August in the older Roman calendar, and 12 August in the Julian calendar.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Skeat |first=T. C. |author-link=Theodore Cressy Skeat |title=The Last Days of Cleopatra: A Chronological Problem |journal=The Journal of Roman Studies |volume=43 |issue=1–2 |year=1953 |jstor=297786 |pages=98–100 |doi=10.2307/297786 |s2cid=162835002 |issn=0075-4358}}</ref>}} (21 years, ~5 months) |- bgcolor="#CEDFF2" !21 |60px |'''Ptolemy XIII''' Theos Philopator Ptolemis{{efn-lr|name=PN}} |– |Brother-husband of Cleopatra; joined Arsinoe IV in her war against Cleopatra and Caesar. Died in a failed attempt to ambush Caesar, aged 14–15.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=318|2a1=Bennett|2y=2013|2loc=Ptolemy XIII}} |{{circa}} March 51–13 January 47 BC (3 years and some months) |- bgcolor="#FCFCD7" !* |– |'''Arsinoe IV'''♀ Arsinat{{efn-lr|name=PN}} |– |Sister of Cleopatra; rebelled with the help of Ganymedes and then took Alexandria for a few months. Was betrayed, sent to Rome, and later executed by Mark Antony.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=46–47|2a1=Bennett|2y=2013|2loc=Arsinoe IV; Cleopatra VII}} |{{circa}} September 48– 13 January 47 BC (4 months) |- bgcolor="#CEDFF2" !22 |60px |'''Ptolemy XIV''' Philopator Ptolemis{{efn-lr|name=PN}} |– |Brother-husband and nominal co-ruler with Cleopatra. Died at the age of 15–16, allegedly poisoned by his sister-wife.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=318|2a1=Bennett|2y=2013|2loc=Ptolemy XIV}} |January 47–{{circa}} August 44 BC (3 years, ~7 months) |- bgcolor="#CEDFF2" !23 |60px |'''Ptolemy XV''' Caesar "Caesarion" Ptolemis Kyseres |Iwapanetjernetynehem Setepenptah Irmaatre Sekhemankhenamun |Son of Cleopatra and Julius Caesar, crowned co-ruler at the age of 3, better known as '''Caesarion''' ("little Cesar"). Nominally the last pharaoh; became sole ruler after Cleopatra's death, but was executed by Octavian after the fall of Alexandria.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1p=318|2a1=Clayton|2y=2001|2pp=216–217|3a1=Bennett|3y=2013|3loc=Berenice IV}} |2 September 44–August 30 BC (13 years, 11 months) |}

==== Native rebels ==== {| class="wikitable nowraplinks" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" border="1" style="background:#FBFBFB;width:100%;text-align:center;border-style:solid;border-width:1px;font-size:100%;empty-cells:show;border-collapse:collapse" |- style="background:#F6E6AE" ! width="1%" |{{No.}} ! width="16%" |Personal name ! width="50%" |Notes ! width="15%" |Reign{{sfn|Bennett|2013}} |- style="background:#FCFCD7" !* |'''Horwennefer''' |Rebel pharaoh in the South (Upper Egypt) against Ptolemy IV Philopator, with capital at Thebes.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=40, 173|2a1=Bennett|2y=2013|2loc=Horwennefer / Ankhwennefer}} |November 205–{{circa}} September 199 BC (5 years, ~10 months) |- style="background:#FCFCD7" !* |'''Ankhwennefer''' |Successor (or possibly an alternate regnal name) of Horwennefer in Thebes, Upper Egypt. Took advantage of the invasion of Antiochus III the Great in Egypt's Eastern provinces. Captured and later executed by Ptolemy V Epiphanes.{{sfnm|1a1=Bunson|1y=2002|1pp=40, 173|2a1=Bennett|2y=2013|2loc=Horwennefer / Ankhwennefer}} |{{circa}} September 199–27 August 186 BC (12 years, ~11 months) |- style="background:#FCFCD7" !* |'''Harsiesi''' Sausir |Rebel pharaoh in the South (Upper Egypt) against Ptolemy VIII Physcon; took Thebes for a couple of months but was expelled and defeated in the following year.{{sfn|Bennett|2013|loc=Harsiesi}} |{{circa}} September 131–{{circa}} September 130 BC (1 year) |}

== Roman period == {{Main|Roman pharaoh|Roman Egypt}}

[[File:Luxor.Aswan & Qena 10.JPG|thumb|Egyptian relief depicting the Roman emperor Trajan (right, {{reign}} 98–117 AD) in full pharaonic style.]] Egypt became a client kingdom of Rome in the reign of Ptolemy X Alexander I ({{reign}} 107–88 BC)<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Reign of Cleopatra|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KSonyiReFY8C&pg=PA12|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|date=2007|isbn=978-0-8061-3871-8|first=Stanley Mayer|last=Burstein|page=12}}</ref> but it was not until the death of Cleopatra (and defeat of Mark Antony) in 30 BC, that Egypt became a Roman province. The Roman emperors were accorded the title of pharaoh by the Egyptians, but the title was not acknowledged outside the province. The last Roman emperor known from a pharaonic titulary is Maximinus Daza ({{reign}} 310–313 AD). Royal cartouches are attested as late as 340 AD, but the pagan Egyptians chose to posthumously use cartouches of Diocletian ({{reign}} 284–305 AD) rather than acknowledging the later Christian emperors.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ritner |first=Robert K. |title=The Cambridge History of Egypt |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1998 |isbn=0-521-47137-0 |editor-last=Petry |editor-first=Carl F. |location=Cambridge |chapter=Egypt under Roman rule: the legacy of Ancient Egypt |chapter-url=https://oi.uchicago.edu/sites/oi.uchicago.edu/files/uploads/shared/docs/Research_Archives/Ritner%2C%20R.%20-%20Egypt%20under%20Roman%20Rule%20%28HQ%29%20-%20CHE.pdf |pages= 1–33}}</ref> This was around the same time that the knowledge and understanding of hieroglyphs began to be forgotten; the last known inscription of its kind, known as the Graffito of Esmet-Akhom, dates to the year 394.

Roman rule in Egypt continued almost uninterrupted until the 7th century, when the province fell to the Arab conquest, whereafter Egypt was ruled by the successive caliphates.

== Notes == {{Notelist-lr}}

== References == {{Reflist}}

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A. |author-link=Kenneth Kitchen |url=https://archive.org/details/kenneth-anderson-kitchen-the-third-intermediate-period-in-egypt-1100-650-b.-c.-4-ed.-2009/page/587/mode/2up |title=The third intermediate period in Egypt, 1100-650 B.C. |date=2009 |publisher=Aris & Phillips |isbn=978-0-85668-768-6 |oclc=297803817 |orig-date=1972}} * {{cite book |last=Leprohon |first=Ronald J. |url=https://archive.org/details/LEPROHON2013TheGreatNameAncientEgyptianRoyalTitulary |title=The Great Name: Ancient Egyptian Royal Titulary |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-58983-736-2 |series=Writings from the ancient world, no. 33 |location=Atlanta}} *{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/ACompanionToAncientEgyptTwoVolumeSetAlanB.LloydWileyBlackwell2010 |title=A companion to Ancient Egypt |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2010 |editor-last=Lloyd |editor-first=Alan B.}} * {{Cite book |last=Naunton |first=Chris |title=Searching for the Lost Tombs of Egypt |publisher=Thames & Hudson |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-500-05199-3 | edition=e-book}} * {{cite book| last = Tyldesley | first = Joyce | author-link= Joyce Tyldesley | title = Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt | year = 2006 | publisher = WW Norton | isbn = 0-500-05145-3 | url = https://archive.org/details/chronicleofqueen00tyld}} * {{Cite book |last=Payraudeau |first=Frédéric |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RBLPDwAAQBAJ |title=L'Égypte et la vallée du Nil. Tome 3: Les époques tardives (1069-332 av. J.-C.) |date=2020 |publisher=Humensis |isbn=978-2-13-082231-8 |language=fr}} * {{cite book|last=Petrie|first=Flinders|author-link=Flinders Petrie|year=1897|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofegyptvo034985mbp|title=A History of Egypt. Volume I: From the Earliest Times to the XVIth Dynasty|edition=|location=London|publisher=Methuen & Co.|oclc=493045619}} * {{cite book|last=Petrie|first=Flinders|year=1899|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.280994|title=A History of Egypt. Volume II: During the XVIIth and XVIIIth Dynasties|edition=|location=London|publisher=Methuen & Co.}} * {{cite book|last=Petrie|first=Flinders|year=1905|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofegyptvo034984mbp|title=A History of Egypt. Volume II: From the XIXth to the XXXth Dynasties|edition=|location=London|publisher=Methuen & Co.}} * {{cite book |last1=Ryholt |first1=K. S. B. |author-link=Kim Ryholt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ANRi7cM5ZwsC |title=The Political Situation in Egypt During the Second Intermediate Period, C. 1800-1550 B.C. |date=1997 |publisher=Museum Tusculanum Press |isbn=978-87-7289-421-8}} * {{Cite book |editor-last=Shaw |editor-first=Ian |editor-link=Ian Shaw (Egyptologist) |url=https://archive.org/details/TheOxfordHistoryOfAncient/page/n505/mode/2up? |title=The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-280458-7 |location=Oxford |orig-date=2000}} * {{cite book |last1=Shaw |first1=Ian |last2=Nicholson |first2=Paul |title=The Dictionary of Ancient Egypt |publisher=The British Museum Press |location=London |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-8109-3225-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofanci0000shaw}} * {{Cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Toby |author-link=Toby Wilkinson |url=https://ia803109.us.archive.org/1/items/20191120_20191120_1042/Early%20Dynastic%20Egypt%20%20Upload%20%20by%20Samy%20Salah.pdf |title=Early dynastic Egypt |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-203-02438-6 |edition=2nd |orig-date=1999}} * {{Cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Toby |url=https://archive.org/details/royalannalsofancientegyptroutledgetobya.h.wilkinson2000 |title=Royal Annals Of Ancient Egypt: The Palermo Stone and its Associated Fragments |date=2000 |publisher=Kegan Paul International |isbn=0-7103-0667-9 |location=London}} '''Online resources''' * {{cite web | last= Bennett| first= Chris | year=2013| title= Egyptian Royal Genealogy - Ptolemaic Dynasty|url=https://instonebrewer.com/TyndaleSites/Egypt/ptolemies/genealogy.htm}} * Mladjov, Ian. Chronologies. ''Ian Mladjov's Resources''. ** {{Cite web |last=Mladjov |first=Ian |date=2021a |title=Earlier rulers of Egypt |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1k0EaoDLT8zketSZZg7AOTHo0YVkBqzH5/view?usp=sharing |website=Ian Mladjov's Resources}} ** {{Cite web |last=Mladjov |first=Ian |date=2021b |title=Rulers of Egypt: chronology 1540–310 BC |url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Ozgx-SqzOQ4MpHa5ThrFN3oQ1KHgAJdP/view |website=Ian Mladjov's Resources}} * Lundström, Peter. ''Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt'' ** {{Cite web |last=Lundström |first=Peter |date=2025 |title=The Dynasties of Manetho |url=https://pharaoh.se/ancient-egypt/kinglist/manetho-king-list/ |website=Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt}} ** {{Cite web |last=Lundström |first=Peter |date=2025b |title=List of Pharaohs |url=https://pharaoh.se/ancient-egypt/pharaohs |website=Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt}} ** {{Cite web |last=Lundström |first=Peter |date=2025c |title=Kinglists |url=https://pharaoh.se/ancient-egypt/kinglists |website=Pharaohs of Ancient Egypt}} *{{Cite journal |last=Sewell-Lasater |first=Tara |year=2020 |title=Becoming Kleopatra: Ptolemaic Royal Marriage, Incest, and the Path to Female Rule |url=https://www.academia.edu/43290689/Becoming_Kleopatra_Ptolemaic_Royal_Marriage_Incest_and_the_Path_to_Female_Rule |journal=University of Houston}} * {{Cite book |last=Tetley |first=M. Christine |url=https://archive.org/details/THERECONSTRUCTEDCHRONOLOGYOFTHEEGYPTIANKINGSTHEEBERSCALENDARISPROBABLYTHEMOSTVALUABLE/mode/2up |title=The Reconstructed chronology of the Egyptian Kings |publisher=Barry W. Tetley |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-473-41906-6 |edition=2nd}} * {{Cite web |last=University College London |date=2000 |title=Chronology |url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt//chronology/index.html |website=Digital Egypt for Universities}} * {{Cite web |last=Wolter |first=Teagan |date=2025 |title=List of pharaohs of ancient Egypt |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/list-of-pharaohs-of-ancient-Egypt}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pharaohs}} * Category:Ancient Egypt-related lists Category:Lists of monarchs Category:Lists of monarchs in Africa Category:Lists of rulers of Egypt