Ethnic nationalism

{{Short description|Ethnic identity-based political ideology}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2018}} {{nationalism sidebar|types}} '''Ethnic nationalism''', also known as '''ethnonationalism''',{{sfn|Leoussi|2001|p=81-84}} is a form of nationalism in which the nation and nationality are defined in terms of ethnicity,{{sfn|Smith|1987|p=134-138, 144–149}}{{sfn|Smith|2009|p=61-80}} with emphasis on an ethnocentric (and in some cases an ethnostate/ethnocratic) approach to various political issues related to national affirmation of a particular ethnic group.{{sfn|Smith|1981|p=18}}{{sfn|Roshwald|2001|p=}}

The central tenet of ethnic nationalists is that "nations are defined by a shared heritage, which usually includes a common language, a common faith, and a common ethnic ancestry".{{sfn|Muller|2008}} Those of other ethnicities may be classified as second-class citizens.{{sfn|Rangelov|2013}}{{sfn|Yilmaz|2018}} Because of these attributes, ethnic nationalism is closely related to nativism, and is associated with the radical right.<ref name=Bar-on25>Bar-on, 2018, p. 25</ref>

Scholars of diaspora studies broaden the concept of "nation" to diasporic communities. The terms "ethnonation" and "ethnonationalism" are sometimes used to describe a conceptual collective of dispersed ethnics.{{sfn|Safran|2008}} Defining an ethnos widely can lead to ethnic nationalism becoming a form of pan-nationalism or macronationalism, as in cases such as pan-Germanism or pan-Slavism.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Snyder |first1=Louis Leo |author-link1=Louis Leo Snyder |year=1984 |title=Macro-nationalisms: A History of the Pan-movements |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g3oUAQAAIAAJ |series= Issue 112 of Contributions in political science: Global perspectives in history and politics, ISSN 0147-1066 |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport, Connecticut |isbn=9780313231919 |access-date=2 December 2022}}</ref>

In scholarly literature, following a theoretical distinction by Hans Kohn, ethnic nationalism is usually contrasted with civic nationalism, although this distinction has also been criticized.<ref name=Cohen68>Cohen, 2022, pp. 6-8</ref><ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08913819608443417?journalCode=rcri20 | doi=10.1080/08913819608443417 | title=The myth of the civic nation | date=1996 | last1=Yack | first1=Bernard | journal=Critical Review | volume=10 | issue=2 | pages=193–211 | url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>Özkirimli, Umut. (2005). Contemporary Debates on Nationalism: A Critical Introduction. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.</ref><ref>Azurmendi, Joxe (2014): ''Historia, arraza, nazioa'', Donostia: Elkar. {{ISBN|978-84-9027-297-8}}</ref>

==Conceptual development== ===History=== The study of ethnonationalism emerged in the early 20th century in the interwar period between World War I and World War II, with the "redrawing of the political map of Europe in part along ethnic and national lines according to a proclaimed "right of peoples" to self-determination and the rise of fascist ethnocentric ideologies (including Nazism).{{sfn|Le Bossé |2021}} Philosopher Hans Kohn was one of the first to differentiate ethnic nationalism from civic nationalism in his 1944 publication ''The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tamir|first=Yael (Yuli)|date=2019-05-11|title=Not So Civic: Is There a Difference Between Ethnic and Civic Nationalism?|journal=Annual Review of Political Science|language=en|volume=22|issue=1|pages=419–434|doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-022018-024059|issn=1094-2939|doi-access=free}}</ref>

During the Cold War, the independence movement initiated in former European colonies in Asia and Africa reinvigorated research into ethnic, tribal and national identities and the "political difficulties" stemming from their interactions with territorial statehood,{{sfn|Le Bossé |2021}} while the collapse of the Soviet Union in the 1980s and 1990s and the "resurgence of ethnic and national claims and conflicts in its aftermath" only further spurred ethnonationalism scholarship in the late 20th century.{{sfn|Le Bossé |2021}}

Increased international migration as a function of contemporary globalization has also given rise to "ethno-national" movements, including reactionary "nativist" groups focused on exclusionary identity politics. In the developed world, such trends have in some cases taken on an explicitly xenophobic and racist character, as seen in the example of "white nationalism" in the United States.{{sfn|Le Bossé |2021}}

==Characteristics== The central political tenet of ethnic nationalism is that ethnic groups are entitled to self-determination.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}} The outcome of this right to self-determination may vary, from calls for self-regulated administrative bodies within an already established society, to an autonomous entity separate from that society, to the institution of ethnic federalism within a multi-ethnic society, to establishing an independent sovereign state removed from that society. In international relations, it also leads to policies and movements for irredentism to claim a common nation based upon ethnicity,{{citation needed|date=January 2021}} or for the establishment of an ethnocratic (mono-ethnocratic or poly-ethnocratic) political structure in which the state apparatus is controlled by a politically and militarily dominant ethnic nationalist group or a group of several ethnic nationalist groups from select ethnicities to further its interests, power and resources.{{sfn|Anderson|2016}}

In scholarly literature, ethnic nationalism is usually contrasted with civic nationalism. Ethnic nationalism bases membership of the nation on descent or heredity, often articulated in terms of common blood or kinship, rather than on political membership. Hence, nation states with strong traditions of ethnic nationalism tend to define nationality or citizenship by ''jus sanguinis'' (the law of blood, descent from a person of that nationality), and countries with strong traditions of civic nationalism tend to define nationality or citizenship by ''jus soli'' (the law of soil, birth within the nation state). Ethnic nationalism is, therefore, seen as exclusive,{{By whom|date=August 2023}} while civic nationalism tends to be inclusive.{{According to whom|date=August 2023}} Rather than allegiance to common civic ideals and cultural traditions, then, ethnic nationalism tends to emphasise narratives of common descent.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}

Some types of ethnic nationalism are firmly rooted in the idea of ethnicity as an inherited characteristic, for example black nationalism or white nationalism.{{Cn|date=January 2025}} Often ethnic nationalism also manifests in the assimilation of minority ethnic groups into the dominant group, for example as with Italianisation.{{cn|date=January 2025}} This assimilation may or may not be predicated on a belief in some common ancestry with assimilated groups (for example with Germanisation in the Second World war).{{cn|date=January 2025}} An extreme version is racial nationalism.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}

Recent theories and empirical data suggest that people maintain dual lay beliefs about nationality, such that it can be both inherited biologically at birth and acquired culturally in life.{{sfn|Rad|Ginges|2018}}

===Role in discrimination=== In 2018, Tendayi Achiume, a UN Special Rapporteur on racism, released a UN Human Rights Council report which states that "more than 75% of the world's known stateless populations belong to minority groups" and highlights the role of ethnonationalism in the international deprivation of citizenship rights.<ref name=UNHRC18>{{cite web |title=Ethno-nationalism denies millions their citizenship rights |date=5 July 2018 |publisher=Human Rights Council |url=https://www.ohchr.org/en/stories/2018/07/ethno-nationalism-denies-millions-their-citizenship-rights-anti-racism-expert}}</ref> In the report, Achiume re-stated that international human rights law prohibits citizens from discriminating against non-citizens on the basis of their race, descent, national or ethnic origin and she also stated that citizenship, nationality, and immigration laws which discriminate against non-citizens are violations of international law.<ref name=UNHRC18/> She also noted the role of laws restricting marriage rights with respect to certain national, religious, ethnic or racial groups, which she said were "often deployed by states to preserve notions of national, ethnic and racial "purity"."<ref name=UNHRC18/> Achiume called ethnonationalist politics the "most obvious driver of racial discrimination in citizenship and immigration laws" and driven by populist leaders defining nations "in terms of assumed blood ties and ethnicity".<ref name=UNHRC18/>

In the 19th and 20th centuries, European colonial powers used ethnonationalism to justify barring colonial subjects from citizenship, and in Europe, Jews and Roma were excluded from citizenship on the same grounds.<ref name=UNHRC18/> Today, migrants are a frequent target of ethnonationalist rhetoric related to "ethnic purity and religious, cultural or linguistic preservation".<ref name=UNHRC18/> Even countries with proud histories of immigration have fallen prey to the vilification of "certain racial, religious and national groups" on prejudicial grounds. Achiume called the case of the Rohingya Muslims a "chilling example", with the Burma Citizenship Act of 1982 discriminating based on ethnicity and rendering many Rohingya stateless.<ref name=UNHRC18/> The violation of the rights of Afro-Caribbean British citizens from the "Windrush generation" is a pertinent example of similar prejudice in the developed world but states all over the world use misinformation to portray "certain racial, national and religious groups as inherent threats to national security" and justify stripping or denying rights.<ref name=UNHRC18/>

Extreme forms of ethnic nationalism, as in the case of Myanmar and its government's persecution of the Rohingya, have been identified as causes of various genocides and episodes of ethnic cleansing.{{sfn|Scherrer|1999}}{{sfn|Smith|1994}}{{sfn|Ahmed|1995}} In his 2005 book ''The Great Game of Genocide'', historian Donald Bloxham argued that the Armenian genocide "represents a clear logic of ethnic nationalism when it is carried to its absolute extreme in multinational societies."{{sfn|Bloxham|2005|p=86}}

==Other nationalist variants== ===Ethno-regionalism=== The People's Republic of Congo regime was designed as a Soviet-style socialist one-party state, it was essentially a military regime with a strongly ethno-regional character. Members of the southern ethnic groups, who were far more numerous than northerners, were included in the power structure, but the top leaders were consistently northerners. In Guinea-Bissau under Luís Cabral was by some sections of the ruling party accused that he and the other members with Cape Verdean origins of dominating the party."

===Liberal Ethno-nationalism=== Generally, "liberal nationalism" is used in a similar sense to "civic nationalism"; liberal nationalism is a kind of nationalism recently defended by political philosophers who believe that there can be a non-xenophobic form of nationalism compatible with liberal values of freedom, tolerance, equality, and individual rights.<ref>Yael Tamir. 1993. ''Liberal Nationalism.'' Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|0-691-07893-9}}; Will Kymlicka. 1995. ''Multicultural Citizenship.'' Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-827949-3}}; David Miller. 1995. [http://www.oup.co.uk/isbn/0-19-829356-9 ''On Nationality.''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000601183631/http://www.oup.co.uk/isbn/0-19-829356-9|date=2000-06-01}} Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-828047-5}}.</ref> However, not all "liberal nationalism" is always "civic nationalism"; there are also liberals who advocate moderate nationalism that affirm ethnic identity, also referred to as "liberal ethnonationalism".<ref name=Taiwan>{{cite book |author1=Glenn Drover |author2=Graham Johnson |author3=Julia Lai Po-Wah Tao |title=Regionalism and Subregionalism in East Asia: The Dynamics of China |quote=In response to the rise of 'liberal ethno-nationalism' and the DPP, it has increasingly promoted the discourse and practices of a 'Taiwanized' KMT. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OO9OAAAAMAAJ&q=%22liberal+ethno-nationalism%22 |date=2001 |publisher=Nova Science |pages=101|isbn=978-1-56072-872-6 }}</ref>

In 19th century Europe, liberal movements often affirmed ethnic nationalism in the modern sense along with to topple classical conservatism; István Széchenyi was a representative of liberal ethnic nationalism.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Mark Hewitson |title=What Is a Nation?; Europe 1789–1914 |author2=Timothy Baycroft |date=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=180 |quote=The shifting of ground in the Magyar case from the 'estate nationalism' of the 1790s to the liberal-ethnic nationalism of the 1840s can be followed in the 'national road' trodden by Count István Széchenyi where liberal and romantic were combined.}}</ref> Liberal Zionism is an ideology that combines Zionism—an ethnocultural nationalist ideology—with secular liberal values. In some regions, including South Korea, Taiwan, etc., there is a liberal/progressive ethno-nationalism tradition against conservative state-nationalism.<ref name=Taiwan/><ref name=stillunloved>{{Cite web|url=http://sthelepress.com/index.php/2016/12/28/still-the-unloved-republic/|title=Still the Unloved Republic|quote=... Someone who is asked by a pollster whether he is prouder of the Taehan minguk or of the minjok therefore knows which answer is better, more progressive-sounding. In all likelihood he is not prouder of the republic than of his Koreanness. One should be wary of polls on this issue that were not conducted precisely and clearly.|work=Sthele Press|date=December 28, 2016|first=Brian Reynolds|last=Myers|access-date=June 26, 2019|author-link=Brian Reynolds Myers|archive-date=13 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180313210134/http://sthelepress.com/index.php/2016/12/28/still-the-unloved-republic/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>[https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2017/07/20/cloudy-forecast-for-moons-sunshine-policy-2-0/ Cloudy forecast for Moon’s ‘Sunshine Policy 2.0’] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231031082008/https://www.eastasiaforum.org/2017/07/20/cloudy-forecast-for-moons-sunshine-policy-2-0/ |date=31 October 2023 }} East Asia Forum (2017. 07. 20). "In South Korean politics, liberal political parties often support a policy of engagement with North Korea. This is because left-wing politicians tend to value miunjok (the Korean race) over the North–South ideological and political divide. In a broader sense, liberals embrace ethno-nationalism; the notion that sharing the same bloodline is superior to temporary national partition. Conservatives on the other hand support regime-based nationalism, which puts emphasis on being South Korean and stresses the differences in social and political values between the two Koreas."</ref><ref>{{cite book |author1=Baogang He |title=Governing Taiwan and Tibet: Democratic Approaches |date=8 July 2015 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |pages=81}}</ref> In Austria before ''Anschluss'', pan-German ''Völkisch'' nationalism was widely accepted among national-liberals to fight Catholic-based conservative Austrian nationalism.<ref>{{cite book |author=Pieter M. Judson |title=Exclusive Revolutionaries: Liberal Politics, Social Experience, and National Identity in the Austrian Empire, 1848–1914 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |date=1996}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=John W. Boyer |title=Political Radicalism in Late Imperial Vienna: Origins of the Christian Social Movement, 1848-1897 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |date=May 5, 1995 |pages=100-115}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Pauley |first=Bruce F. |title=From Prejudice to Persecution: A History of Austrian Anti-Semitism |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |year=1992 |pages=156-158}}</ref>

===Social Ethno-nationalism=== Social Ethno-nationalism is a doctrine aimed at promoting social progress while defending the ethnic interests of different peoples, both emancipation and supremacy.{{cn|date=July 2025}} For example, the Australian Labor Party had a strong white nationalist component and has openly supported the White Australia policy in the past.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/08abolition.htm|title=Abolition of the 'White Australia' Policy|publisher=Australian Department of Immigration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060901105340/http://www.immi.gov.au/media/fact-sheets/08abolition.htm|archive-date=1 September 2006}}</ref>{{primary inline|date=July 2025}}

Secular Arab nationalism advocated by Baathism and previously by Nasserism defends Arab socialism. There are also examples of leftist American black nationalism, including Black power movement. South American indigenous groups also have as their basis the defense of the ethnic interests of Amerindians while promoting social progress and the sharing of wealth.<ref>Antonio Carlos de Souza Lima, « L'indigénisme au Brésil : migration et réappropriation d’un savoir administratif », ''Revue de synthèse'', semestre, No. 3-4, juillet-décembre 2000, {{p.|381-410}}.</ref>

===Stateless and Anti-imperial nationalism=== {{see also|Indigenism}} Stateless nationalism is frequently categorized as a variant of ethnic nationalism, as it primarily arises from minority or oppressed ethnic groups seeking self-determination or separatism within multi-national states. Unlike the nationalism of established states, which may use ethnicity for exclusion, stateless nationalism often functions as a mechanism for cultural preservation and political liberation.<ref>{{cite book |author=Anthony D. Smith |title=The Ethnic Origins of Nations |publisher=Blackwell |year=1986 |pages=144–155}}</ref>

During the era of New Imperialism, many decolonization movements in Asia and Africa adopted ethno-nationalist frameworks to mobilize populations against colonial powers. In many contemporary contexts, anti-imperialist movements continue to employ ethnic nationalism as a defensive response to "imperial" states that often mask their dominance under the guise of civic nationalism. For example, movements in Kurdistan, Tibet, and among Indigenous peoples often define their national identity through shared lineage and language to resist forced cultural assimilation by a dominant state apparatus.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Guibernau |first=Montserrat |title=Between autonomy and independence: stateless nations and self-determination |journal=International Social Science Journal |volume=58 |issue=187 |pages=51–63 |year=2006 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2451.2006.00596.x}}</ref>

==Contemporary examples== {{main|Right_of_return#Countries_with_laws_conferring_a_right_of_return|l1=Right of return § Countries with laws conferring a right of return}} [[File:Matias_Catrileo_cartel_protesta.jpg|thumb|right|250px|In the context of the Mapuche conflict, the Coordinadora Arauco-Malleco (CAM) presents a strictly ethno-nationalist demand.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nodo50.org/weftun/documentos/entrevistas/llanquilef.htm |title="La lucha mapuche es nacionalista, anticapitalista y revolucionaria" |date=April 2002 |website=Nodo50 |quote=Nuestra lucha por la independencia, por la autodeterminación es tomar el planteamiento histórico de nuestro pueblo para mantenerse y seguir siendo pueblo}}</ref>]] Ethnic nationalism is present in many states' immigration policies in the form of repatriation laws. Armenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Serbia and Turkey provide automatic or rapid citizenship to members of diasporas of their predominant ethnic group, if desired.{{sfn|Muller|2008}}{{Rp|33}}

=== Turkey === {{Excerpt|Ethnocracy|Turkey}}

=== Azerbaijan === {{See also|Forced assimilation in Azerbaijan|Azerbaijani nationalism|}} Since 1918, political elites with pan-Turkist-oriented sentiments in Azerbaijan have depended on the concept of ethnic nationalism to create an anti-Iranian sense of ethnicity among Iranian Azerbaijanis. While Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev has attempted to dismiss claims that his government is taking any anti-Iranian ethnic nationalist positions, the Iranian government and groups like Iranian nationalist circles, especially Iranian Azerbaijanis, are dubious about the intentions of the Azerbaijani government due to the ongoing actions of irredentist elements like Congress of World Azerbaijanis or Southern Azerbaijan National Awakening Movement and the support that they receive from Azerbaijani authorities, both state and non-state.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Great Game in West Asia: Iran, Turkey and the South Caucasus |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-067360-4 |editor-last=Kamrava |editor-first=Mehran |series=Oxford scholarship online Political Science |location=Oxford |pages=135}}</ref> According to Akbar Ahmed, after the country gained independence in 1991, the Lezgin and Avar peoples of Azerbaijan "became subjected to Ataturk-style ethnic nationalism by the Azeri-dominated center."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ahmed |first=Akbar S. |title=The thistle and the drone: how America's War on Terror became a global war on tribal Islam |date=2013 |publisher=Brookings Institution Press |isbn=978-0-8157-2379-0 |location=Washington, D.C |pages=193–194}}</ref>

=== Israel === {{Main|Israeli nationalism}} The State of Israel originated from the conceptions and principles of Theodore Herzl's work Der Judenstaat, which envisioned the creation of a state for the Jewish people in Palestine or Argentina<ref>{{cite web | title=Los otros lugares contemplados para un Estado judío antes de la creación de Israel en territorio palestino | date=5 November 2017 | url=https://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias-41857911 }}</ref> as a solution to the Jewish question in Europe posed by Romantic nationalists.{{citation needed|date=September 2024}} In his later work, ''The Old New Land'', Herzl envisioned a bi-national state, where Jews only made up a majority in a few cities and everyone spoke German.<ref>{{cite web |title=Altneuland (Tel Aviv) by Theodor Herzl |url=https://archive.org/details/TheodorHerzlAutneulandTevAviv |date=1902}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Altneuland (Theodor Herzl) |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/quot-altneuland-quot-theodor-herzl |website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Herzl |first1=Theodor |title=Old New Land |url=https://bahai-library.com/pdf/h/herzl_levensohn_old-new_land.pdf |publisher=Markus Wiener Publications Princeton}}</ref>

Concerns about ethnonationalism in Israel were raised since the Knesset's adoption of the ''Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People'' as part of its basic laws under the Fourth Netanyahu government, an act which was highly controversial within Israel itself<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jabareen |first=Hassan |author-link=Hassan Jabareen |date=2018-11-11 |title=The Origins of Racism and the new Basic Law: Jewish Nation-State |url=https://verfassungsblog.de/the-origins-of-racism-and-the-new-basic-law-jewish-nation-state/ |journal=Verfassungsblog |doi=10.17176/20181111-122731-0 |issn=2366-7044}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zeedan |first1=Rami |title=Reconsidering the Druze Narrative in the Wake of the Basic Law: Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/israelstudies.25.3.14 |journal=Israel Studies |pages=153–166 |doi=10.2979/israelstudies.25.3.14 |date=2020|volume=25 |issue=3 |jstor=10.2979/israelstudies.25.3.14 |hdl=1808/32682 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and among various Jewish groups in the diaspora,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Berger |first1=Miriam |title=Israel's hugely controversial "nation-state" law, explained |url=https://www.vox.com/world/2018/7/31/17623978/israel-jewish-nation-state-law-bill-explained-apartheid-netanyahu-democracy |website=Vox |date=31 July 2018}}</ref> as it potentially threatened the formula of Israel as a Jewish and democratic state. This law was controversial especially with many Left Zionists, who saw the bill as undermining Israeli democracy.<ref>{{cite web |title=Opposition party petitions Israel's High Court against nation-state law |url=https://www.i24news.tv/en/news/israel/180677-180731-opposition-party-petitions-israel-s-high-court-against-nation-state-law |website=i24NEWS |language=en |date=31 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/180-artists-authors-intellectuals-call-for-cancellation-of-nation-state-law/ |website=The Times of Israel |title=180 artists, authors, intellectuals call for cancellation of nation-state law |date=29 July 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Oster |first1=Marcy |title=Arab lawmaker resigns in protest of Israel's new nation-state law |url=https://www.jta.org/2018/07/29/israel/arab-israeli-lawmaker-labor-party-resigns-nation-state-law |website=Jewish Telegraphic Agency |date=29 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/former-shin-bet-chief-pleads-with-president-to-not-sign-nation-state-law/ |website=The Times of Israel |title=Former Shin Bet chief pleads with president to not sign nation-state law |date=August 2018 }}</ref>

===Malaysia=== {{Main|Bumiputera (Malaysia)}} In Malaysia, the Bumiputera principle recognises the "special position" of the Malays provided in the Constitution of Malaysia, in particular Article 153. However, the constitution does not use the term bumiputra; it defines only "Malay" and "indigenous peoples" (Article 160(2)),<ref>[http://www.helplinelaw.com/law/constitution/malaysia/malaysia12.php "Part XII: General and Miscellaneous, Constitution of Malaysia (Articles 152–160)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920062543/http://www.helplinelaw.com/law/constitution/malaysia/malaysia12.php |date=20 September 2023 }}, ''helplinelaw.com''. Accessed 30 May 2007</ref> "natives" of Sarawak (161A(6)(a)),<ref name=FC>[http://www.helplinelaw.com/law/constitution/malaysia/malaysia12a.php Part XIIA: Additional Protections for States of Sabah and Sarawak, Constitution of Malaysia (Articles 161 – 161h)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090211154633/http://www.helplinelaw.com/law/constitution/malaysia/malaysia12a.php |date=11 February 2009 }}, ''helplinelaw''. Accessed 30 May 2007</ref> and "natives" of Sabah (Article 161A(6) (b)).<ref name="FC" /> Some pro-Bumiputra policies exist as affirmative action for bumiputras since the Malaysian New Economic Policy is based on race, not deprivation. For instance, all Bumiputra, regardless of their financial standing, are entitled to a 7 percent discount on houses or property, including luxurious units, but low-income non-Bumiputra receive no such financial assistance.

Other preferential policies include quotas for admission to government educational institutions, qualifications for public scholarships, marking of universities exam papers, special classes prior to university's end of term exams, positions in government and ownership of businesses. Most of the policies were established in the 1970s. Many policies focus on trying to achieve a Bumiputra share of corporate equity of at least 30% of the total. Ismail Abdul Rahman proposed that target after the government was unable to agree on a suitable policy goal.{{cn|date=October 2024}}

===United States=== {{Main|American nationalism}} Although American nationalism has typically been described as a paradigmatic example of civic nationalism,<ref>Bonikowski, Bart. 2008. ''[https://www.russellsage.org/sites/all/files/u4/Bonikowski%20&%20DiMaggio_American%20Nationalism.pdf Research on American Nationalism: Review of Literature, Annotated Bibliography, and Directory of Publicly Available Data Sets].'' RSF Working Paper. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.</ref> since the 2016 US presidential election which brought Donald Trump to the presidency, scholars have observed that ethnic nationalism has become significantly more prominent in American politics.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Schertzer |first=Robert |title=The New Nationalism in America and Beyond: The Deep Roots of Ethnic Nationalism in the Digital Age |last2=Taylor Woods |first2=Eric |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2022 |isbn=9780197547823 |pages=88–112 |chapter=Donald Trump and the New Nationalism in America |chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/book/41499/chapter-abstract/352912101?redirectedFrom=fulltext}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Ethno-nationalism and Right-Wing Extremist Violence in the United States, 2000 through 2018|journal=Sociological Science|quote=The Republican party has increasingly aligned itself with extremist right-wing views that can be classified as ethno-nationalist.|last=Olzak|first=Susan|date=20 March 2023|volume=10|pages=197-226, 216|url=https://sociologicalscience.com/articles-v10-6-197/}}</ref> According to political scientists Robert Schertzer and Eric Taylor Woods, "ethnic nationalism was the central feature of Trump’s political strategy" and "he did not win ''despite'' his ethnic nationalism—it was in fact the key to his success."<ref name=":0" /> Political scientist Jack Thompson argues that the identity politics of Donald Trump surrounding what it means to be a "true" American has resulted in ethnocentric ideals becoming "a robust predictor of vote choice for Trump" among white Americans.{{sfn|Thompson|2021}} Thompson notes that data from the 2016 American National Election Studies (ANES) has revealed a positive association between ethnonationalism and anti-immigrant attitudes among white Americans, whose opposition to immigration is "often grounded in fears of the threat that immigration poses to the robustness of America's national identity" that is shaped by the belief set concerning the ethnic traits of "true" Americans.{{sfn|Thompson|2022}}

==References== {{reflist|20em}}

==Sources== {{refbegin|2}} *{{cite journal |last1=Ahmed |first1=Akbar S. |title='Ethnic cleansing': A metaphor for our time? |journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies |date=1995 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=1–25 |doi=10.1080/01419870.1995.9993851}} *{{cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=James |date=2016 |title=Ethnocracy: Exploring and Extending the Concept |url=https://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/mcs/article/view/5143/5715 |journal=Cosmopolitan Civil Societies |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=1–29 |doi=10.5130/ccs.v8i3.5143 |doi-access=free}} *{{cite book |last1=Bar-on |first1=Tamir |chapter=The radical right and nationalism|pages=17-41|editor-last=Rydgren|editor-first=Jens|title=The Oxford handbook of the radical right |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780190274559}} *{{cite book |last1=Bloxham |first1=Donald |title=The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780191500442 }} *{{Cite book|chapter=Ethnonationalism |first=Mathias |last=Le Bossé |title=Geography |date=18 July 2021 |publisher=Oxford Bibliographies |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199874002/obo-9780199874002-0232.xml |doi=10.1093/OBO/9780199874002-0232|isbn=978-0-19-987400-2 }} *{{cite journal |last1=Cohen |first1=Matteo Iddo |title=Neither Civic nor Ethnic: Analyzing Right-Wing Politics Using a Theoretical Expansion of Kohn’s “Dichotomy of Nationalism”|journal=Nature Human Behaviour |date=2022 |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=1–22 |doi=10.2478/jnmlp-2022-0001}} * {{Cite book|editor-last=Leoussi|editor-first=Athena|title=Encyclopedia of Nationalism|year=2001|location=New Brunswick, NJ|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=9781412822558|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9_vuJusOJkMC}} *{{cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20032578 |title=Us and Them: The Enduring Power of Ethnic Nationalism |first= Jerry Z. |last=Muller |year=2008 |journal= Foreign Affairs |volume=87 |issue=2 |jstor=20032578 |pages=18–35}} *{{cite journal |last1=Rad |first1=Mostafa Salari |last2=Ginges |first2=Jeremy |title=Folk theories of nationality and anti-immigrant attitudes |journal=Nature Human Behaviour |date=2018 |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=343–347 |doi=10.1038/s41562-018-0334-3 |pmid=30962601 |s2cid=4898162 }} *{{cite book |last1=Rangelov |first1=Iavor |title=Nationalism and the Rule of Law: Lessons from the Balkans and Beyond |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780511997938 |pages=19–44|doi=10.1017/CBO9780511997938}} * {{Cite book|last=Roshwald|first=Aviel|title=Ethnic Nationalism and the Fall of Empires: Central Europe, the Middle East and Russia, 1914–1923|year=2001|location=London and New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134682539|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kGyFAgAAQBAJ}} *{{cite journal |last1=Safran |first1=William |title=Language, ethnicity and religion: a complex and persistent linkage: Language, ethnicity and religion |journal=Nations and Nationalism |date=2008 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=171–190 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8129.2008.00323.x}} *{{cite journal |last1=Scherrer |first1=Christian P. |title=Towards a theory of modern genocide. Comparative genocide research: Definitions, criteria, typologies, cases, key elements, patterns and voids |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |date=1999 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=13–23 |doi=10.1080/14623529908413932}} * {{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Anthony D.|author-link=Anthony D. Smith|title=The Ethnic Revival in the Modern World|year=1981|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9780521232678|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Pks7AAAAIAAJ}} * {{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Anthony D.|author-link=Anthony D. Smith|title=The Ethnic Origins of Nations|year=1987|orig-year=1986|location=Oxford and New York|publisher=Blackwell|isbn=9780631152057|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4FiRngEACAAJ}} * {{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Anthony D.|author-link=Anthony D. Smith|title=Ethno-symbolism and Nationalism: A Cultural Approach|year=2009|location=London and New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781135999483|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nAaTAgAAQBAJ}} *{{cite journal |last1=Smith |first1=Anthony D. |title=Ethnic Nationalism and the Plight of Minorities |journal=Journal of Refugee Studies |date=1994 |volume=7 |issue=2–3 |pages=186–198 |doi=10.1093/jrs/7.2-3.186}} *{{cite journal |last=Thompson |first=J. |title=What it means to be a "true American": Ethnonationalism and voting in the 2016 U.S. presidential election |journal=Nations and Nationalism |date=2021 |volume=27 |pages=279–297 |doi=10.1111/nana.12638|s2cid=225472000 |doi-access=free }} *{{cite journal |last=Thompson |first=J. |date=2022 |title=Ethnonationalism and White immigration attitudes |journal=Nations and Nationalism |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=31–46 |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/nana.12754 |doi=10.1111/nana.12754|s2cid=237914361 |url-access=subscription }} *{{cite journal |last1=Yilmaz |first1=Muzaffer Ercan |title=The Rise of Ethnic Nationalism, Intra-State Conflicts and Conflict Resolution |journal=Journal of TESAM Akademy |date=2018 |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=11–33 |doi=10.30626/tesamakademi.393051|doi-access=free}} {{refend}}

==Further reading== {{refbegin|2}} *{{cite book |last=Armstrong |first=J. |title=Nations before Nationalism |date=1982 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press |isbn=9780807896075}} *{{cite journal |last=Connor |first=W. |author-link=Walker Connor |title=The Politics of Ethnonationalism |journal=Journal of International Affairs |volume=27 |issue=1 |date=1973 |pages=1–21 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/24356606 |jstor=24356606}} *{{cite book |editor-last1=Esman |editor-first1=M. J. |editor-last2=Rabinovich |editor-first2=Itamar |author-link2=Itamar Rabinovich |title=Ethnicity, Pluralism, and the State in the Middle East |date=1988 |publisher=Cornell University Press |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7591/j.ctvr7f5dw |jstor=10.7591/j.ctvr7f5dw |isbn=9780801420016}} *{{cite book |last1=Gurr |first1=T. R. |first2=B. |last2=Harff |title=Ethnic Conflict in World Politics |date=1994 |publisher=Avalon |isbn=9780813398402 |url=https://www.routledge.com/Ethnic-Conflict-In-World-Politics/Harff-Gurr/p/book/9780813398402}} *{{cite book |title=Ethnonationalism and State Building (Volume 9 in the publication series on Democracy) |publisher=Heinrich Böll Foundation |date=2008 |translator-first=J. |translator-last=Hayduska |isbn=9783927760967 |url=https://www.boell.de/en/publications/publications-7509.html}} *{{cite journal |first=S. K. |last=Hennayake |title=Interactive ethnonationalism: An alternative explanation of minority ethnonationalism |journal=Political Geography |volume=11 |issue=6 |date=1992 |pages=526–549 |issn=0962-6298 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/0962-6298(92)90054-W |doi=10.1016/0962-6298(92)90054-W |url-access=subscription}} *{{Cite journal |last=Hutcheon |first=L. |author-link=Linda Hutcheon |title=Crypto-Ethnicity |journal=PMLA: Publications of the Modern Language Association of America |year=1998 |volume=113 |issue=1 |pages=28–51 |url=https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/17918/1/Hutcheon3.pdf |doi=10.2307/463407 |jstor=463407 |s2cid=155794856}} *{{cite journal |first1=A. |last1=Rosman |first2=P. |last2=Rubel |date=2006 |title=Ethnonationalism, Nationalism, Empire: Their Origins and Their Relationship to Power, Conflict and Culture Building |journal=Global Bioethics |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=55–71 |doi=10.1080/11287462.2006.10800885 |doi-access=free}} *{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=A. D. |author-link=Anthony D. Smith |title=The Antiquity of Nations |year=2004 |location=Cambridge and Malden |publisher=Polity Press |isbn=9780745627465 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yEfLVCYz4j8C}} *{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=A. D. |author-link=Anthony D. Smith |title=The Nation in History: Historiographical Debates about Ethnicity and Nationalism |year=2000 |location=Hanover |publisher=University Press of New England |isbn=9781584650409 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXhxE1lgmhEC}} {{refend}}

==External links== *[https://www.cfr.org/event/rise-ethnonationalism-and-future-liberal-democracy The Rise of Ethnonationalism and the Future of Liberal Democracy. Council on Foreign Relations. May 24, 2017]

Category:Ethnic nationalism Category:Ethnic conflict Category:Ethnicity in politics Category:Ethnocentrism Category:Political theories Category:Politics and race