Royal elections in Poland

{{Short description|Individual elections of kings in Poland}} [[Image:Potęga Rzeczypospolitej u zenitu. Złota wolność. Elekcja R.P. 1573.jpg|thumb|400px|right|The first Polish royal election, of Henry III of France in 1573 (1889 Painting by Jan Matejko).]] '''Royal elections in Poland''' ({{Langx|pl|wolna elekcja|4=free election}}) were the election of individual monarchs, rather than dynasties, to the Polish throne. Based on legendary traditions dating to the beginning of the Polish statehood, they became official procedure of choosing the monarch, following the death of the last hereditary monarch, Queen Jadwiga Anjou, in 1399. They were in use throught the entire Jagiellonian dynasty and reached their final form in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth period between 1572 and 1791.

Elective monarchy was briefly abolished by the Constitution of 3 May 1791, which established a constitutional-parliamentary hereditary monarchy, before being revoked in 1793.

== Evolution == [[Image:Elekcja1.jpg|thumb|right|Election of Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki (Michael I) as King of Poland at Wola, outside Warsaw (1669).]] thumb|right|Plan of the elective camp of Polish Kings in Wola near Warsaw. [[Image:Jean-Pierre Norblin de La Gourdaine 001.jpg|thumb|right|Election of August II the Strong at Wola, outside Warsaw (1697). Painting by Jean-Pierre Norblin de La Gourdaine.]] thumb|Election of Stanisław August Poniatowski (Stanisław II Augustus) in 1764. The tradition of electing the country's ruler, which occurred either when there was no clear heir to the throne, or to confirm the heir's appointment, dates to the beginning of Polish statehood.<ref name="bardach6263"/> Legends survive of the 9th century election of the legendary founder of the first Polish royal family, Piast the Wheelwright of the Piast dynasty, and similar voting of his son, Siemowit (that would place a Polish ruler's vote a century before the earliest Icelandic ones by the Althing). Still, sources for that time are sparse, and it is hard to estimate whether those elections were more than a formality.<ref name="Davies2001"/><ref name="Roszko1980"/> The election privilege, exercised during the gatherings known as ''wiec'', was usually limited to the most powerful nobles (magnates) or officials, and was heavily influenced by local traditions and strength of the ruler.<ref name="bardach6263"/>

Traditions diverged in different regions of Poland during the period of fragmentation of Poland.<ref name="bardach6263"/> In the Duchy of Masovia, the hereditary principle dominated, but in the Seniorate Province, elections became increasingly important. In the other provinces both elements mixed together.<ref name="bardach6263"/> By the 12th or 13th century, the ''wiec'' institution limited participation to high-ranking nobles and officials.<ref name="bardach6364"/> The nationwide ''wiec'' gatherings of officials in 1306 and 1310 can be seen as a precursor of the general sejm (Polish parliament).<ref name="bardach6364"/>

The elections reinforced the empowerment of the electorate (the nobility), as the contender to the throne would increasingly consider issuing promises that he undertook to fulfil in the event of a successful election.<ref name="bardach6263"/> Wenceslaus II of Bohemia made the first of such undertakings (the Litomyšl Privilege) in 1291.<ref name="bardach6263"/> Nonetheless, for most of the Piast dynasty, electors customarily endorsed rulers from that dynasty, in accordance with hereditary descent.<ref name="bardach6263"/><ref name="bardach102-103"/><ref name="LERSKI1996"/> The Piast dynasty came to an end with the death without an heir of the last of the Polish Piasts of the main line, Casimir III the Great, in 1370.<ref name="bardach102-103"/>

In a milestone for the process of the free elections, Casimir's nephew, Louis I of Hungary, became king after the agreement between him, Casimir III the Great and the Polish nobility (Privilege of Buda).<ref name="Davies">{{cite book|title=God's Playground A History of Poland: Volume 1: The Origins to 1795|last=Davies|first=Norman|author-link=Norman Davies|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2005|isbn=0199253390}}</ref> Louis had no sons, which created another dilemma for the succession of the Polish throne.<ref name="bardach102-103"/> In an attempt to secure the throne of Poland for his line, he gathered the nobles and sought their approval to have one of his daughters retained as the queen regnant of Poland in exchange for the Privilege of Koszyce (1374).<ref name="bardach102-103"/>

=== End of hereditary rule === Louis's youngest daughter Jadwiga ascended the throne of Poland in 1384 and was viewed as hereditary monarch {{Spaced en dash}} "naturally-enthroned" and "inherent" Lady of the Kingdom (pl: "''pani naturalna/pani przyrodzona królestwa''") {{Spaced en dash}} being an heir to both Anjou and Piast dynasties on the virtue of being daughter of the previous King.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Baczkowski |first1=Krzysztof |title=Wielka historia Polski. Tom 3: Dzieje Polski późnośredniowiecznej (1370–1506) |publisher=Fogra Oficyna Wydawnicza |year=1999 |isbn=83-7311-075-5 |pages=68, 79 |language=pl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Borkowska |first=Urszula |title=Dynastia Jagiellonów w Polsce |publisher=PWN |year=2012 |isbn=978-83-01-16692-2 |pp=79, 481 |language=pl}}</ref> While her ascension needed to be approved by nobles because of lack of precedence for the female succession in Poland, after being accepted the Queen was viewed as unquestioned bearer of the hereditary rights to the Polish throne, and any legitimate child born to her would inherit the kingdom from her.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Baczkowski |first1=Krzysztof |title=Wielka historia Polski. Tom 3: Dzieje Polski późnośredniowiecznej (1370–1506) |publisher=Fogra Oficyna Wydawnicza |year=1999 |isbn=83-7311-075-5 |pages=44–48, 68, 79 |language=pl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Besala |first=Jerzy |title=Małżeństwa królewskie. Jagiellonowie |publisher=Bellona Muza |year=2006 |isbn=8311105553 |page=20 |language=pl}}</ref> Polish nobles subsequently chose Władysław II Jagiełło (Jogaila), Grand Duke of Lithuania, to be her husband and co-regent.<ref name="bardach102-103" /> Jadwiga and her only daughter and heiress, Princess Elizabeth, both died in 1399, ending the hereditary monarchy in Poland and leaving future succession (after Jagiełło's eventual death) ambiguous.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Baczkowski |first1=Krzysztof |title=Wielka historia Polski. Tom 3: Dzieje Polski późnośredniowiecznej (1370–1506) |publisher=Fogra Oficyna Wydawnicza |year=1999 |isbn=83-7311-075-5 |pages= 79, 123 |language=pl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Besala |first=Jerzy |title=Małżeństwa królewskie. Jagiellonowie |publisher=Bellona Muza |year=2006 |isbn=8311105553 |pages=20-21 |language=pl}}</ref>

=== Succession during Jagiellonian dynasty === After Jadwiga's and Elizabeth's deaths, Polish nobles continued to recognize Jagiełło as their King, however, as he was ruler by election, his children from next marriages were not automatically given right to inherit the throne. He would need to issue more privileges to the nobility to secure the guarantee that upon his death, one of his sons would succeed him.<ref name="bardach102-103" /><ref name="LERSKI1996" />

During election, the royal council were choosing the candidates, and the delegates of nobility and towns were confirming them during the sejm.<ref name="bardach102-103" /><ref name="Jędruch1982-72-73" /> The principle of election continued in effect throughout the nearly two centuries of the Jagiellon Dynasty, though it actually amounted to mere confirmation of the incoming heir.<ref name="bardach102-103" />

One could describe the monarchy of Poland at that time as "the hereditary monarchy with a[n] elective legislature."<ref name="Jędruch1982-72-73" /> A major reason was the desire on the part of Polish nobility to retain the Polish–Lithuanian union, and the Jagiellon dynasty were the hereditary rulers of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.<ref name="bardach102-103" /><ref name="bardach215-216" /> Nonetheless, the pretense of having a choice by elections remained important for the nobility, and when in 1529 Sigismund I the Old attempted to secure the hereditary throne for his nine-year-old son, the nobles acknowledged the young Prince as his father's co-ruler (an event that became known in the Polish politics as the ''vivente rege'' election), but it caused subsequent unrest.<ref name="LERSKI1996" /><ref name="bardach215-216" />

In 1572, Poland's Jagiellon dynasty became extinct upon the death, without a successor, of King Sigismund II Augustus.<ref name="bardach215-216" /> During the ensuing interregnum, anxiety for the safety of the Commonwealth eventually led to agreements among the political classes that pending election of a new king, the Roman Catholic Primate of Poland would exercise supreme authority, acting as ''interrex'' (from the Latin); and that special "hooded" confederations (Polish: ''konfederacje kapturowe'', named after the hoods traditionally worn by their members) of nobility would assume power in each the country's regions.<ref name="bardach215-216" /> Most importantly, however, the Poles decided that they would choose the next king by election, and they finally established the terms of such election at a convocation sejm (''sejm konwokacyjny'') in 1573.<ref name="bardach215-216" /> On the initiative of nobles from Southern Poland, supported by the future Great Crown Chancellor and hetman Jan Zamoyski, all male szlachta (nobles) who assembled for the purpose would become electors.<ref name="bardach215-216" /> Any Catholic nobleman could stand for election, but in practice, only rich and powerful members of foreign dynasties or Commonwealth magnates had a serious chance for consideration.<ref name="Davies1982" /> With the election of the first king of the "free election" period, the elections assumed their final form, which would remain stable for the next two centuries.<ref name="LERSKI1996" /><ref name="Jędruch1982-72-73" /><ref name="bardach215-216" /><ref name="Jędruch1982-178" /> These elections would be solidified in the Henrician Articles, passed by the first elected king, Henry of Valois.

Particularly in the late 17th and 18th centuries, the political instability from the elections led numerous political writers to suggest major changes to the system: most notably, to restrict the elections to Polish candidates only (that became known as the "election of a Piast"), as many kings were from foreign nations, meaning the Polish election became a multi-national struggle.<ref name="Lukowski2010"/> The elections also often saw the Polish nobility attempt to elect a weak and controllable monarch, and there were large amounts of corruption, particularly related to bribes.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roşu |first=Felicia |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/990854634 |title=Elective monarchy in Transylvania and Poland-Lithuania, 1569-1587 |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-878937-6 |edition= |location=Oxford, United Kingdom |oclc=990854634}}</ref> None of the projects at reforming the Polish election came into force, however. The Constitution of 3 May 1791 eliminated the practice of electing individuals to the monarchy, but it was revoked in 1793.<ref name="LERSKI1996"/><ref name="Jędruch1982-72-73"/><ref name="bardach215-216"/><ref name="Jędruch1982-178"/><ref name="Lukowski2010"/>

==Procedure== Three special sejms handled the process of the royal election in the interregnum period:<ref name="Jędruch1982-74"/> * Convocation sejm (''Sejm konwokacyjny''), called upon a death or abdication of a king by the Primate of Poland.<ref name="Jędruch1982-74"/> Deputies would focus on establishing the dates and any special rules for the election (in particular, preparation of pacta conventa, bills of privileges to be sworn by the king) and on screening the candidates.<ref name="Jędruch1982-74"/> It was to last two weeks.<ref name="Jędruch1982-125-132"/> * Election sejm (''Sejm elekcyjny''), when the nobility voted for the candidate to the throne. It was open to all members of the nobility and so it often had many more attendees than a regular sejm.<ref name="Jędruch1982-74"/><ref name="Jędruch1982-71"/><ref name="google"/> The exact numbers of attendees were never recorded and are estimated to vary from 10,000 to over 100,000;<ref name="Jędruch1982-76-77"/> the usual numbers tended to be towards the lower end of the scale, around 10,000-15,000.<ref name="Davies1982"/> Subsequently, the voting could last days (in 1573, it was recorded that it took four days).<ref name="Jędruch1982-76-77"/> The entire sejm was to last six weeks.<ref name="Jędruch1982-125-132"/> To handle the increased numbers, it would be held in Wola, then a village near Warsaw.<ref name="Jędruch1982-74"/> Royal candidates themselves would be barred from attending the sejm but were allowed to send representatives.<ref name="Jędruch1982-76-77"/> Attending nobles would have discussed their preferences before attending the election sejm, during local sejmiks sessions, but often, matters came to a heated debate that would last days and could lead to fights and battles.<ref name="Davies1982"/> Norman Davies notes that "in 1764, when only thirteen electors were killed, it was said that the Election was unusually quiet."<ref name="Davies1982"/> * Coronation sejm (''Sejm koronacyjny''), held in Kraków, where the coronation ceremony was traditionally held by the Primate, who relinquished his powers to the chosen king.<ref name="Jędruch1982-78-79"/> It was to last two weeks.<ref name="Jędruch1982-125-132"/> The king-elect undertook various ceremonies and formalities, such as swearing an oath to uphold the ''pacta conventa'' and the Henrician Articles.<ref name="Jędruch1982-78-79"/> The coronation itself would take place in the Wawel Cathedral. The two exceptions were the coronations of Stanisław I Leszczyński and Stanisław August Poniatowski (reigned as Stanisław II Augustus), both of which took place in Warsaw.<ref name="Jędruch1982-78-79"/>

==Influence== The elections played a major role in curtailing the power of the monarch and so were a significant factor in preventing the rise of an absolute monarchy, with a strong executive, in the Commonwealth.<ref name="Davies1982"/> Most tellingly, one of the provisions of the pacta conventa included the right of revolution (rokosz) for the nobility if it considered the king not to be adhering to the laws of the state.<ref name="Davies1982"/>

While seemingly introducing a democratic procedure, free elections, in practice, contributed to the inefficiency of the Commonwealth's government.<ref name="bardach215-216"/> The elections, open to all nobility, meant that magnates, who could exert significant control on the masses of poorer nobility, could exert much influence over the elections.<ref name="bardach215-216"/>

The elections also encouraged foreign dynasties' meddling in Polish internal politics.<ref name="bardach215-216"/> On several occasions, if the magnates could not come to an agreement, two candidates would proclaim themselves the king and civil wars erupted (most notably, the War of the Polish Succession of 1733–1738, and the War of the Polish Succession of 1587–1588, with smaller scale conflicts in 1576 and 1697).<ref name="bardach215-216"/><ref name="Davies1982"/> By the last years of the Commonwealth, royal elections grew to be seen as a source of conflicts and instability; Lerski describes them as having "become a symbol of anarchy".<ref name="LERSKI1996"/>

==List of elections==

=== Crown of the Kingdom of Poland === After the death of Queen Jadwiga Anjou, her widower Władysław II Jagiełło remained on the Polish throne, but his descendants did not possess hereditary right to the throne. The nobility eventually agreed to recognize his descendants as heirs to the crown, while denying them any specific way of inheritance like primogeniture or seniority, and opting instead for the succession on the basis of election within the dynasty.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Baczkowski |first1=Krzysztof |title=Wielka historia Polski. Tom 3: Dzieje Polski późnośredniowiecznej (1370–1506) |publisher=Fogra Oficyna Wydawnicza |year=1999 |isbn=83-7311-075-5 |language=pl|page=125}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Borkowska |first=Urszula |title=Dynastia Jagiellonów w Polsce |publisher=PWN |year=2012 |isbn=978-83-01-16692-2 |pp=79 |language=pl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Besala |first=Jerzy |title=Małżeństwa królewskie. Jagiellonowie |publisher=Bellona Muza |year=2006 |isbn=8311105553 |page= |language=pl|pages=62-64}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+ !Election !Coronation !Elected king (reign) !Notes !Other candidates |- |2 February 1386 |4 February 1386 |Władysław II Jagiełło (1386–1434) |Elected to be king by marriage as husband of Queen Jadwiga of Poland, who was a hereditary ruler. Remained on the Polish throne after Jadwiga had died without surviving children. | * William of Austria * Siemowit IV, Duke of Masovia * Vladislaus II of Opole <ref>{{Cite book |last1=Baczkowski |first1=Krzysztof |title=Wielka historia Polski. Tom 3: Dzieje Polski późnośredniowiecznej (1370–1506) |publisher=Fogra Oficyna Wydawnicza |year=1999 |isbn=83-7311-075-5 |language=pl|page=63}}</ref> |- | colspan="2" |25 July 1434 |Władysław III (1434–1444) |Eldest living child of Jagiełło. Disappeared during the Crusade of Varna. | * Casimir Andrew Jagiellon * Siemowit V of Masovia<ref>{{cite book|title=Wladyslaw III Warneńczyk|first=Karol|last=Olejnik|year=1996|pages=43-45}}</ref> |- |23 April 1445 |25 June 1447 |Casimir IV (1447–1492) |The only known living child of Jagiełło after the disappearance of his brother. | * Bolesław IV of Warsaw<ref>{{Cite book |last=Besala |first=Jerzy |title=Małżeństwa królewskie. Jagiellonowie |publisher=Bellona Muza |year=2006 |isbn=8311105553 |page= |language=pl|pages=62-64}}</ref> * Frederick II of Brandenburg<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.de/books?id=bk939aOSjFcC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA17|page=14–19|lang=de|title=Zur poln. Politik des Kurfürsten Friedrich II. von Brandenburg. 1. Bis zur Königswahl 1446|first=W.|last=Zellmer|year=1883}}</ref> |- |27 August 1492 |23 September 1492 |John I Albert (1492–1501) |Son of previous king. | * Vladislaus Jagiellon * Sigismund Jagiellon * Janusz II of Płock <ref>{{Cite book |last=Besala |first=Jerzy |title=Małżeństwa królewskie. Jagiellonowie |publisher=Bellona Muza |year=2006 |isbn=8311105553 |page= |language=pl|pages=62-64}}</ref> |- |3 October 1501 |12 December 1501 |Alexander (1501–1506) |Brother of previous king. | * Vladislaus Jagiellon * Sigismund Jagiellon <ref>{{cite book |last1=Besala |first1=Jerzy |title=Zygmunt Stary i Bona |date=2012 |publisher=Zysk i S-ka |isbn=978-83-7506-883-2|language=pl|pages=78-79}}</ref> |- |8 December 1506 |24 January 1507 |Sigismund I the Old (1506–1548) |Brother of previous king. | * Vladislaus Jagiellon<ref>{{cite book |last1=Besala |first1=Jerzy |title=Zygmunt Stary i Bona |date=2012 |publisher=Zysk i S-ka |isbn=978-83-7506-883-2|language=pl|page=118}}</ref> |- |18 December 1529 |20 February 1530 |Sigismund II Augustus (1529–1572) |Son of Sigismund I, declared his father's co-ruler during ''vivente rege'' election. Became sole ruler in 1548. The last male member of the Jagiellonian dynasty. |None |}

=== Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth === In the period of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, 10 elections (composed of the convocation, election and coronation sejmik) were held in Poland, resulting in the elevation of 11 kings.<ref name="Jędruch1982-75"/>

{| class="wikitable" |- ! Convocation Sejm !! Election Sejm !! Coronation Sejm !! Elected ruler (nationality, reign)!! Notes!!Other candidates |- | January 1573 || April 1573 || February 1574 || Henry, Duke of Anjou ''Henry (French, 1573–1574)'' || First king of the Commonwealth. Dethroned after he had left Poland to assume the throne of France.|| *Archduke Ernest of Austria *John III of Sweden *Ivan IV of Russia *Feodor of Russia *Alfonso II of Ferrara *William of Rosenberg *Jerzy Jazłowiecki *Jan Kostka *{{ill|Wawrzyniec Słupski|pl}} |- | August 1574 || November 1575 || March 1576 || Stephen Báthory (Hungarian, 1575–1586) and Anna Jagiellon (Lithuanian, 1575–1586|| Princess of Poland-Lithuania and Prince of Transylvania. Married to each other. Election disputed, led to the Danzig rebellion.|| *Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor *Archduke Ernest of Austria *Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria *John III of Sweden *Ivan IV of Russia *Feodor of Russia *Alfonso II of Ferrara *{{ill|Andrzej Tęczyński (died 1588)|pl|Andrzej Tęczyński (zm. 1588)|lt=Andrzej Tęczyński}} *William of Rosenberg |- | February 1587 || June 1587 || December 1588 || Sigmund, Duke of Finland ''Sigismund III Vasa (1587–1632)'' || Born in Sweden. Son of Catherine Jagiellon. Election disputed, led to the War of the Polish Succession (1587–88).|| *Archduke Maximilian of Austria *Feodor I of Russia *Ferdinand II, Archduke of Austria *Archduke Matthias of Austria *Archduke Ernest of Austria |- | June 1632 || September 1632 || February 1633 || Prince Ladislaus of Sweden ''Władysław IV Vasa (1632–1648)'' || Son of Sigismund III.|| *Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden |- | July 1648 || October 1648 || January 1649 || Prince John Casimir of Sweden ''John II Casimir (1648–1668)'' || Son of Sigismund III and brother of Władysław IV. Abdicated.|| *{{ill|Zsigmond Rákóczi (died 1652)|hu|Rákóczi Zsigmond (1622–1652)|lt=Zsigmond Rákóczi}} *Karol Ferdynand Vasa |- | November 1668 || May 1669 || October 1669 || Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki ''Michael I'' (1669–1673) || || *Louis, Prince of Condé *Henri Jules, Duke of Bourbon *Philip William, Count Palatine of Neuburg *Charles of Lorraine *Alexis of Russia *Tsarevich Alexei Alexeyevich of Russia *Feodor Alexeyevich of Russia *Christina of Sweden *Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg *Adil Giray *James, Duke of York *Dymitr Jerzy Wiśniowiecki *Aleksander Janusz Zasławski *Aleksander Polanowski |- | January 1674 || April 1674 || February 1676 || John Sobieski ''John III Sobieski (1674–1696)'' || || *Louis, Prince of Condé *Philip William, Count Palatine of Neuburg *Charles of Lorraine *Prince George of Denmark *Louis Thomas, Count of Soissons *Mihály Apafi |- | August 1696 || May 1697 || November 1697 || Frederick Augustus I, Elector of Saxony ''Augustus II (Saxon, 1697–1706; 1709–1733)'' || Temporarily replaced by Stanisław I Leszczyński (1704–1709) due to the Great Northern War. Leszczyński's election was disputed and led to the Civil war in Poland (1704–1706).|| *François Louis, Prince of Conti *Charles Philip of Palatinate-Neuburg *Leopold, Duke of Lorraine *Louis William, Margrave of Baden-Baden *James Louis Sobieski, Prince of Oława *Maximilian II Emanuel, Elector of Bavaria *Livio Odescalchi, Duke of Bracciano |- | April 1733 || August 1733 || January 1734 || Stanisław Leszczyński ''Stanisław I Leszczyński (1733–1736)'' || Election disputed, led to the War of the Polish Succession, won by Augustus III of Poland (Saxon, 1733–1763), son of Augustus II.|| *Infante Manuel, Count of Ourém |- | May 1764 || August 1764 || December 1764 || Stanisław August Poniatowski ''Stanisław II Augustus (1764–1795)'' || Last king of the Commonwealth. Abdicated.|| *Frederick Christian, Elector of Saxony *Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski *Michał Kazimierz Ogiński *Jan Klemens Branicki |}

==References== <references> <ref name="Davies1982">{{cite book|author=Norman Davies|title=God's Playground, a History of Poland: The origins to 1795|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1KG0hdHgz6IC&pg=PA331|access-date=29 March 2012|year=1982|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-05351-8|pages=331–335}}</ref>

<ref name="Davies2001">{{cite book|author=Norman Davies|title=Heart of Europe: The Past in Poland's Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lMQei5CPZUgC&pg=PA249|access-date=29 February 2012|date=23 August 2001|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-280126-5|page=249}}</ref>

<ref name="Jędruch1982-125-132">{{cite book|author=Jacek Jędruch|author-link=Jacek Jędruch|title=Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493–1977: a guide to their history|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rmx8QgAACAAJ|access-date=13 August 2011|date=1998|publisher=EJJ Books|isbn=978-0-7818-0637-4|pages=125–132}}</ref>

<ref name="Jędruch1982-178">{{cite book|author=Jacek Jędruch|title=Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493–1977: a guide to their history|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jl6OAAAAMAAJ|access-date=August 13, 2011|date=November 1982|publisher=University Press of America|page=178|isbn=9780819125095 }}</ref>

<ref name="Jędruch1982-71">{{cite book|author=Jacek Jędruch|author-link=Jacek Jędruch|title=Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493–1977: a guide to their history|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rmx8QgAACAAJ|access-date=13 August 2011|date=1998|publisher=EJJ Books|isbn=978-0-7818-0637-4|page=71}}</ref>

<ref name="Jędruch1982-72-73">{{cite book|author=Jacek Jędruch|author-link=Jacek Jędruch|title=Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493–1977: a guide to their history|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rmx8QgAACAAJ|access-date=13 August 2011|date=1998|publisher=EJJ Books|isbn=978-0-7818-0637-4|pages=72–73}}</ref>

<ref name="Jędruch1982-74">{{cite book|author=Jacek Jędruch|author-link=Jacek Jędruch|title=Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493–1977: a guide to their history|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rmx8QgAACAAJ|access-date=13 August 2011|date=1998|publisher=EJJ Books|isbn=978-0-7818-0637-4|page=74}}</ref>

<ref name="Jędruch1982-75">{{cite book|author=Jacek Jędruch|author-link=Jacek Jędruch|title=Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493–1977: a guide to their history|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rmx8QgAACAAJ|access-date=13 August 2011|date=1998|publisher=EJJ Books|isbn=978-0-7818-0637-4|page=75}}</ref>

<ref name="Jędruch1982-76-77">{{cite book|author=Jacek Jędruch|author-link=Jacek Jędruch|title=Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493–1977: a guide to their history|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rmx8QgAACAAJ|access-date=13 August 2011|date=1998|publisher=EJJ Books|isbn=978-0-7818-0637-4|pages=76–77}}</ref>

<ref name="Jędruch1982-78-79">{{cite book|author=Jacek Jędruch|author-link=Jacek Jędruch|title=Constitutions, elections, and legislatures of Poland, 1493–1977: a guide to their history|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rmx8QgAACAAJ|access-date=13 August 2011|date=1998|publisher=EJJ Books|isbn=978-0-7818-0637-4|pages=78–79}}</ref>

<ref name="LERSKI1996">{{cite book|author=HALINA LERSKI|title=Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966-1945|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=luRry4Y5NIYC&pg=PA129|access-date=29 March 2012|date=30 January 1996|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-03456-5|pages=129–130}}</ref>

<ref name="Lukowski2010">{{cite book|author=Jerzy Lukowski|title=Disorderly liberty: the political culture of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the eighteenth century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kAgRHvulnnUC&pg=PA37|access-date=29 March 2012|date=3 August 2010|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|isbn=978-1-4411-4812-4|pages=37–38}}</ref>

<ref name="Roszko1980">{{cite book|author=Janusz Roszko|title=Kolebka Siemowita|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4tNBAAAAYAAJ|access-date=29 February 2012|year=1980|isbn=978-83-207-0090-9|page=170|publisher=Iskry }}</ref>

<ref name="bardach102-103">Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, ''Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego'' (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987), p.102-103</ref>

<ref name="bardach215-216">Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, ''Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego'' (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987), p.215-215</ref>

<ref name="bardach6263">Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, ''Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego'' (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987), p.62-63</ref>

<ref name="bardach6364">Juliusz Bardach, Boguslaw Lesnodorski, and Michal Pietrzak, ''Historia panstwa i prawa polskiego'' (Warsaw: Paristwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1987), p.63-64</ref>

<ref name="google">Corwin, Edward Henry Lewinski (1917) ''The political History of Poland'' Polish Book Importing Company, New York, [https://archive.org/details/politicalhistor01corwgoog/page/n230 page 193], {{OCLC|626738}}</ref> </references>

==External links== {{commons}} * {{in lang|pl}} Sebastian Adamkiewicz ''[http://histmag.org/?id=1661 Skąd się wzięła elekcja viritim?]'' * {{in lang|pl}} ''[http://www.poczet.com/elekcje.htm Wolne elekcje]''

{{DEFAULTSORT:Royal elections in Poland}} Category:Royal elections in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Category:Polish monarchy Category:Candidates for the Polish elective throne Category:Sejm of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Category:Elective monarchy