{{Short description|Morphological feature of verbs in Semitic languages}} '''Derived stems''' (also called '''D stems''') are a morphological feature of verbs common to the Semitic languages. These derived verb stems are sometimes called '''augmentations''' or '''forms''' of the verb, or are identified by their Hebrew name '''binyan''' (literally meaning "building"), and sometimes correspond with additional semantic meaning such as passive or causative action.
Semitic languages make extensive use of nonconcatenative morphology, and most words share a set of two, three or four consonants<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McCarthy|first=John J.|date=1981-01-01|title=A Prosodic Theory of Nonconcatenative Morphology|jstor=4178229|journal=Linguistic Inquiry|volume=12|issue=3|pages=373–418}}</ref> which comprise a root<ref name="simpson">{{cite web|url=http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/dissertations/Simpson_dissertation_2009.pdf|title=The Origin and Development of Nonconcatenative Morphology|year=2009|access-date=2 January 2014|author=Andrew Kingsbury Simpson}}</ref> wherein each root may be the basis for a number of conceptually related words. Traditionally, words are thought of as being derived from these root consonants, but a view increasingly held by contemporary linguists sees stem words being the source of derivations rather than consonantal roots.<ref name="simpson" /> Regardless, each language features a number of set patterns for deriving verb stems from a given root or underived stem. Stems sharing the same root consonants represent separate verbs, albeit often semantically related, and each is the basis for its own conjugational paradigm. As a result, these derived stems are considered part of the system of morphological derivation, and not conjugation or inflection.
Typically, one stem is associated with the ordinary simple active verbs while others may be canonically associated with other grammatical functions such as the passive, the causative, the intensive, the reflexive, etc., or combinations thereof. These functions should not be taken as universal or absolute, but are better understood as relational, depending on the particular source of the derived stem.<ref name=":02">Bat-El, Outi. "Semitic Templates." The Blackwell Companion to Phonology. van Oostendorp, Marc, Colin J. Ewen, Elizabeth Hume and Keren Rice (eds). Blackwell Publishing, 2011. Blackwell Reference Online.</ref> These grammatical functions are also not present in all Semitic languages. Some Neo-Aramaic languages, for example, have only two stems, one for monosyllabic verbs and the other for disyllabic verbs, with hardly any cases of related verbs in each stem.<ref name=":02"/><ref name="Hoberman 49–64">{{Cite book|last=Hoberman|first=Robert D.|pages=49–64|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-011-2516-1_5|title = Yearbook of Morphology 1991|year = 1992|isbn = 978-94-010-5110-1|chapter = Formal properties of the conjugations in modern Aramaic}}</ref>
== Synchronic examples ==
For example, in Arabic and Hebrew, words containing the root √k-t-b have a meaning related to writing (in Hebrew, a phonological process known as begadkefat, alters the quality of certain consonants when they follow a vowel, so ''b'' becomes ''v and'' ''k'' becomes ''ḵ'' (a voiceless velar fricative like German Ba''<u>ch</u>''); the symbol ː indicates the preceding consonant is doubled or geminate). Thus: * In the basic stem, "he wrote" in Arabic is "kataba", and in Hebrew is "katav". * In a causative stem, "he dictated" in Arabic is "ʔaktaba" and in Hebrew is "hiḵtīv". * In the passive stem, "it was written" in Arabic is "inkataba" and in Hebrew is "niḵtav". * In a reflexive stem, "he corresponded" in Arabic is "kātaba" and in Hebrew is "hitkatːēv". The following two tables show the full paradigm of templates for the nine most common Arabic stems and the seven most common Hebrew stems, and illustrate some of the different meanings and functions that stems can have.
The first column gives the traditional stem abbreviation used by Comparative Semiticists and the second column gives typical stem names used in Arabic and Hebrew grammars; the Arabic system uses Roman numerals, and the Hebrew uses binyanim forms with the root letters √p-ʕ-l (with ''p'' sometimes becoming ''f'' by begadkefat). The next columns give the canonical functions of each stem, and their templates (the three ''C''s stand in for the three ''Consonants'' of the root, and ''V'' stands for some ''V''owel). Finally, the meaning and form of the stems with the √k-t-b root is given in the 3rd person masculine singular perfect, which lacks inflectional affixes.<ref name=":02"/> {| class="wikitable" |+Standard Arabic<ref name=":02"/><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://ejtaal.net/aa/#hw4=14|title=A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic: (Arab.-Engl.)|last=Wehr|first=Hans|date=1979|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=9783447020022|language=en}}</ref> !Stem !Form{{Efn|Karin Ryding describes the Latin numeral numbering system for Arabic stems as "a widespread convention in the United States and Europe".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ryding |first=Karin C. |title=A reference grammar of modern standard Arabic |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-77151-1 |location=New York |page=435}}</ref>|group=note}} !Grammatical Function !Template !Meaning !√k-t-b ك-ت-ب |- align="right" |'''G''' |I |base |CaCVCa |he wrote |KaTaBa كتب |- align="right" |'''Gt''' |VIII |reflexive of G |iC'''t'''aCaCa |he copied |iK'''t'''aTaBa => iK'''t'''aBa اكتتب => اكتب |- align="right" |'''D''' |II |multiplicative, transitivizing |CaC'''ː'''aCa |he made to write |KaT'''t'''aBa كتتب |- align="right" |'''tD''' |V |reflexive of D |'''t'''aCaC'''ː'''aCa | align="center" | - | align="center" | - |- align="right" |'''L''' |III |conative, associative |C'''ā'''CaCa |he corresponded |K'''ā'''TaBa كاتب |- align="right" |'''tL''' |VI |reflexive of L |'''t'''aC'''ā'''CaCa |he exchanged letters |'''t'''aK'''ā'''TaBa تكاتب |- align="right" |'''C''' or '''Š''' |IV |causative |'''ʔ'''aCCaCa |he dictated |'''ʔ'''aKTaBa أكتب |- align="right" |'''Št''' |X |reflexive of Š |i'''st'''aCCaCa |he asked to write |i'''st'''aKTaBa استكتب |- align="right" |'''N''' |VII |passive, reflexive of G |i'''n'''CaCaCa |he subscribed |i'''n'''KaTaBa انكتب |} {| class="wikitable" |+Hebrew<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{cite thesis|last=Ussishkin|first=Adam P.|title=The Emergence of Fixed Prosody|date=2000|publisher=UC Santa Cruz|url=http://roa.rutgers.edu/files/445-0701/445-0701-USSISHKIN-0-0.PDF|type=Ph.D.}}</ref> !Stem !Binyan !Grammatical Function !Template !Meaning !√k-t-b כ-ת-ב |- align="right" |'''G''' |qal קל or paʕal פעל |base |CaCVC |he wrote |KaTaV כתב |- align="right" |'''D''' |piʕel פיעל |transitivizing, intensive |CiC'''ː'''ēC |he addressed/inscribed<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://terms.hebrew-academy.org.il/munnah/45483_1?munnahimList=24125_1|title=המונח במילוני האקדמיה {{!}} מונחי האקדמיה|website=terms.hebrew-academy.org.il|access-date=2019-09-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.morfix.co.il/en/%D7%9B%D6%B4%D6%BC%D7%AA%D6%B5%D6%BC%D7%91|title='כִּתֵּב' on Morfix Dictionary|website=www.morfix.co.il|access-date=2017-04-13}}</ref> |KiTːēV כיתב |- align="right" |'''Du''' |puʕal פועל |passive of D |CuC'''ː'''aC |he was addressed/inscribed |KuTːaV כותב |- align="right" |'''tD''' |hitpaʕel התפעל |reflexive of D |hi'''t'''CaC'''ː'''ēC |he corresponded |hi'''t'''KaT'''ː'''ēV התכתב |- align="right" |'''C''' or '''Š''' |hifʕil הפעיל |causative |'''h'''iCCīC |he dictated |'''h'''iḴTīV הכתיב |- align="right" |'''Cu''' or '''Šu''' |hufʕal הופעל |passive of Š |'''h'''uCCaC |it was dictated |'''hu'''ḴTaV הוכתב |- align="right" |'''N''' |nifʕal נפעל |passive/reflexive of G |'''n'''iCCaC |it was written |'''n'''iḴTaV נכתב |} The tD Stem for Arabic is not given for the √k-t-b root because it does not occur, illustrating that not each root has an actual form for each stem; in fact, √k-t-b has a more complete stem paradigm than many other roots.
In each Semitic language, the number of derived stems is different. In Hebrew, both biblical and modern, there are seven common ones,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rubin|first=Aaron D.|date=2008-03-01|title=The Paradigm Root in Hebrew|journal=Journal of Semitic Studies|volume=53|issue=1|pages=29–41|doi=10.1093/jss/fgm043|issn=0022-4480}}</ref> and in Arabic there are nine common forms and at least six rare ones;<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://pubman.mpdl.mpg.de/pubman/item/escidoc:404064/component/escidoc:2079850/arabic_wright1896_1.pdf|title=A grammar of the Arabic language: translated from the German of Caspari, and edited with numerous additions and corrections|last=Wright|first=W.|publisher=Cambridge|year=1896}}</ref> Akkadian has thirteen common patterns, Ugaritic has ten, Syriac has eight common ones, Modern Aramaic languages range from two-four,<ref name="Hoberman 49–64"/><ref name=":02"/> and so on.
==Comparative morphology== There are different ways of naming stems, most systems classify stems by their morphological patterns but others simply number them. In Arabic, a system using Roman numerals is frequently used, as well as a more traditional system where the forms with the root letters √f-ʕ-l (roughly meaning "to do") are used as names of each stem. Hebrew also uses this latter system, although the cognate root used is √p-ʕ-l (with ''p'' sometimes surfacing as ''f'' by begadkefat). In Akkadian, forms with the √p-r-s root "to decide" are most often used. The convention using Latin letter abbreviations (such as G, Dt and Š) is a morphological shorthand used most often by comparative Semiticists, and emphasizes the relationships between stems within and between languages. * '''G'''-Stem is the base stem, from the German '''G'''rund ("''ground''") * '''D'''-Stem typically has a '''D'''oubled second root letter * '''L'''-Stem typically '''L'''engthens the first vowel * '''N'''-Stem has a prefix with '''N''' * '''C'''- or '''Š'''-Stem often has a '''C'''ausative meaning and has a prefix with '''Š''' (ʃ pronounced like English ''sh''), '''S''', '''H''', or '''ʔ''' (the glottal stop). * '''t''' Stems (such as '''tG''', '''tD''', and '''Št''') have an affix with '''t'''. The following table compares some of the important stems of six different Semitic languages: Akkadian, Biblical Hebrew, Syriac, Standard Arabic, Geʿez, and Shehri (aka Jibbali), representing different Semitic subfamilies. By examining these and a few other forms, and using the comparative method and internal reconstruction, the Grammatical Function and Template for the Proto-Semitic derived stems have been reconstructed.<ref name=":1" /> The asterisk (*) in the Proto-Semitic Template column indicates that these forms are hypothetical and reconstructed. {| class="wikitable" |+ Basics of Semitic Verbal Derivation<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=Comparative semitic linguistics : a manual|last=R.|first=Bennett, Patrick|publisher=Eisenbrauns|isbn=978-1575060217|oclc=787653677|year = 1998}}</ref> ! rowspan="2" |Stem ! rowspan="2" |Proto-Semitic Function (Reconstructed) ! rowspan="2" |Proto-Semitic Template !East Semitic ! colspan="2" |Northwest Semitic !Arabic ! colspan="2" |South Semitic |- align="right" ! Akkadian !! Bibl. Hebrew !Syriac!! Std. Arabic !Geʿez !'''Shehri'''<ref>{{Cite book|title=Jibbali lexicon|last=M.|first=Johnstone, Thomas|date=1991-01-01|publisher=Univ. Press|isbn=978-0197136027|oclc=612174986}}</ref> |- align="right" | '''G''' || base || *CaCVCa ||iCaCːVC | CaCVC |CCVC |CaCVCa |CaCVCa |CVCVC |- align="right" | '''tG''' || reflexive/mediopassive of G ||*'''t'''CVCVCa |iC'''t'''aCːiC | align="center" | - |ʔi'''t'''CCiC |iC'''t'''aCaCa |'''t'''aCaCCa |əC'''t'''eˈCeC |- align="right" | '''D''' || multiplicative/transitivizing of G ||*CaC'''ː'''aCa||uCaC'''ː'''aC |CiC'''ː'''ēC |CaC'''ː'''iC | CaC'''ː'''aCa |CaC'''ː'''aCa | align="center" | - |- align="right" | '''tD''' || reflexive of D ||*'''t'''CaC'''ː'''VCa |uC'''t'''aC'''ː'''aC |hi'''t'''CaC'''ː'''ēC |ʔi'''t'''CaC'''ː'''aC | '''t'''aCaC'''ː'''aCa | align="center" | - | align="center" | - |- align="right" |'''L''' |associative/intensive/causative | align="center" | - | align="center" | - | align="center" | - | align="center" | - |C'''ā'''CaCa |C'''ā'''CaCa |eˈCoCəC |- align="right" |'''tL''' |reflexive/mediopassive of L | align="center" | - | align="center" | - | align="center" | - | align="center" | - |'''t'''aC'''ā'''CaCa | align="center" | - | align="center" | - |- align="right" | '''Š''' || causative ||*'''š'''aCCaCa |u'''š'''aCCaC |'''h'''iCCīC |'''ʔ'''aCCiC |'''ʔ'''aCCaCa |'''ʔ'''aCCaCa |eCˈCeC |- align="right" | '''Št''' || reflexive/mediopassive of Š ||*'''št'''aCCVCa |u'''št'''aCCaC | align="center" | - |'''ʔ'''i'''t'''ːaCCaC | i'''st'''aCCaCa |ʔa'''st'''aCCaCa |'''ŝ'''əCˈCeC |- align="right" | '''ŠtG''' || causative of tG ||*'''š'''a'''t'''CVCVCa |u'''št'''aCaCːaC | align="center" | - | align="center" | - | align="center" | - | align="center" | - |'''ŝ'''əˈCeCəC |- align="right" | '''N''' || reciprocal/passive of G ||*'''n'''CaCVCa |i'''n'''CaCːiC |'''n'''iCCaC | align="center" | - | i'''n'''CaCaCa | align="center" | - | align="center" | - |} Because the L Stem is only attested in the geographically and genetically proximate Arabic and South Semitic languages, it is thought to be a later innovation, not present in Proto-Semitic. By contrast, since separate but morphologically similar '''Št''' and '''ŠtG''' Stems are attested in the relatively distantly related Akkadian and Shehri, these are posited to have been different stems in Proto-Semitic, but to have merged in most later Semitic languages.<ref name=":1" />
==Notes== {{reflist|group=note}}
==References== {{reflist}}
== External links == *{{Cite GHG|39}} *[https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00831338 ''Pattern-and-root inflectional morphology: the Arabic broken plural''] *[https://www.academia.edu/13002690/Do_computer_scientists_deeply_understand_the_traditional_Arabic_morphology_%D9%87%D9%84_%D9%8A%D9%81%D9%87%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%91%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%81_%D9%81%D9%87%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%8B_%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%8B_ ''Alexis NEME and Eric Laporte, Do computer scientists deeply understand Arabic morphology? - هل يفهم المهندسون الحاسوبيّون علم الصرف فهماً عميقاً؟''] (available also in Arabic, Indonesian, French)
{{Language verbs}}
Category:Afroasiatic verbs Category:Linguistic morphology Category:Semitic linguistics