Glossary of medicine

This '''glossary of medicine''' includes definitions of medical terminology and other terms pertaining to medicine and related fields.

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== A == *'''Aarskog–Scott syndrome''' – (AAS) A rare, inherited (X-linked) disease characterized by short stature, facial abnormalities, skeletal and genital anomalies.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/condition/aarskog-scott-syndrome/|title=Aarskog-Scott syndrome|website=Genetics Home Reference|language=en|access-date=2018-03-06}}</ref> *'''Abdomen''' – The part of the body between the chest and pelvis, which contains most of the tubelike organs of the digestive tract, as well as several solid organs. *'''Abdominal external oblique muscle''' – The largest, and outermost, of the three flat muscles of the lateral anterior abdominal wall. *'''Abdominal internal oblique muscle''' – A muscle of the abdominal wall, which lies below the external oblique and just above the transverse abdominal muscles. *'''Abductor pollicis brevis muscle''' – A muscle in the hand that abducts (straightens) the thumb. *'''Abductor pollicis longus muscle''' – One of the extrinsic muscles of the hand. Its major function is to abduct the thumb at the wrist. *'''Abscess''' – A collection of pus that has built up within the tissue of the body.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Singer |first1=Adam J. |last2=Talan |first2=David A. |title=Management of skin abscesses in the era of methicillin-resistant ''Staphylococcus aureus'' |url=http://enotes.us/SkinAbscess2014.pdf |journal=The New England Journal of Medicine |date=Mar 13, 2014 |volume=370 |issue=11 |pages=1039–47 |pmid=24620867 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1212788 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141030065311/http://enotes.us/SkinAbscess2014.pdf |archive-date=October 30, 2014 |access-date=June 4, 2018 }}</ref> *'''Accommodation''' – the process by which the eye focuses on an object. *'''Accommodation reflex''' – a reflex action of the eye, measured as a response to focusing on a near object, then looking at a distant object (and vice versa). *'''Acetabulum''' – a concave surface of the pelvis, which forms the pelvic section of the hip joint.<ref name=fie>{{cite journal|vauthors=Field RE, Rajakulendran K |title= The labro-acetabular complex |year = 2011| journal= J Bone Joint Surg Am | volume= 94 | issue=Suppl 2 |pages = 22–27 |pmid= 21543684 |doi= 10.2106/JBJS.J.01710}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Griffiths EJ, Khanduja V |title= Hip arthroscopy: evolution, current practice and future developments |year =2012 | journal= Int Orthop | volume=36 | issue= 6 |pages = 1115–1121 |pmid= 22371112 |pmc= 3353094|doi= 10.1007/s00264-011-1459-4}}</ref> *'''Achilles tendon''' – a tendon of the back of the leg, and the thickest in the human body. It attaches the plantaris, gastrocnemius (calf) and soleus muscles to the calcaneus (heel) bone. *'''Acne''' – a long-term skin disease that occurs when hair follicles are clogged with dead skin cells and oil from the skin.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Aslam|first1=I|last2=Fleischer|first2=A|last3=Feldman|first3=S|title=Emerging drugs for the treatment of acne|journal=Expert Opinion on Emerging Drugs|volume=20|issue=1|pages=91–101|date=March 2015|pmid=25474485|doi=10.1517/14728214.2015.990373|s2cid=12685388|type=Review}}{{subscription required}}</ref> *'''Acne vulgaris''' – see Acne *'''Acupressure''' – an alternative medicine technique where pressure is applied to acupuncture points. Pressure may be applied by hand, by elbow, or with various devices. *'''Acupuncture''' – a form of alternative medicine<ref name=Berman2010>{{cite journal |first1=Brian |last1=Berman |first2=Helene |last2=Langevin |first3=Claudia |last3=Witt |first4=Ronald |last4=Dubner |s2cid=10129706 |title=Acupuncture for Chronic Low Back Pain |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=363 |issue=5 |date=29 July 2010 |pages=454–461 |doi=10.1056/NEJMct0806114 |pmid=20818865}}</ref> in which thin needles are inserted into the body.<ref>{{cite journal|last1= Adams|first1= D|last2= Cheng|first2= F|last3= Jou|first3= H|last4= Aung|first4= S|last5= Yasui|first5= Y|last6= Vohra|first6= S|s2cid= 46502395|title= The safety of pediatric acupuncture: a systematic review|journal= Pediatrics|date= Dec 2011|volume= 128|issue= 6|pages= e1575–e1587|pmid= 22106073|doi= 10.1542/peds.2011-1091}}</ref> *'''Adam's apple''' – the lump or protrusion that is formed by the angle of the thyroid cartilage surrounding the larynx seen especially in males. *'''Adaptive immune system''' – also known as the acquired immune system or, more rarely, as the specific immune system, is a subsystem of the overall immune system that is composed of highly specialized, systemic cells and processes that eliminate pathogens or prevent their growth. *'''Adenoma''' – (plural adenomas or adenomata) is a benign tumor of epithelial tissue with glandular origin, glandular characteristics, or both. *'''Adrenal gland''' – The adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are endocrine glands that produce a variety of hormones including adrenaline and the steroids aldosterone and cortisol.<ref name="Columbia2015">{{cite book|author=Santulli G. MD|title=Adrenal Glands: From Pathophysiology to Clinical Evidence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J5pcjwEACAAJ|date=2015|publisher=Nova Science Publishers, New York, NY |isbn=978-1-63483-570-1}}</ref><ref name=dictionary>{{cite web|title=Adrenal gland|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/medlineplus/adrenal%20gland|website=Medline Plus/Merriam-Webster Dictionary|access-date=11 February 2015}}</ref> They are found above the kidneys. *'''Allergy''' – Allergies, also known as allergic diseases, are a number of conditions caused by hypersensitivity of the immune system to typically harmless substances in the environment.<ref name=Con2007>{{cite book|last1=McConnell|first1=Thomas H.|title=The Nature of Disease: Pathology for the Health Professions|date=2007|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Baltimore, Mar.|isbn=978-0-7817-5317-3|page=159|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=chs_lilPFLwC&pg=PA159|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908180908/https://books.google.com/books?id=chs_lilPFLwC&pg=PA159|archive-date=8 September 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> These diseases include hay fever, food allergies, atopic dermatitis, allergic asthma, and anaphylaxis.<ref name=NIH2015Types>{{cite web|title=Types of Allergic Diseases |url=https://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/allergicdiseases/Pages/allergic-diseases-types.aspx |website=NIAID |access-date=17 June 2015 |date=May 29, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617123632/http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/allergicdiseases/Pages/allergic-diseases-types.aspx |archive-date=17 June 2015 }}</ref> Symptoms may include red eyes, an itchy rash, sneezing, a runny nose, shortness of breath, or swelling.<ref name=NIH2015Sym>{{cite web|title=Environmental Allergies: Symptoms |url=https://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/environmental-allergies/Pages/symptoms.aspx |website=NIAID |access-date=19 June 2015 |date=April 22, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150618023408/http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/environmental-allergies/Pages/symptoms.aspx |archive-date=18 June 2015 }}</ref> Food intolerances and food poisoning are separate conditions.<ref name=NIH2012pdf>{{cite web|author1=National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases |title=Food Allergy An Overview |url=https://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/foodAllergy/Documents/foodallergy.pdf |date=July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305145206/http://www.niaid.nih.gov/topics/foodallergy/documents/foodallergy.pdf |archive-date=5 March 2016 }}</ref><ref name=Bah2012>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bahna SL | title = Cow's milk allergy versus cow milk intolerance | journal = Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology | volume = 89 | issue = 6 Suppl 1 | pages = 56–60 | date = December 2002 | pmid = 12487206 | doi = 10.1016/S1081-1206(10)62124-2 }}</ref> *'''ADHD''' – Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. *'''Alzheimer's disease''' – (AD), also referred to simply as Alzheimer's, is a chronic neurodegenerative disease that usually starts slowly and worsens over time.<ref name=BMJ2009/><ref name="WHO2017">{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/dementia|title=Dementia Fact sheet|date=12 December 2017|publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref> It is the cause of 60–70% of cases of dementia.<ref name=BMJ2009/><ref name=WHO2017/> The most common early symptom is difficulty in remembering recent events (short-term memory loss).<ref name="BMJ2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Burns A, Iliffe S | title = Alzheimer's disease | journal = BMJ | volume = 338 | pages = b158 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 19196745 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.b158 | s2cid = 8570146 }}</ref> *'''Anal canal''' – is the terminal part of the large intestine.<ref>{{MeSH name|Anal+Canal}}</ref> It is situated between the rectum and anus,<ref>{{DorlandsDict|two/000016124|anal canal}}</ref> below the level of the pelvic diaphragm. In humans it is approximately 2.5 to 4 cm (0.98-1.58 in) long. It lies in the anal triangle of perineum in between the right and left ischioanal fossa. *'''Anatomy''' – is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts.<ref>Merriam Webster Dictionary</ref> Anatomy is a branch of natural science which deals with the structural organization of living things. *'''Anesthesiology''' – Anesthesiology, anaesthesiology, ''anaesthesia'' or anaesthetics (see ''Terminology'') is the medical speciality concerned with the total perioperative care of patients before, during and after surgery.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.asahq.org/lifeline/types%20of%20anesthesia/what%20is%20anesthesiology|title=What is Anesthesiology|access-date=5 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221095638/http://www.asahq.org/lifeline/types%20of%20anesthesia/what%20is%20anesthesiology|archive-date=21 December 2016}}</ref> *'''Angiology''' – is the medical specialty which studies the diseases of the circulatory system and of the lymphatic system, i.e., arteries, veins and lymphatic vessels, and its diseases. *'''Ankle''' – The ankle, or the talocrural region,<ref name="Moore, Dalley & Agur 2013 Lower Limb">{{cite book |first1=Keith L. |last1=Moore |first2=Arthur F. |last2=Dalley |first3=A. M. R. |last3=Agur |year=2013 |chapter=Lower Limb |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Le5bc5F0sYC&pg=PA508 |edition=7th |pages=508–669 |title=Clinically Oriented Anatomy |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |isbn=978-1-4511-1945-9}}</ref> is the region where the foot and the leg meet.<ref>{{cite book |author =WebMD |chapter=ankle |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t8UfI3BH78wC&pg=PA22 |page=22 |year=2009 |title=Webster's New World Medical Dictionary |edition=3rd |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |isbn=978-0-544-18897-6}}</ref> The ankle includes three joints: the ankle joint proper or talocrural joint, the subtalar joint, and the inferior tibiofibular joint.<ref name="Milner 1999">{{cite book |first1=Brent K. |last1=Milner |chapter=Musculoskeletal Imaging |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SugSpeNpAN4C&pg=PA258 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/radiologyrecall00spen/page/258 258–383] |editor1-first=Spencer B. |editor1-last=Gay |editor2-first=Richard J. |editor2-last=Woodcock |year=1999 |title=Radiology Recall |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |isbn=978-0-683-30663-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/radiologyrecall00spen/page/258 }}</ref><ref name="Williams & Taunton 2007">{{cite book |first1=D. S. Blaise |last1=Williams |first2=Jack |last2=Taunton |chapter=Foot, ankle and lower leg |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2utRky2VO0UC&pg=PA420 |pages=420–39 |editor1-first=Gregory S. |editor1-last=Kolt |editor2-first=Lynn |editor2-last=Snyder-Mackler |year=2007 |title=Physical Therapies in Sport and Exercise |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=978-0-443-10351-3}}</ref><ref name="del Castillo 2012 Foot and Ankle Injuries">{{cite book |first1=Jorge |last1=del Castillo |chapter=Foot and Ankle Injuries |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rpoH-KYE93IC&pg=PP745 |pages=745–55 |editor1-first=James G. |editor1-last=Adams |year=2012 |title=Emergency Medicine |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=978-1-4557-3394-1}}</ref> The movements produced at this joint are dorsiflexion and plantarflexion of the foot. In common usage, the term ankle refers exclusively to the ankle region. In medical terminology, "ankle" (without qualifiers) can refer broadly to the region or specifically to the talocrural joint.<ref name="Moore, Dalley & Agur 2013 Lower Limb"/><ref>{{cite book |chapter=Talocrural Articulation or Ankle-joint |chapter-url=http://www.bartleby.com/107/95.html |first=Henry |last=Gray |title=Anatomy of the Human Body |year=1918}}</ref> *'''Anterior tibial artery''' – The anterior tibial artery of the leg carries blood to the anterior compartment of the leg and dorsal surface of the foot, from the popliteal artery. *'''Antibiotic''' – is a type of antimicrobial substance active against bacteria and is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting bacterial infections. Antibiotic medications are widely used in the treatment and prevention of such infections.<ref name="NHSB">{{cite web |url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Antibiotics-penicillins/Pages/Introduction.aspx |title=Antibiotics |publisher=NHS |date=5 June 2014 |access-date=17 January 2015 |archive-date=18 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150118023314/http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/antibiotics-penicillins/pages/introduction.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/eaad/antibiotics/Pages/factsExperts.aspx |title=Factsheet for experts |publisher=European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control |access-date=21 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221183712/http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/eaad/antibiotics/Pages/factsExperts.aspx |archive-date=21 December 2014 }}</ref> *'''Antibody''' – (Ab), also known as an immunoglobulin (Ig),<ref name=Rhoades>{{cite book | vauthors = Rhoades RA, Pflanzer RG | title = Human Physiology | edition = 4th | publisher = Thomson Learning | year = 2002 | page = [https://archive.org/details/humanphysiologyw00rodn/page/584 584] | isbn = 978-0-534-42174-8 | url = https://archive.org/details/humanphysiologyw00rodn/page/584 }}</ref> is a large, Y-shaped protein produced mainly by plasma cells that is used by the immune system to neutralize pathogens such as pathogenic bacteria and viruses. *'''Aorta''' – is the main artery in the human body, originating from the left ventricle of the heart and extending down to the abdomen, where it splits into two smaller arteries (the common iliac arteries). The aorta distributes oxygenated blood to all parts of the body through the systemic circulation.<ref name = maton>{{cite book |last = Maton |first = Anthea |author2 = Jean Hopkins |author3 = Charles William McLaughlin |author4 = Susan Johnson |author5 = Maryanna Quon Warner |author6 = David LaHart |author7 = Jill D. Wright |title = Human Biology and Health |publisher = Prentice Hall |year = 1995 |location = Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey |isbn = 978-0-13-981176-0 |url = https://archive.org/details/humanbiologyheal00scho }}</ref> *'''Appendix''' – The appendix (or vermiform appendix; also cecal [or caecal] appendix; vermix; or vermiform process) is a finger-like, blind-ended tube connected to the cecum, from which it develops in the embryo. The cecum is a pouch-like structure of the colon, located at the junction of the small and the large intestines. The term "vermiform" comes from Latin and means "worm-shaped." The appendix used to be considered a vestigial organ, but this view has changed over the past decades.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Kooij IA, Sahami S, Meijer SL, Buskens CJ, Te Velde AA|date=October 2016|title=The immunology of the vermiform appendix: a review of the literature|journal=Clinical and Experimental Immunology|volume=186|issue=1|pages=1–9|doi=10.1111/cei.12821|pmc=5011360|pmid=27271818}}</ref> *'''Arm''' – is the part of the upper limb between the glenohumeral joint (shoulder joint) and the elbow joint. In common usage, the arm extends to the hand. It can be divided into the upper arm, which extends from the shoulder to the elbow, the forearm which extends from the elbow to the hand, and the hand. Anatomically the shoulder girdle with bones and corresponding muscles is by definition a part of the arm. The Latin term ''brachium'' may refer to either the arm as a whole or to the upper arm on its own.<ref name="Free dictionary">{{Cite web | url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/brachium | title=brachium – free dictionary | access-date=December 2, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/brachium | title=Dictionary.com | access-date=December 2, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title=Encyclopaedia britannica 2013}}</ref> *'''Arteriole''' – is a small-diameter blood vessel in the microcirculation that extends and branches out from an artery and leads to capillaries.<ref name="maton" /> Arterioles have muscular walls (usually only one to two layers of smooth muscle) and are the primary site of vascular resistance. The greatest change in blood pressure and velocity of blood flow occurs at the transition of arterioles to capillaries. *'''Artery''' – is a blood vessel that takes blood away from the heart to all parts of the body (tissues, lungs, etc.). Most arteries carry oxygenated blood; the two exceptions are the pulmonary and the umbilical arteries, which carry deoxygenated blood to the organs that oxygenate it. The effective arterial blood volume is that extracellular fluid which fills the arterial system. *'''Arthritis''' – is a term often used to mean any disorder that affects joints.<ref name=NIH2014>{{cite web|title=Arthritis and Rheumatic Diseases|url=https://www.niams.nih.gov/Health_Info/Arthritis/arthritis_rheumatic.asp|website=NIAMS|access-date=14 September 2016|date=October 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161004183408/http://www.niams.nih.gov/Health_Info/Arthritis/arthritis_rheumatic.asp|archive-date=4 October 2016}}</ref> Symptoms generally include joint pain and stiffness.<ref name=NIH2014/> Other symptoms may include redness, warmth, swelling, and decreased range of motion of the affected joints.<ref name=NIH2014/><ref name=CDC2016>{{cite web|title=Arthritis Types|url=https://www.cdc.gov/arthritis/basics/types.html|website=CDC|access-date=14 September 2016|date=June 22, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914024651/http://www.cdc.gov/arthritis/basics/types.html|archive-date=14 September 2016}}</ref> *'''Asperger syndrome''' – (AS), also known as Asperger's, is a developmental disorder characterized by significant difficulties in social interaction and nonverbal communication, along with restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior and interests.<ref name=NIH2015>{{cite web|title=Autism Spectrum Disorder|url=https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/autism-spectrum-disorder|website=National Institute of Mental Health|access-date=12 March 2016|date=September 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312130731/http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/autism-spectrum-disorder-qf-15-5511/index.shtml|archive-date=12 March 2016}}</ref> As a milder autism spectrum disorder (ASD), it differs from other ASDs by relatively normal language and intelligence.<ref name=ICD10>{{cite web|title=F84.5 Asperger syndrome|url=http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2015/en#/F84.5|website=World Health Organization|access-date=13 March 2016|date=2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151102042503/http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2015/en#/F84.5|archive-date=2 November 2015}}</ref> Although not required for diagnosis, physical clumsiness and unusual use of language are common.<ref name=McPart2006>{{cite journal | vauthors = McPartland J, Klin A | title = Asperger's syndrome | journal = Adolescent Medicine Clinics | volume = 17 | issue = 3 | pages = 771–88; abstract xiii | date = October 2006 | pmid = 17030291 | doi = 10.1016/j.admecli.2006.06.010 | doi-broken-date = 3 July 2025 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name=Baskin>{{cite journal | vauthors = Baskin JH, Sperber M, Price BH | title = Asperger syndrome revisited | journal = Reviews in Neurological Diseases | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–7 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16596080 }}</ref> *'''Asthma''' – is a common long-term inflammatory disease of the airways of the lungs.<ref name=WHO2013>{{cite web|title=Asthma Fact sheet №307 |url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs307/en/ |website=WHO |access-date=3 March 2016 |date=November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629035454/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs307/en/ |archive-date=June 29, 2011 }}</ref> It is characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction, and bronchospasm.<ref name="NHLBI07p11-12">{{harvnb|NHLBI Guideline|2007|pp=11–12}}</ref> Symptoms include episodes of wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and shortness of breath.<ref name=bts2009p4>{{harvnb|British Guideline|2009|p=4}}</ref> *'''{{vanchor|Atony}}''' – absence of muscle tone. *'''Atrial fibrillation''' – (AF or A-fib) is an abnormal heart rhythm characterized by rapid and irregular beating of the atria.<ref>{{cite web |title = Heart Disease Other Related Conditions |url = https://www.cdc.gov/heartdisease/other_conditions.htm |website = cdc.gov |access-date = 19 February 2015 |date = 3 September 2014 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150214234446/http://www.cdc.gov/heartdisease/other_conditions.htm |archive-date = 14 February 2015 }}</ref> Often it starts as brief periods of abnormal beating which become longer and possibly constant over time.<ref name=Zoni2014>{{cite journal |last1 = Zoni-Berisso |first1 = M |last2 = Lercari |first2 = F |last3 = Carazza |first3 = T |last4 = Domenicucci |first4 = S |title = Epidemiology of atrial fibrillation: European perspective. |journal = Clinical Epidemiology |date = 2014 |volume = 6 |pages = 213–20 |pmid = 24966695 |doi = 10.2147/CLEP.S47385 |pmc = 4064952 |doi-access = free }}</ref> Often episodes have no symptoms.<ref name=Mun2014>{{cite journal |last1 = Munger |first1 = TM |last2 = Wu |first2 = LQ |last3 = Shen |first3 = WK |title = Atrial fibrillation. |journal = Journal of Biomedical Research |date = January 2014 |volume = 28 |issue = 1 |pages = 1–17 |pmid = 24474959 |doi = 10.7555/JBR.28.20130191 |pmc = 3904170 }}</ref> *'''Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder''' – is a mental disorder of the neurodevelopmental type.<ref name="pmid23299717">{{cite journal | vauthors = Sroubek A, Kelly M, Li X | title = Inattentiveness in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder | journal = Neuroscience Bulletin | volume = 29 | issue = 1 | pages = 103–10 | date = February 2013 | pmid = 23299717 | pmc = 4440572 | doi = 10.1007/s12264-012-1295-6 }}</ref><ref name=Caroline2010>{{cite book | veditors = Caroline SC | title=Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural School Psychology | year=2010 | publisher=Springer Science & Business Media | isbn=978-0-387-71798-2 | pages=133 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PaO3jsaGkeYC&pg=PA133 }}</ref> It is characterized by problems paying attention, excessive activity, or difficulty controlling behavior which is not appropriate for a person's age.<ref>"Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder". National Institute of Mental Health. March 2016. Archived from the original on 23 July 2016. Retrieved 5 March 2016</ref><ref name=DSM5/> *'''Auscultation''' – is listening to the internal sounds of the body, usually using a stethoscope. Auscultation is performed for the purposes of examining the circulatory and respiratory systems (heart and breath sounds), as well as the gastrointestinal system. *'''Autism''' – is a developmental disorder characterized by troubles with social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior.<ref name=DSM5 /> Parents usually notice signs during the first two or three years of their child's life.<ref name="Land2008">{{cite journal |vauthors= Landa RJ |title= Diagnosis of autism spectrum disorders in the first 3 years of life |journal= Nat Clin Pract Neurol | volume= 4 |issue=3 |pages=138–47 |year=2008 |pmid= 18253102 |doi= 10.1038/ncpneuro0731 | doi-access= free}}</ref><ref name=DSM5>{{cite book | title = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders|edition= Fifth | chapter = Autism Spectrum Disorder, 299.00 (F84.0) | editor = American Psychiatric Association | year = 2013 | publisher = American Psychiatric Publishing | pages = 50–59}}</ref> These signs often develop gradually, though some children with autism reach their developmental milestones at a normal pace before worsening.<ref name=Stef2008>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Stefanatos GA | title = Regression in autistic spectrum disorders | journal = Neuropsychol Rev | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 305–19 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18956241 | doi = 10.1007/s11065-008-9073-y| s2cid = 34658024 }}</ref> *'''Axilla''' – (also, armpit, underarm or oxter) is the area on the human body directly under the joint where the arm connects to the shoulder. It also provides the under-arm sweat gland. *'''Axillary artery''' – is a large blood vessel that conveys oxygenated blood to the lateral aspect of the thorax, the axilla (armpit) and the upper limb. Its origin is at the lateral margin of the first rib, before which it is called the subclavian artery.

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==B== *'''Back''' – The human back is the large posterior area of the human body, rising from the top of the buttocks to the back of the neck and the shoulders. It is the surface of the body opposite from the chest. The vertebral column runs the length of the back and creates a central area of recession. The breadth of the back is created by the shoulders at the top and the pelvis at the bottom. *'''Back pain''' – is pain felt in the back. It is divided into neck pain (cervical), middle back pain (thoracic), lower back pain (lumbar) or coccydynia (tailbone or sacral pain) based on the segment affected.<ref name="origin" /> The lumbar area is the most common area for pain, as it supports most of the weight in the upper body.<ref>Church E, Odle T. Diagnosis and treatment of back pain. ''Radiologic Technology'' [serial online]. November 2007;79(2):126-204. Available from: CINAHL Plus with Full Text, Ipswich, MA. Accessed December 12, 2017.</ref> Episodes of back pain may be acute, sub-acute, or chronic depending on the duration. The pain may be characterized as a dull ache, shooting or piercing pain, or a burning sensation. Discomfort can radiate into the arms and hands as well as the legs or feet, and may include numbness,<ref name="origin">{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/paresthesia|title=''Paresthesia'' Definition and Origin|publisher=dictionary.com|access-date=1 August 2015}}</ref> or weakness in the legs and arms. *'''Barotrauma''' – is injury caused by a pressure difference between tissues and a gas filled space. *'''Basal''' **''Anatomy'': In the direction of the base. Antonym ''apical''. **''Physiology'': Lowest sustained level or minimum level required, as in basal metabolic rate. *'''Beta cell''' – Beta cells (β cells) are a type of cell found in pancreatic islets that synthesize and secrete insulin. Beta cells make up 50-70% of the cells in human islets.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dolenšek J, Rupnik MS, Stožer A | title = Structural similarities and differences between the human and the mouse pancreas | journal = Islets | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | article-number = e1024405 | date = 2015-01-02 | pmid = 26030186 | pmc = 4589993 | doi = 10.1080/19382014.2015.1024405 }}</ref> In patients with type I or type II diabetes, beta-cell mass and function are diminished, leading to insufficient insulin secretion and hyperglycemia.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chen C, Cohrs CM, Stertmann J, Bozsak R, Speier S | title = Human beta cell mass and function in diabetes: Recent advances in knowledge and technologies to understand disease pathogenesis | journal = Molecular Metabolism | volume = 6 | issue = 9 | pages = 943–957 | date = September 2017 | pmid = 28951820 | pmc = 5605733 | doi = 10.1016/j.molmet.2017.06.019 }}</ref> *'''Biceps''' – also biceps brachii (Latin for "two-headed muscle of the arm"), is a large muscle that lies on the front of the upper arm between the shoulder and the elbow. Both heads of the muscle arise on the scapula and join to form a single muscle belly which is attached to the upper forearm. While the biceps crosses both the shoulder and elbow joints, its main function is at the elbow where it flexes the forearm and supinates the forearm. Both these movements are used when opening a bottle with a corkscrew: first biceps unscrews the cork (supination), then it pulls the cork out (flexion).<ref name="Lippert">{{cite book | last = Lippert | first = Lynn S. | name-list-style = vanc | title = Clinical kinesiology and anatomy | url = https://archive.org/details/clinicalkinesiol00lipp_357 | url-access = limited | edition = 4th | publisher = F. A. Davis Company | location = Philadelphia | isbn = 978-0-8036-1243-3 | year = 2006 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/clinicalkinesiol00lipp_357/page/n140 126]–7 }}</ref> *'''Biceps brachii''' – The biceps, also biceps brachii (Latin for "two-headed muscle of the arm"), is a large muscle that lies on the front of the upper arm between the shoulder and the elbow. Both heads of the muscle arise on the scapula and join to form a single muscle belly which is attached to the upper forearm. While the biceps crosses both the shoulder and elbow joints, its main function is at the elbow where it flexes the forearm and supinates the forearm. Both these movements are used when opening a bottle with a corkscrew: first biceps unscrews the cork (supination), then it pulls the cork out (flexion).<ref name="Lippert"/> *'''Bile duct''' – is any of a number of long tube-like structures that carry bile. Bile, required for the digestion of food, is secreted by the liver into passages that carry bile toward the hepatic duct, which joins with the cystic duct (carrying bile to and from the gallbladder) to form the common bile duct, which opens into the intestine. *'''Biliary tract''' – The biliary tract, (biliary tree or biliary system) refers to the liver, gall bladder and bile ducts, and how they work together to make, store and secrete bile. Bile consists of water, electrolytes, bile acids, cholesterol, phospholipids and conjugated bilirubin. Some components are synthesised by hepatocytes (liver cells), the rest are extracted from the blood by the liver. *'''Binge eating disorder''' – (BED), is an eating disorder characterized by frequent and recurrent binge eating episodes with associated negative psychological and social problems, but without subsequent purging episodes (e.g. vomiting). BED is a recently described condition,<ref name="National Clinical Practice Guideline No. CG9">{{cite book|title=Eating disorders: core interventions in the treatment and management of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa and related eating disorders; National Clinical Practice Guideline No. CG9|date=2004|publisher=The British Psychological Society and Gaskell|location=Leicester [u.a.]|isbn=978-1-85433-398-8|url=https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg9/evidence/full-guideline-243824221}}</ref> which was required to distinguish binge eating similar to that seen in bulimia nervosa but without characteristic purging. Individuals who are diagnosed with bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder exhibit similar patterns of compulsive overeating, neurobiological features of dysfunctional cognitive control and food addiction, and biological and environmental risk factors.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wu|first1=M|title=Set-shifting ability across the Spectrum of Eating Disorders and in overweight and obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal= Psychological Medicine|date=2014|volume=44|issue=16|pmid=25066267|doi=10.1017/S0033291714000294|pages=3365–85|s2cid=27815868|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Indeed, some consider BED a milder version of bulimia, and that the conditions are on the same spectrum.<ref name="Hay2009">{{cite journal|last1=Hay|first1=PP|last2=Bacaltchuk|first2=J|last3=Stefano|first3=S|last4=Kashyap|first4=P|title=Psychological treatments for bulimia nervosa and binging.|journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|date=7 October 2009|volume=2009 |issue=4|article-number=CD000562|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD000562.pub3|pmid=19821271|pmc=7034415}}</ref> *'''Biological engineering''' – or bioengineering, or bio-engineering, is the application of principles of biology and the tools of engineering to create usable, tangible, economically viable products.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Abramovitz|first=Melissa|title=Amazing Feats of Biological Engineering.|date=2014|publisher=Essential Library|isbn=978-1-306-96705-1|oclc=884551700}}</ref> Biological engineering employs knowledge and expertise from a number of pure and applied sciences,<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Basics of Bioengineering Education|year=2010|isbn=978-3-642-14997-9|location=College Park, Maryland|pages=65|last1=Herold|first1=Keith|last2=Bentley|first2=William E.|last3=Vossoughi|first3=Jafar}}</ref> such as mass and heat transfer, kinetics, biocatalysts, biomechanics, bioinformatics, separation and purification processes, bioreactor design, surface science, fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, and polymer science. It is used in the design of medical devices, diagnostic equipment, biocompatible materials, renewable bioenergy, ecological engineering, agricultural engineering, and other areas that improve the living standards of societies. *'''Biology''' – is the natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their physical structure, chemical processes, molecular interactions, physiological mechanisms, development and evolution.<ref name=aquarenagloss>Based on definition from: {{cite web |url=http://www.bio.txstate.edu/~wetlands/Glossary/glossary.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040608113114/http://www.bio.txstate.edu/~wetlands/Glossary/glossary.html |archive-date=2004-06-08 |title=Aquarena Wetlands Project glossary of terms |author= |publisher=Texas State University at San Marcos}}</ref> *'''Biochemistry''' – sometimes called biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/careers/college-to-career/areas-of-chemistry/biological-biochemistry.html.html |title=Biochemistry|work=acs.org}}</ref> *'''Bioinformatics''' – is an interdisciplinary field that develops methods and software tools for understanding biological data. As an interdisciplinary field of science, bioinformatics combines biology, computer science, information engineering, mathematics and statistics to analyze and interpret biological data. *'''Biopsy''' – is a medical test commonly performed by a surgeon, interventional radiologist, or an interventional cardiologist involving extraction of sample cells or tissues for examination to determine the presence or extent of a disease. *'''Biostatistics''' – are the application of statistics to a wide range of topics in biology. It encompasses the design of biological experiments, especially in medicine, pharmacy, agriculture and fishery; the collection, summarization, and analysis of data from those experiments; and the interpretation of, and inference from, the results. A major branch is medical biostatistics, which is exclusively concerned with medicine and health.<ref>{{cite book|title=Medical Biostatistics|author=Abhaya Indrayan|publisher=CRC Press|year=2012|isbn= 978-1-4398-8414-0|author-link=Abhaya Indrayan}}</ref> *'''Bipolar disorder''' – is a mental disorder that causes periods of depression and periods of abnormally elevated mood<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Anderson | first1 = IM | last2 = Haddad | first2 = PM | last3 = Scott | first3 = J | year = 2012 | title = Bipolar disorder | journal = BMJ | volume = 345 | article-number = e8508 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.e8508 | pmid = 23271744 | s2cid = 22156246 }}</ref><ref>American Psychiatry Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing. pp. 123–154. {{ISBN|0-89042-555-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=DSM IV Criteria for Manic Episode|website=Food and Drug Administration|url=https://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/ac/00/slides/3590s1c/tsld002.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170731230148/https://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/ac/00/slides/3590s1c/tsld002.htm|archive-date=July 31, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref> *'''Birth control''' – also known as contraception and fertility control, is a method or device used to prevent pregnancy.<ref>{{cite web|title=Definition of Birth control|url=http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=53351|work=MedicineNet|access-date=August 9, 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120806234913/http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=53351|archive-date=August 6, 2012|df=mdy-all}}</ref> *'''Bladder cancer''' – is any of several types of cancer arising from the tissues of the urinary bladder.<ref name=NCI2017Pt>{{cite web|title=Bladder Cancer Treatment|url=https://www.cancer.gov/types/bladder/patient/bladder-treatment-pdq#section/all|website=National Cancer Institute|access-date=18 July 2017|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170714140854/https://www.cancer.gov/types/bladder/patient/bladder-treatment-pdq#section/all|archive-date=14 July 2017|df=dmy-all|date=1980-01-01}}</ref> It is a disease in which cells grow abnormally and have the potential to spread to other parts of the body.<ref name=WHO2014>{{cite web|title=Cancer Fact sheet N°297|url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs297/en/|website=World Health Organization|access-date=10 June 2014|date=February 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101229092321/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs297/en/|archive-date=29 December 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref name=NCI2014>{{cite web|title=Defining Cancer|url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/cancerlibrary/what-is-cancer|website=National Cancer Institute|access-date=10 June 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140625220940/http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/cancerlibrary/what-is-cancer|archive-date=25 June 2014|df=dmy-all|date=2007-09-17}}</ref> Symptoms include blood in the urine, pain with urination, and low back pain.<ref name=NCI2017Pt/> *'''Blood pressure''' – is the pressure of circulating blood on the walls of blood vessels. Used without further specification, "blood pressure" usually refers to the pressure in large arteries of the systemic circulation. Blood pressure is usually expressed in terms of the systolic pressure (maximum during one heartbeat) over diastolic pressure (minimum in between two heartbeats) and is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg), above the surrounding atmospheric pressure. *'''Blood vessel''' – The blood vessels are the part of the circulatory system, and microcirculation, that transports blood throughout the human body.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.merckmanuals.com/home/heart-and-blood-vessel-disorders/biology-of-the-heart-and-blood-vessels/blood-vessels|title=Blood Vessels – Heart and Blood Vessel Disorders – Merck Manuals Consumer Version|newspaper=Merck Manuals Consumer Version|access-date=2016-12-22}}</ref> *'''Bone''' – is a rigid organ that constitutes part of the vertebrate skeleton. Bones support and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells, store minerals, provide structure and support for the body, and enable mobility. Bones come in a variety of shapes and sizes and have a complex internal and external structure. They are lightweight yet strong and hard, and serve multiple functions. *'''Bone marrow''' – is a semi-solid tissue which may be found within the spongy or cancellous portions of bones.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Pathology of bone marrow and blood cells|last=C.|first=Farhi, Diane|date=2009|publisher=Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott William & Wilkins|isbn=978-0-7817-7093-4|edition=2nd |location=Philadelphia|oclc=191807944}}</ref> Bone marrow is the primary site of new blood cell production or hematopoiesis.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Arikan|first1=Hüseyin|last2=Çiçek|first2=Kerim|date=2014|title=Haematology of amphibians and reptiles: a review|url=http://biozoojournals.ro/nwjz/content/v10n1/nwjz_143501_Cicek.pdf|journal=North-Western Journal of Zoology |volume=10|pages=190–209}}</ref> It is composed of hematopoietic cells, marrow adipose tissue, and supportive stromal cells. In adult humans, bone marrow is primarily located in the ribs, vertebrae, sternum, and bones of the pelvis.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Official CPC Certification Study Guide|last=Katherine|first=Abel|publisher=American Medical Association|year=2013}}</ref> On average, bone marrow constitutes 4% of the total body mass of humans; in an adult having 65 kilograms of mass (143 lb), bone marrow typically accounts for approximately {{convert|2.6|kg|lb}}.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Vunjak-Novakovic|first1=G.|last2=Tandon|first2=N.|last3=Godier|first3=A.|last4=Maidhof|first4=R.|last5=Marsano|first5=A.|last6=Martens|first6=T. P.|last7=Radisic|first7=M.|year=2010|title=Challenges in Cardiac Tissue Engineering|journal=Tissue Engineering Part B: Reviews|volume=16|issue=2|pages=169–187|doi=10.1089/ten.teb.2009.0352|pmc=2946883|pmid=19698068}}</ref> *'''Brachial artery''' – is the major blood vessel of the (upper) arm. It is the continuation of the axillary artery beyond the lower margin of teres major muscle. It continues down the ventral surface of the arm until it reaches the cubital fossa at the elbow. It then divides into the radial and ulnar arteries which run down the forearm. In some individuals, the bifurcation occurs much earlier and the ulnar and radial arteries extend through the upper arm. The pulse of the brachial artery is palpable on the anterior aspect of the elbow, medial to the tendon of the biceps, and, with the use of a stethoscope and sphygmomanometer (blood pressure cuff) often used to measure the blood pressure. *'''Brachial plexus''' – is a network of nerves formed by the ventral rami of the lower four cervical nerves and first thoracic nerve (C5, C6, C7, C8, and T1). This plexus extends from the spinal cord, through the cervicoaxillary canal in the neck, over the first rib, and into the armpit. It supplies afferent and efferent nerve fibers to the chest, shoulder, arm and hand. *'''Brachial veins''' – In human anatomy, the brachial veins are venae comitantes of the brachial artery in the arm proper. Because they are deep to muscle, they are considered deep veins. Their course is that of the brachial artery (in reverse): they begin where radial veins and ulnar veins join (corresponding to the bifurcation of the brachial artery). They end at the inferior border of the teres major muscle. At this point, the brachial veins join the basilic vein to form the axillary vein. The brachial veins also have small tributaries that drain the muscles of the upper arm, such as biceps brachii muscle and triceps brachii muscle. *'''Brachioradialis''' – is a muscle of the forearm that flexes the forearm at the elbow. It is also capable of both pronation and supination, depending on the position of the forearm. It is attached to the distal styloid process of the radius by way of the brachioradialis tendon, and to the lateral supracondylar ridge of the humerus. *'''Bradycardia''' –is a condition typically defined wherein an individual has a resting heart rate of under 60 beats per minute (BPM) in adults.<ref>{{cite web|title=Types of Arrhythmia|url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/arr/types|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141128022014/http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/arr/types|archive-date=November 28, 2014|access-date=19 March 2015|date=July 1, 2011}}</ref> *'''Brain''' – The human brain is the central organ of the human nervous system, and with the spinal cord makes up the central nervous system. The brain consists of the cerebrum, the brainstem and the cerebellum. It controls most of the activities of the body, processing, integrating, and coordinating the information it receives from the sense organs, and making decisions as to the instructions sent to the rest of the body. The brain is contained in, and protected by, the skull bones of the head. *'''Brain tumor''' – occurs when abnormal cells form within the brain.<ref name=PDQ2014Pt>{{cite web|title=General Information About Adult Brain Tumors|url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/adultbrain/Patient/page1/AllPages|website=NCI|access-date=8 June 2014|date=2014-04-14|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140705225928/http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/adultbrain/Patient/page1/AllPages|archive-date=5 July 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> There are two main types of tumors: malignant or cancerous tumors and benign tumors.<ref name=PDQ2014Pt/> *'''Brain metastasis''' – is a cancer that has metastasized (spread) to the brain from another location in the body and is therefore considered a secondary brain tumor.<ref name="emedicine1">{{cite web|url=http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1157902-overview|title=Brain Metastasis|last=Tse|first=Victor|date=10 November 2009|publisher=Medscape|access-date=13 January 2010}}</ref> The metastasis typically shares a cancer cell type with the original site of the cancer.<ref name="American Brain Tumor Association">{{cite web|url=http://www.abta.org/secure/metastatic-brain-tumor.pdf|title=Metastatic Brain Tumors|access-date=13 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829152605/http://abta.org/secure/metastatic-brain-tumor.pdf|archive-date=29 August 2017}}</ref> *'''Breast''' – The breast is one of two prominences located on the upper ventral region of the torso of primates. In females, it serves as the mammary gland, which produces and secretes milk to feed infants.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/breast |title = Breast – Definition of breast by Merriam-Webster |work = merriam-webster.com |access-date = 21 October 2015 }}</ref> Both females and males develop breasts from the same embryological tissues. At puberty, estrogens, in conjunction with growth hormone, cause breast development in female humans and to a much lesser extent in other primates. Breast development in other primate females generally only occurs with pregnancy. *'''Breast cancer''' – is cancer that develops from breast tissue.<ref>{{cite web |title = Breast Cancer |url = http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/types/breast |website = NCI |access-date = 29 June 2014 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140625232947/http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/types/breast |archive-date = 25 June 2014 |df = dmy-all |date = January 1980 }}</ref> Signs of breast cancer may include a lump in the breast, a change in breast shape, dimpling of the skin, fluid coming from the nipple, a newly inverted nipple, or a red or scaly patch of skin.<ref name=NCI2014Pt>{{cite web |title = Breast Cancer Treatment (PDQ®) |url = http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/breast/Patient/page1/AllPages |website = NCI |access-date = 29 June 2014 |date = 23 May 2014 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140705110404/http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/breast/Patient/page1/AllPages |archive-date = 5 July 2014 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> In those with distant spread of the disease, there may be bone pain, swollen lymph nodes, shortness of breath, or yellow skin.<ref>{{cite book |last1 = Saunders |first1 = Christobel |last2 = Jassal |first2 = Sunil |title = Breast cancer |date = 2009 |publisher = Oxford University Press |location = Oxford |isbn = 978-0-19-955869-8 |page = Chapter 13 |edition = 1. |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=as46WowY_usC&pg=PT123 |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151025013217/https://books.google.com/books?id=as46WowY_usC&pg=PT123 |archive-date = 25 October 2015 |df = dmy-all }}</ref> *'''Broca's area''' – or the Broca area, is a region in the frontal lobe of the dominant hemisphere, usually the left, of the brain<ref name=pmid11734839>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cantalupo C, Hopkins WD | title = Asymmetric Broca's area in great apes | journal = Nature | volume = 414 | issue = 6863 | page = 505 | date = November 2001 | pmid = 11734839 | pmc = 2043144 | doi = 10.1038/35107134 | bibcode = 2001Natur.414..505C }}</ref> with functions linked to speech production. *'''Bronchiole''' – The bronchioles or bronchioli are the passageways by which air passes through the nose or mouth to the alveoli (air sacs) of the lungs, in which branches no longer contain cartilage or glands in their submucosa. They are branches of the bronchi, and are part of the conducting zone of the respiratory system. The bronchioles divide further into smaller terminal bronchioles which are still in the conducting zone and these then divide into the smaller respiratory bronchioles which mark the beginning of the respiratory region. *'''Bronchus''' – A bronchi is a passage of airway in the respiratory system that conducts air into the lungs. The first bronchi to branch from the trachea are the right main bronchus and the left main bronchus. These are the widest and enter the lungs at each hilum, where they branch into narrower secondary bronchi known as lobar bronchi, and these branch into narrower tertiary bronchi known as segmental bronchi. Further divisions of the segmental bronchi are known as 4th order, 5th order, and 6th order segmental bronchi, or grouped together as subsegmental bronchi.<ref name="Netter">{{cite book|last1= Netter |first1=Frank H.|title=Atlas of Human Anatomy Including Student Consult Interactive Ancillaries and Guides.|date=2014|publisher=W B Saunders Co|location= Philadelphia, Penn.|isbn=978-1-4557-0418-7|page=200|edition=6th}}</ref><ref name="maton" />{{Page needed|date=September 2010}} The bronchi when too narrow to be supported by cartilage are known as bronchioles. No gas exchange takes place in the bronchi. *'''Bruit''' – also called vascular murmur,<ref>{{DorlandsDict|two/000014858|bruit}}</ref> is the abnormal sound generated by turbulent flow of blood in an artery due to either an area of partial obstruction or a localized high rate of blood flow through an unobstructed artery.<ref>{{DorlandsDict|five/000068147|vascular murmur}}</ref> *'''Bulimia nervosa''' – also known as simply ''bulimia'', is an eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging.<ref name="auto3">"Bulimia nervosa fact sheet". Office on Women's Health. July 16, 2012. Archived from the original on 19 June 2015. Retrieved 27 June 2015.</ref> Binge eating refers to eating a large amount of food in a short amount of time.<ref name="auto3"/> Purging refers to the attempts to get rid of the food consumed.<ref name="auto3"/> *'''Buttocks''' – are two rounded portions of the anatomy, located on the posterior of the pelvic region and comprise a layer of fat superimposed on the gluteus maximus and gluteus medius muscles. Physiologically, the buttocks enable weight to be taken off the feet while sitting.

{{compact TOC|side=yes|center=yes|nobreak=yes|seealso=yes|refs=yes|}}

==C== *'''Calcium''' – Calcium ions (Ca2+) contribute to the physiology and biochemistry of organisms and the cell. They play an important role in signal transduction pathways,<ref>Brini, Marisa; Ottolini, Denis; Calì, Tito; Carafoli, Ernesto (2013). "Chapter 4. Calcium in Health and Disease". In Astrid Sigel, Helmut Sigel and Roland K. O. Sigel. Interrelations between Essential Metal Ions and Human Diseases. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 13. Springer. pp. 81–137. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-7500-8_4. {{ISBN|978-94-007-7499-5}}. {{PMID|24470090}}.</ref><ref> Brini, Marisa; Call, Tito; Ottolini, Denis; Carafoli, Ernesto (2013). "Chapter 5 Intracellular Calcium Homeostasis and Signaling". In Banci, Lucia (Ed.). Metallomics and the Cell. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. 12. Springer. pp. 119–68. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5561-1_5. {{ISBN|978-94-007-5560-4}}. {{PMID|23595672}}. electronic-book {{ISBN|978-94-007-5561-1}} ISSN 1559-0836 electronic-ISSN 1868-0402</ref> where they act as a second messenger, in neurotransmitter release from neurons, in contraction of all muscle cell types, and in fertilization. Many enzymes require calcium ions as a cofactor, those of the blood-clotting cascade being notable examples. Extracellular calcium is also important for maintaining the potential difference across excitable cell membranes, as well as proper bone formation.

*'''Calf''' – is the back portion of the lower leg in human anatomy. The muscles within the calf correspond to the posterior compartment of the leg. The two largest muscles within this compartment are known together as the calf muscle and attach to the heel via the Achilles tendon. Several other, smaller muscles attach to the knee, the ankle, and via long tendons to the toes. *'''Cancer''' – is a group of diseases involving abnormal cell growth with the potential to invade or spread to other parts of the body.<ref>"Cancer". World Health Organization. 12 September 2018. Retrieved 19 December 2018.</ref><ref name="auto">"Defining Cancer". National Cancer Institute. 17 September 2007. Retrieved 28 March 2018.</ref> These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread to other parts of the body.<ref name="auto"/> *'''Capillary''' – is a small blood vessel from 5 to 10 micrometres (μm) in diameter, and having a wall one endothelial cell thick. They are the smallest blood vessels in the body: they convey blood between the arterioles and venules. These microvessels are the site of exchange of many substances with the interstitial fluid surrounding them. *'''Carcinogen''' – is any substance, radionuclide, or radiation that promotes carcinogenesis, the formation of cancer. This may be due to the ability to damage the genome or to the disruption of cellular metabolic processes. *'''Carcinogenesis''' – also called oncogenesis or tumorigenesis, is the formation of a cancer, whereby normal cells are transformed into cancer cells. *'''Cardiac arrest''' – a sudden loss of blood flow resulting from the failure of the heart to effectively pump.<ref name=NIH2016What/> Symptoms include loss of consciousness and abnormal or absent breathing.<ref name=Fie2009>{{cite book|last1=Field|first1=John M.|title=The Textbook of Emergency Cardiovascular Care and CPR|date=2009|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|isbn=978-0-7817-8899-1|page=11|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JaOoXdSlT9sC&pg=PA11|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170905133735/https://books.google.com/books?id=JaOoXdSlT9sC&pg=PA11|archive-date=2017-09-05}}</ref><ref name=NIH2016Sign/> Some individuals may experience chest pain, shortness of breath, or nausea before cardiac arrest.<ref name=NIH2016Sign>{{cite web|title=What Are the Signs and Symptoms of Sudden Cardiac Arrest?|url=http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/scda/signs|website=NHLBI|access-date=16 August 2016|date=June 22, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827190624/http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/scda/signs|archive-date=27 August 2016}}</ref> If not treated within minutes, it typically leads to death.<ref name=NIH2016What>{{cite web|title=What Is Sudden Cardiac Arrest?|url=https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/cardiac-arrest|website=NHLBI|access-date=16 August 2016|date=June 22, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160728031608/http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/health-topics/topics/scda|archive-date=28 July 2016}}</ref> *'''Cardiac catheterization''' – (heart cath or just cath), is the insertion of a catheter into a chamber or vessel of the heart. This is done both for diagnostic and interventional purposes. *'''Cardiac muscle''' – (also called heart muscle or myocardium), is one of three types of vertebrate muscles, with the other two being skeletal and smooth muscles. It is an involuntary, striated muscle that constitutes the main tissue of the walls of the heart. The myocardium forms a thick middle layer between the outer layer of the heart wall (the epicardium) and the inner layer (the endocardium), with blood supplied via the coronary circulation. It is composed of individual heart muscle cells (cardiomyocytes) joined by intercalated discs, encased by collagen fibres and other substances that form the extracellular matrix. *'''Cardiac surgery''' – or cardiovascular surgery, is surgery on the heart or great vessels performed by cardiac surgeons. It is often used to treat complications of ischemic heart disease (for example, with coronary artery bypass grafting); to correct congenital heart disease; or to treat valvular heart disease from various causes, including endocarditis, rheumatic heart disease, and atherosclerosis. It also includes heart transplantation. *'''Cardiology''' – is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the heart as well as parts of the circulatory system. *'''Cardiothoracic surgery''' – (also known as thoracic surgery) is the field of medicine involved in surgical treatment of organs inside the thorax (the chest)—generally treatment of conditions of the heart (heart disease) and lungs (lung disease). *'''Cardiovascular disease''' – (CVD), is a class of diseases that involve the heart or blood vessels.<ref name="WHO2011">{{cite book|author1=Shanthi Mendis|author2=Pekka Puska|author3=Bo Norrving|author4= World Health Organization|title=Global Atlas on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention and Control|url= http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2011/9789241564373_eng.pdf?ua=1 |year=2011|publisher=World Health Organization in collaboration with the World Heart Federation and the World Stroke Organization|pages=3–18|isbn=978-92-4-156437-3 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140817123106/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2011/9789241564373_eng.pdf?ua=1 |archive-date=2014-08-17}}</ref> CVD includes coronary artery diseases (CAD) such as angina and myocardial infarction (commonly known as a heart attack).<ref name= WHO2011/> Other CVDs include stroke, heart failure, hypertensive heart disease, rheumatic heart disease, cardiomyopathy, heart arrhythmia, congenital heart disease, valvular heart disease, carditis, aortic aneurysms, peripheral artery disease, thromboembolic disease, and venous thrombosis.<ref name="WHO2011" /><ref>{{cite journal|author= ((GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death Collaborators)) |date=17 December 2014|title =Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013|journal= Lancet|volume= 385 |issue=9963|pages= 117–71| doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61682-2|pmc= 4340604|pmid = 25530442}}</ref> *'''Carotid artery, common''' – In anatomy, the left and right common carotid arteries (carotids) <ref name="auto4">''OED'' 2nd edition, 1989.</ref><ref name="auto5">[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/carotid Entry "carotid"] in ''[http://www.merriam-webster.com/ Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary]''.</ref>) are arteries that supply the head and neck with oxygenated blood; they divide in the neck to form the external and internal carotid arteries.<ref name="pmid17370446">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ashrafian H | title = Anatomically specific clinical examination of the carotid arterial tree | journal = Anatomical Science International | volume = 82 | issue = 1 | pages = 16–23 | date = March 2007 | pmid = 17370446 | doi = 10.1111/j.1447-073X.2006.00152.x | s2cid = 12109379 }}</ref><ref name="iopscience">{{cite journal | vauthors = Manbachi A, Hoi Y, Wasserman BA, Lakatta EG, Steinman DA | title = On the shape of the common carotid artery with implications for blood velocity profiles | journal = Physiological Measurement | volume = 32 | issue = 12 | pages = 1885–97 | date = December 2011 | pmid = 22031538 | pmc = 3494738 | doi = 10.1088/0967-3334/32/12/001 }}</ref> *'''Carotid artery, external''' – The external carotid artery is a major artery of the head and neck. It arises from the common carotid artery when it splits into the external and internal carotid artery. It supplies blood to the face and neck.<ref name="Carotid artery">{{cite web|title=Carotid artery|url=http://www.webmd.com/heart/picture-of-the-carotid-artery|website=WebMD|access-date=28 July 2015}}</ref> *'''Carotid artery, internal''' – The internal carotid artery is a major paired artery, one on each side of the head and neck, in human anatomy. They arise from the common carotid arteries where these bifurcate into the internal and external carotid arteries at cervical vertebral level 3 or 4; the internal carotid artery supplies the brain, while the external carotid nourishes other portions of the head, such as face, scalp, skull, and meninges. *'''Carotid artery stenosis''' – is a narrowing or constriction of any part of the carotid arteries, usually caused by atherosclerosis. *'''Carpal bones''' – Are the eight small bones that make up the wrist (or carpus) that connects the hand to the forearm. In human anatomy, the main role of the wrist is to facilitate effective positioning of the hand and powerful use of the extensors and flexors of the forearm, and the mobility of individual carpal bones increase the freedom of movements at the wrist.<ref name="Kingston-126">Kingston 2000, pp 126-127</ref> *'''Carpal tunnel syndrome''' – (CTS), is a medical condition due to compression of the median nerve as it travels through the wrist at the carpal tunnel.<ref name=Bur2014/> The main symptoms are pain, numbness and tingling in the thumb, index finger, middle finger and the thumb side of the ring fingers.<ref name=Bur2014>{{cite journal|last1=Burton|first1=C|last2=Chesterton|first2=LS|last3=Davenport|first3=G|title=Diagnosing and managing carpal tunnel syndrome in primary care|journal=The British Journal of General Practice|date=May 2014|volume=64|issue=622|pages=262–3|pmid=24771836|doi=10.3399/bjgp14x679903|pmc=4001168}}</ref> *'''Cartilage''' – is a resilient and smooth elastic tissue, a rubber-like padding that covers and protects the ends of long bones at the joints, and is a structural component of the rib cage, the ear, the nose, the bronchial tubes, the intervertebral discs, and many other body components. It is not as hard and rigid as bone, but it is much stiffer and much less flexible than muscle. The matrix of cartilage is made up of chondrin. *'''Cartilaginous joint''' – Cartilaginous joints are connected entirely by cartilage (fibrocartilage or hyaline).<ref name="titleModule - Introduction to Joints">{{cite web |url=http://anatomy.med.umich.edu/modules/joints_module/joints_08.html |title=Module - Introduction to Joints |access-date=2008-01-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080117032324/http://anatomy.med.umich.edu/modules/joints_module/joints_08.html |archive-date=2008-01-17 }}</ref> Cartilaginous joints allow more movement between bones than a fibrous joint but less than the highly mobile synovial joint. Cartilaginous joints also forms the growth regions of immature long bones and the intervertebral discs of the spinal column. *'''Catheter''' – Is a thin tube made from medical grade materials serving a broad range of functions. Catheters are medical devices that can be inserted in the body to treat diseases or perform a surgical procedure. By modifying the material or adjusting the way catheters are manufactured, it is possible to tailor catheters for cardiovascular, urological, gastrointestinal, neurovascular, and ophthalmic applications. *'''Celiac disease''' – another way of spelling coeliac disease *'''Cell biology''' – also called cytology, is a branch of biology that studies the structure and function of the cell, which is the basic unit of life.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/topic/cell-biology-13906536|title=Cell Biology {{!}} Learn Science at Scitable|website=www.nature.com|language=en|access-date=2018-06-10}}</ref> Cell biology is concerned with the physiological properties, metabolic processes, signaling pathways, life cycle, chemical composition and interactions of the cell with their environment. *'''Central nervous system''' – (CNS), is the part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord. *'''Cephalic vein''' – is a superficial vein in the arm. It communicates with the basilic vein via the median cubital vein at the elbow and is located in the superficial fascia along the anterolateral surface of the biceps brachii muscle. Near the shoulder, the cephalic vein passes between the deltoid and pectoralis major muscles (deltopectoral groove) and through the deltopectoral triangle, where it empties into the axillary vein. *'''Cerebellum''' – (Latin for "little brain"), is a major feature of the hindbrain of all vertebrates. Although usually smaller than the cerebrum, in some animals such as the mormyrid fishes it may be as large as or even larger.<ref>{{citation|last=Hodos|first=William|chapter= Evolution of Cerebellum|title=Encyclopedia of Neuroscience|publisher=Springer|date=2009|pages=1240–1243|doi=10.1007/978-3-540-29678-2_3124|isbn=978-3-540-23735-8}}</ref> In humans, the cerebellum plays an important role in motor control. It may also be involved in some cognitive functions such as attention and language as well as in regulating fear and pleasure responses,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wolf U, Rapoport MJ, Schweizer TA | title = Evaluating the affective component of the cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome | journal = Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences | volume = 21 | issue = 3 | pages = 245–53 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19776302 | doi = 10.1176/jnp.2009.21.3.245 }}</ref> but its movement-related functions are the most solidly established. The human cerebellum does not initiate movement, but contributes to coordination, precision, and accurate timing: it receives input from sensory systems of the spinal cord and from other parts of the brain, and integrates these inputs to fine-tune motor activity.<ref name="Fine">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fine EJ, Ionita CC, Lohr L | title = The history of the development of the cerebellar examination | journal = Seminars in Neurology | volume = 22 | issue = 4 | pages = 375–84 | date = December 2002 | pmid = 12539058 | doi = 10.1055/s-2002-36759 | s2cid = 260317107 }}</ref> Cerebellar damage produces disorders in fine movement, equilibrium, posture, and motor learning in humans.<ref name="Fine"/> *'''Cerebrum''' – is a large part of the brain containing the cerebral cortex (of the two cerebral hemispheres), as well as several subcortical structures, including the hippocampus, basal ganglia, and olfactory bulb. In the human brain, the cerebrum is the uppermost region of the central nervous system. The ''prosencephalon'' is the embryonic structure from which the cerebrum develops prenatally. In mammals, the dorsal telencephalon, or pallium, develops into the cerebral cortex, and the ventral telencephalon, or subpallium, becomes the basal ganglia. The cerebrum is also divided into approximately symmetric left and right cerebral hemispheres. With the assistance of the cerebellum, the cerebrum controls all voluntary actions in the body. *'''Cervical cancer''' – is a cancer arising from the cervix.<ref name=NCI2014Pt/> It is due to the abnormal growth of cells that have the ability to invade or spread to other parts of the body.<ref name=NCI2014Def>{{cite web|title=Defining Cancer|url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/cancerlibrary/what-is-cancer|website=National Cancer Institute|access-date=10 June 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140625220940/http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/cancerlibrary/what-is-cancer|archive-date=25 June 2014|date=2007-09-17}}</ref> Early on, typically no symptoms are seen.<ref name=NCI2014Pt/> Later symptoms may include abnormal vaginal bleeding, pelvic pain, or pain during sexual intercourse.<ref name=NCI2014Pt/> While bleeding after sex may not be serious, it may also indicate the presence of cervical cancer.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Tarney|first1=CM|last2=Han|first2=J|title=Postcoital bleeding: a review on etiology, diagnosis, and management.|journal=Obstetrics and Gynecology International|date=2014|volume=2014|article-number=192087|doi=10.1155/2014/192087|pmc=4086375|pmid=25045355|doi-access=free}}</ref> *'''Cervix''' – or cervix uteri, is the lower part of the uterus in the human female reproductive system. The cervix is usually 2 to 3 cm long (~1 inch) and roughly cylindrical in shape, which changes during pregnancy. The narrow, central cervical canal runs along its entire length, connecting the uterine cavity and the lumen of the vagina. The opening into the uterus is called the internal os, and the opening into the vagina is called the external os. The lower part of the cervix, known as the vaginal portion of the cervix (or ectocervix), bulges into the top of the vagina. *'''Cheek''' – The cheeks constitute the area of the face below the eyes and between the nose and the left or right ear. "Buccal" means relating to the cheek. In humans, the region is innervated by the buccal nerve. The area between the inside of the cheek and the teeth and gums is called the vestibule or buccal pouch or buccal cavity and forms part of the mouth. *'''Chin''' – is the area of the face below the lower lip and including the mandibular prominence.<ref>{{cite web|title=Full Definition of chin|publisher=Merriam-Webster Dictionary|access-date=2015-09-22|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/chin}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=O'Loughlin|first=Michael McKinley, Valerie Dean|title=Human anatomy|year=2006|publisher=McGraw-Hill Higher Education|location=Boston|isbn=0-07-249585-5|pages=400–01}}</ref> It is formed by the lower front of the mandible. *'''Chronic fatigue syndrome''' – (CFS), also referred to as myalgic encephalomyelitis (ME), is a medical condition characterized by long-term fatigue and other persistent symptoms that limit a person's ability to carry out ordinary daily activities.<ref>Guideline 53: Chronic fatigue syndrome/myalgic encephalomyelitis (or encephalopathy). London: National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. 2007. {{ISBN|978-1-84629-453-2}}.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Evengård | first1 = B | last2 = Schacterle | first2 = RS | last3 = Komaroff | first3 = AL | year = 1999 | title = Chronic fatigue syndrome: new insights and old ignorance | journal = Journal of Internal Medicine | volume = 246 | issue = 5| pages = 455–69 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2796.1999.00513.x | pmid = 10583715 | s2cid = 34123925 }}</ref> *'''Ciliary muscle''' – is a ring of smooth muscle<ref name="Kleinmann">{{cite journal |pmid=16929221 |year=2006 |last1=Kleinmann |first1=G |title=Scleral expansion procedure for the correction of presbyopia |journal=International Ophthalmology Clinics |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=1–12 |last2=Kim |first2=H. J. |last3=Yee |first3=R. W. |doi=10.1097/00004397-200604630-00003 |s2cid=45247729 }}</ref><ref name="Schachar">Schachar, Ronald A. (2012). "Anatomy and Physiology." (Chapter 4) {{cite book | title = The Mechanism of Accommodation and Presbyopia. | publisher = Kugler Publications}} {{ISBN|978-9-062-99233-1}}.</ref> in the eye's middle layer (vascular layer) that controls accommodation for viewing objects at varying distances and regulates the flow of aqueous humor into Schlemm's canal. It changes the shape of the lens within the eye, not the size of the pupil<ref>{{cite journal|title=Focusing by shape change in the lens of the eye: a commentary on Young (1801) 'On the mechanism of the eye'|journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume = 370|issue = 1666|article-number = 20140308|first=Michael |last=Land|publisher=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences|location=School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton|date=Apr 19, 2015|pmc = 4360117|pmid = 25750232|doi = 10.1098/rstb.2014.0308}}</ref> which is carried out by the sphincter pupillae muscle and dilator pupillae. *'''Ciliary sulcus''' – The space between the anterior surface of the ciliary body of the eye and the posterior surface of the base of the iris. It is one of the sites for intraocular lens implantation.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Schnaudigel | first1 = OE | year = 1990 | title = Anatomie des Sulcus ciliaris [Anatomy of the ciliary sulcus] | url = | journal = Fortschr Ophthalmol | volume = 87 | issue = 4| pages = 388–9 | pmid = 2210569 }}</ref> *'''Circulatory system''' – The circulatory system, also called the cardiovascular system or the vascular system, is an organ system that permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino acids and electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the cells in the body to provide nourishment and help in fighting diseases, stabilize temperature and pH, and maintain homeostasis. *'''Clavicle''' – also known as the collar bone, is a long bone that serves as a strut between the shoulder blade and the sternum. There are two, one on the right, and one on the left side of the trunk. Along with the shoulder blade, the clavicles make up the shoulder girdle. The clavicle has many functions. It connects the axial and appendicular skeleton in conjunction with the scapula, helps extend range of motion, and protects neurovascular structures.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hyland |first1=Scott |last2=Varacallo |first2=Matthew |title=StatPearls |date=8 Feb 2019 |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK525990/ |access-date=16 June 2019 |chapter=Anatomy, Shoulder and Upper Limb, Clavicle|pmid=30252246 }}</ref> *'''Clinic''' – (or outpatient clinic or ambulatory care clinic) is a healthcare facility that is primarily focused on the care of outpatients. Clinics can be privately operated or publicly managed and funded. *'''Clinical research''' – is a branch of healthcare science that determines the safety and effectiveness (efficacy) of medications, devices, diagnostic products and treatment regimens intended for human use. These may be used for prevention, treatment, diagnosis or for relieving symptoms of a disease. Clinical research is different from clinical practice. In clinical practice established treatments are used, while in clinical research evidence is collected to establish a treatment. *'''Coeliac disease''' – Coeliac disease or celiac disease is a long-term autoimmune disorder that primarily affects the small intestine.<ref>"Celiac Disease". NIDDKD. June 2015. Archivedfrom the original on 13 March 2016. Retrieved 17 March 2016.</ref> Classic symptoms include gastrointestinal problems such as chronic diarrhoea, abdominal distention, malabsorption, loss of appetite and among children failure to grow normally.<ref name=Fasano2005Pediatric/> This often begins between six months and two years of age.<ref name=Fasano2005Pediatric /> Non-classic symptoms are more common, especially in people older than two years.<ref name=ESPGHAN2012 /><ref name=Newnham2017>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/jgh.13704 |pmid=28244672 |title=Coeliac disease in the 21st century: Paradigm shifts in the modern age |journal=Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology |volume=32 |pages=82–85 |year=2017 |last1=Newnham |first1=Evan D |s2cid=46285202 | quote=Presentation of CD with malabsorptive symptoms or malnutrition is now the exception rather than the rule. |doi-access=free }}{{free access}}</ref><ref name=RostamiNejadHoggKollars2011>{{cite journal|vauthors=Rostami Nejad M, Hogg-Kollars S, Ishaq S, Rostami K|title= Subclinical celiac disease and gluten sensitivity|journal=Gastroenterol Hepatol Bed Bench |volume=4|issue=3|pages=102–8|date=2011|pmid=24834166|pmc=4017418|type=Review}}</ref><ref name=TonuttiBizzaro2014>{{cite journal|vauthors=Tonutti E, Bizzaro N|title=Diagnosis and classification of celiac disease and gluten sensitivity|journal=Autoimmun Rev|volume=13|issue=4–5|pages=472–6|date=2014|pmid=24440147|doi=10.1016/j.autrev.2014.01.043|type=Review}}</ref> There may be mild or absent gastrointestinal symptoms, a wide number of symptoms involving any part of the body or no obvious symptoms.<ref name=Fasano2005Pediatric /> Coeliac disease was first described in childhood;<ref name=Cic2015>{{cite journal|vauthors=Ciccocioppo R, Kruzliak P, Cangemi GC, Pohanka M, Betti E, Lauret E, Rodrigo L|title=The Spectrum of Differences between Childhood and Adulthood Celiac Disease|journal=Nutrients|volume=7|issue=10|pages=8733–51|date=22 October 2015|pmid=26506381|pmc=4632446|doi=10.3390/nu7105426|type=Review|quote=Several additional studies in extensive series of coeliac patients have clearly shown that TG2A sensitivity varies depending on the severity of duodenal damage, and reaches almost 100% in the presence of complete villous atrophy (more common in children under three years), 70% for subtotal atrophy, and up to 30% when only an increase in IELs is present. ''(IELs: intraepithelial lymphocytes)''|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=ESPGHAN2012>{{cite journal|vauthors=Husby S, Koletzko S, Korponay-Szabó IR, Mearin ML, Phillips A, Shamir R, Troncone R, Giersiepen K, Branski D, Catassi C, Lelgeman M, Mäki M, Ribes-Koninckx C, Ventura A, Zimmer KP,(( ESPGHAN Working Group on Coeliac Disease Diagnosis; ESPGHAN Gastroenterology Committee; European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition))|title=European Society for Pediatric Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition guidelines for the diagnosis of coeliac disease|journal=J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr|volume=54|issue=1|pages=136–60|date=January 2012|pmid=22197856|url=http://www.espghan.org/fileadmin/user_upload/guidelines_pdf/Guidelines_2404/European_Society_for_Pediatric_Gastroenterology_.28__1_.pdf|doi=10.1097/MPG.0b013e31821a23d0|hdl=2437/165418 |s2cid=15029283|type=Practice Guideline|quote=Since 1990, the understanding of the pathological processes of CD has increased enormously, leading to a change in the clinical paradigm of CD from a chronic, gluten-dependent enteropathy of childhood to a systemic disease with chronic immune features affecting different organ systems. (...) atypical symptoms may be considerably more common than classic symptoms|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160403065800/http://www.espghan.org/fileadmin/user_upload/guidelines_pdf/Guidelines_2404/European_Society_for_Pediatric_Gastroenterology_.28__1_.pdf|archive-date=3 April 2016}}</ref> however, it may develop at any age.<ref name=Fasano2005Pediatric>{{cite journal|author=Fasano A|title=Clinical presentation of celiac disease in the pediatric population|journal=Gastroenterology|volume=128|issue=4 Suppl 1|pages=S68–73|date=April 2005|pmid=15825129|doi=10.1053/j.gastro.2005.02.015|type=Review}}</ref><ref name=ESPGHAN2012 /> It is associated with other autoimmune diseases, such as diabetes mellitus type 1 and thyroiditis, among others.<ref name=Cic2015 /> *'''Colorectal surgery''' – is a field in medicine dealing with disorders of the rectum, anus, and colon.<ref>{{cite web | title = Colon and Rectal Surgery Specialty Description | publisher = American Medical Association | url = https://www.ama-assn.org/specialty/colon-and-rectal-surgery-specialty-description | access-date = 22 May 2020}}</ref> *'''Common carotid artery''' – In anatomy, the left and right common carotid arteries (carotids) <ref name="auto4"/><ref name="auto5"/>) are arteries that supply the head and neck with oxygenated blood; they divide in the neck to form the external and internal carotid arteries.<ref name="pmid17370446"/><ref name="iopscience"/> *'''Common cold''' – also known simply as a cold, is a viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory tract that primarily affects the nose.<ref name=CE11>{{cite journal | last = Arroll |first = B | title = Common cold | journal = Clinical Evidence | volume = 2011 | issue = 3 | page = 1510 | date = March 2011 | pmid = 21406124 | pmc = 3275147|quote=Common colds are defined as upper respiratory tract infections that affect the predominantly nasal part of the respiratory mucosa }}</ref> The throat, sinuses, and larynx may also be affected.<ref name=CMAJ2014/> Signs and symptoms may appear less than two days after exposure to the virus.<ref name=CMAJ2014>{{cite journal|last1=Allan|first1=GM|last2=Arroll|first2=B|title=Prevention and treatment of the common cold: making sense of the evidence|journal=CMAJ: Canadian Medical Association Journal |date=18 February 2014|volume=186|issue=3|pages=190–99|pmid=24468694|doi=10.1503/cmaj.121442|pmc=3928210}}</ref> These may include coughing, sore throat, runny nose, sneezing, headache, and fever.<ref name="auto10">"Common Colds: Protect Yourself and Others". CDC. 6 October 2015. Archived from the original on 5 February 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2016.</ref><ref name=Eccles2005>{{cite journal | author = Eccles R | title = Understanding the symptoms of the common cold and influenza | journal = Lancet Infect Dis | volume = 5 | issue = 11 | pages = 718–25 | date = November 2005 | pmid = 16253889 | doi = 10.1016/S1473-3099(05)70270-X | pmc = 7185637 }}</ref> People usually recover in seven to ten days,<ref name="auto10"/> but some symptoms may last up to three weeks.<ref name=Heik2003>{{cite journal |vauthors=Heikkinen T, Järvinen A | title = The common cold | journal = Lancet | volume = 361 | issue = 9351 | pages = 51–59 | date = January 2003 | pmid = 12517470 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)12162-9 | pmc = 7112468 }}</ref> Occasionally, those with other health problems may develop pneumonia.<ref name="auto10"/> *'''Common iliac artery''' – The common iliac arteries are two large arteries that originate from the aortic bifurcation at the level of the fourth lumbar vertebra. They end in front of the sacroiliac joint, one on either side, and each bifurcates into the external and internal iliac arteries. *'''Common iliac vein''' – The common iliac veins are formed by the external iliac veins and internal iliac veins. The left and right common iliac veins come together in the abdomen at the level of the fifth lumbar vertebra,<ref name=Henry1918>{{Citation | title = Anatomy of the Human Body| author = Henry Gray| year = 1918| page = 677| url =http://education.yahoo.com/reference/gray/subjects/subject/173#p677| access-date = 2008-06-15| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091222220850/http://education.yahoo.com/reference/gray/subjects/subject/173#p677| archive-date = 2009-12-22}}</ref> forming the inferior vena cava. They drain blood from the pelvis and lower limbs. Both common iliac veins are accompanied along their course by common iliac arteries.

*'''Coronary arteries''' – are the blood vessels (arteries) of coronary circulation, which transports oxygenated blood to the actual heart muscle. The heart requires a continuous supply of oxygen to function and survive, much like any other tissue or organ of the body.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.texasheart.org/heart-health/heart-information-center/topics/the-coronary-arteries/|title=Coronary Arteries|website=Texas Heart Institute|language=en-US|access-date=2019-09-01}}</ref> *'''Corpus callosum''' – also callosal commissure, is a wide, thick nerve tract consisting of a flat bundle of commissural fibers, beneath the cerebral cortex in the brain. The corpus callosum is only found in placental mammals.<ref name="Velut">{{cite journal |last1=Velut |first1=S |last2=Destrieux |first2=C |last3=Kakou |first3=M |title=[Morphologic anatomy of the corpus callosum]. |journal=Neuro-Chirurgie |date=May 1998 |volume=44 |issue=1 Suppl |pages=17–30 |pmid=9757322}}</ref> It spans part of the longitudinal fissure, connecting the left and right cerebral hemispheres, enabling communication between them. It is the largest white matter structure in the human brain, about ten centimetres in length and consisting of 200–300 million axonal projections.<ref name="qbi">{{cite web |title=Corpus callosum |url=https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/brain-anatomy/corpus-callosum |website=Queensland Brain Institute |date=10 November 2017}}</ref><ref name="J of N">{{cite journal|last1=Luders|first1=Eileen|last2=Thompson|first2=Paul M.|last3=Toga|first3=Arthur W.|title=The Development of the Corpus Callosum in the Healthy Human Brain|journal=Journal of Neuroscience|volume=30|issue=33|pages=10985–10990|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5122-09.2010|date=18 August 2010|pmc=3197828|pmid=20720105}}</ref> *'''Cranial nerves''' – are the nerves that emerge directly from the brain (including the brainstem), in contrast to spinal nerves (which emerge from segments of the spinal cord).<ref name="Vilensky">{{cite book|last1= Vilensky|first1= Joel| last2=Robertson| first2 = Wendy| last3 = Suarez-Quian| first3 = Carlos| title=The Clinical Anatomy of the Cranial Nerves: The Nerves of "On Olympus Towering Top" |year=2015|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=Ames, Iowa|isbn=978-1-118-49201-7}}</ref> Ten of the cranial nerves originate in the brainstem. Cranial nerves relay information between the brain and parts of the body, primarily to and from regions of the head and neck.<ref name="Gray's2008">{{cite book|first1=Susan |last1=Standring |first2=Neil R. |last2=Borley|title=Gray's anatomy: the anatomical basis of clinical practice|year=2008|publisher=Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier|location=[Edinburgh]|isbn=978-0-443-06684-9|edition=40th|chapter=Overview of cranial nerves and cranial nerve nuclei}}</ref> *'''Cure''' – is a substance or procedure that ends a medical condition, such as a medication, a surgical operation, a change in lifestyle or even a philosophical mindset that helps end a person's sufferings; or the state of being healed, or cured. *'''Cytogenetics''' – is a branch of genetics that is concerned with how the chromosomes relate to cell behaviour, particularly to their behaviour during mitosis and meiosis.<ref>{{citation |author1=Rieger, R. |author2= Michaelis, A. |author3=Green, M.M. |year=1968 |title=A glossary of genetics and cytogenetics: Classical and molecular |publisher=Springer-Verlag |location=New York |isbn=978-0-387-07668-3 }}</ref> *'''Cytokines''' – are a broad and loose category of small proteins (~5–20 kDa) that are important in cell signaling. Cytokines are peptides, and cannot cross the lipid bilayer of cells to enter the cytoplasm.

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==D== *'''Decompression sickness''' – is a condition caused by inert gas bubbles forming in supersaturated tissues after a reduction in ambient pressure, and either obstructing perfusion or causing local damage. *'''Deep circumflex iliac vein''' – is formed by the union of the venae comitantes of the deep iliac circumflex artery, and joins the external iliac vein about 2 cm. above the inguinal ligament. It also receives small tributary branches from the thoracoepigastric vein<ref>{{Gray's}}</ref> *'''Deep temporal arteries''' – The deep temporal arteries, two in number, anterior and posterior, ascend between the temporalis and the pericranium. They supply the muscle, and anastomose with the middle temporal artery. The anterior communicates with the lacrimal artery by means of small branches which perforate the zygomatic bone and great wing of the sphenoid. *'''Definitive treatment''' – Medical treatment generally accepted as most appropriate for the condition. *'''Deltoid muscle''' – is the muscle forming the rounded contour of the human shoulder. Anatomically, it appears to be made up of three distinct sets of fibers though electromyography suggests that it consists of at least seven groups that can be independently coordinated by the nervous system.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Brown | first1 = JM | last2 = Wickham | first2 = JB | last3 = McAndrew | first3 = DJ | last4 = Huang | first4 = XF | year = 2007 | title = Muscles within muscles: Coordination of 19 muscle segments within three shoulder muscles during isometric motor tasks | journal = J Electromyogr Kinesiol | volume = 17 | issue = 1| pages = 57–73 | doi = 10.1016/j.jelekin.2005.10.007 | pmid = 16458022 }}</ref> *'''Dentistry''' – also known as Dental and Oral Medicine, is a branch of medicine that consists of the study, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of diseases, disorders, and conditions of the oral cavity, commonly in the dentition but also the oral mucosa, and of adjacent and related structures and tissues, particularly in the maxillofacial (jaw and facial) area.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.ada.org/glossaryforprofessionals.aspx |title = Glossary of Dental Clinical and Administrative Terms |publisher = American Dental Association |access-date = 1 February 2014 |archive-date = 6 March 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160306022116/http://ada.org/glossaryforprofessionals.aspx }}</ref> *'''Dermatitis''' – also known as eczema, is a group of diseases that result in inflammation of the skin.<ref name=Ned2012>{{cite book|last1=Nedorost|first1=Susan T.|title=Generalized Dermatitis in Clinical Practice|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4471-2897-7|pages=1–3, 9, 13–14|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=egXPtnc4lssC&pg=PA1|date=2012|access-date=29 July 2016|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160815233710/https://books.google.ca/books?id=egXPtnc4lssC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA1|archive-date=15 August 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref> These diseases are characterized by itchiness, red skin and a rash.<ref name=Ned2012/> In cases of short duration, there may be small blisters, while in long-term cases the skin may become thickened.<ref name=Ned2012/> The area of skin involved can vary from small to the entire body.<ref name=Ned2012/><ref>"Handout on Health: Atopic Dermatitis (A type of eczema)". NIAMS. May 2013. Archived from the original on 30 May 2015. Retrieved 29 July 2016.</ref> *'''Diagnosis''' – Medical diagnosis (abbreviated Dx<ref name="ReferenceA">See ''List of medical abbreviations: D'' for variants.</ref> or DS) is the process of determining which disease or condition explains a person's symptoms and signs. It is most often referred to as diagnosis with the medical context being implicit. The information required for diagnosis is typically collected from a history and physical examination of the person seeking medical care. Often, one or more diagnostic procedures, such as medical tests, are also done during the process. Sometimes posthumous diagnosis is considered a kind of medical diagnosis. *'''Diabetes mellitus''' – (DM), commonly known as diabetes, is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by a high blood sugar level over a prolonged period.<ref>{{cite web|title=About diabetes |url=https://www.who.int/diabetes/action_online/basics/en/ |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=4 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140331094533/http://www.who.int/diabetes/action_online/basics/en/ |archive-date=31 March 2014 }}</ref> Symptoms of high blood sugar include frequent urination, increased thirst, and increased hunger.<ref name="auto2">"Diabetes Fact sheet N°312". WHO. October 2013. Archived from the original on 26 August 2013. Retrieved 25 March 2014.</ref> If left untreated, diabetes can cause many complications.<ref name="auto2"/> Acute complications can include diabetic ketoacidosis, hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state, or death.<ref name=Kit2009>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kitabchi AE, Umpierrez GE, Miles JM, Fisher JN | title = Hyperglycemic crises in adult patients with diabetes | journal = Diabetes Care | volume = 32 | issue = 7 | pages = 1335–43 | date = July 2009 | pmid = 19564476 | pmc = 2699725 | doi = 10.2337/dc09-9032 }}</ref> Serious long-term complications include cardiovascular disease, stroke, chronic kidney disease, foot ulcers, and damage to the eyes.<ref name="auto2"/> *'''Dietary reference intake''' – (DRI), is a system of nutrition recommendations from the Institute of Medicine (IOM) of the National Academies (United States).<ref name="HealthCanada">{{cite web |url=https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/food-nutrition/healthy-eating/dietary-reference-intakes/consumer-guide-dris-dietary-reference-intakes.html |title=A Consumer's Guide to the DRIs (Dietary Reference Intakes) |publisher=Health Canada |date=2010-11-29 |access-date=2017-08-29}}</ref> *'''Differential diagnosis''' – is the distinguishing of a particular disease or condition from others that present similar clinical features.<ref>{{cite web|title=differential diagnosis|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/differential+diagnosis?show=0&t=1419934834|website=Merriam-Webster (Medical dictionary)|access-date=30 December 2014}}</ref> *'''Digestive system''' – The human digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract plus the accessory organs of digestion (the tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder). Digestion involves the breakdown of food into smaller and smaller components, until they can be absorbed and assimilated into the body. *'''Disease''' – is an abnormal condition in an organism, or part of it, that negatively affects structure or function. Disease can be caused by external factors, or internal dysfunctions, such as abnormal immune responses. *'''Dysbarism''' {{compact TOC|side=yes|center=yes|nobreak=yes|seealso=yes|refs=yes|}}

==E==

*'''Ear''' – is the organ of hearing and, in mammals, balance. In mammals, the ear is usually described as having three parts—the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear. The outer ear consists of the pinna and the ear canal. Since the outer ear is the only visible portion of the ear in most animals, the word "ear" often refers to the external part alone.<ref name="Oxford">{{cite web|title=Ear|url=http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/ear|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718030833/http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/ear|archive-date=July 18, 2012|website=Oxford Dictionary|access-date=25 February 2016}}</ref> The middle ear includes the tympanic cavity and the three ossicles. The inner ear sits in the bony labyrinth, and contains structures which are key to several senses: the semicircular canals, which enable balance and eye tracking when moving; the utricle and saccule, which enable balance when stationary; and the cochlea, which enables hearing. The ears of vertebrates are placed somewhat symmetrically on either side of the head, an arrangement that aids sound localisation. *'''Ear infection''' – '''Otitis''' is a general term for inflammation or infection of the ear, in both humans and other animals. It is subdivided into the following: ::''Otitis externa'', external otitis, or "swimmer's ear", involves the outer ear and ear canal. In external otitis, the ear hurts when touched or pulled. ::''Otitis media'', or middle ear infection, involves the middle ear. In otitis media, the ear is infected or clogged with fluid behind the ear drum, in the normally air-filled middle-ear space. This very common childhood infection sometimes requires a surgical procedure called ''myringotomy'' and tube insertion. ::''Otitis interna'', or labyrinthitis, involves the inner ear. The inner ear includes sensory organs for balance and hearing. When the inner ear is inflamed, ''vertigo'' is a common symptom. *'''Elbow''' – is the visible joint between the upper and lower parts of the arm. It includes prominent landmarks such as the olecranon, the elbow pit, the lateral and medial epicondyles, and the elbow joint. The elbow joint<ref>{{cite web|title=MeSH Browser|url=https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?name=ELBOW%20JOINT|website=meshb.nlm.nih.gov|language=en}}</ref> is the synovial hinge joint<ref name="Palastange-Soames-2012-p138">{{Harvnb|Palastanga|Soames|2012| p=138}}</ref> between the humerus in the upper arm and the radius and ulna in the forearm which allows the forearm and hand to be moved towards and away from the body.<ref>{{Harvnb|Kapandji|1982| pp=74–7}}</ref> *'''Embryology''' – is the branch of biology that studies the prenatal development of gametes (sex cells), fertilization, and development of embryos and fetuses. Additionally, embryology encompasses the study of congenital disorders that occur before birth, known as teratology.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Embryology|title=Embryology Definition|date=7 October 2019}}</ref> *'''Emergency medicine''' – also known as accident and emergency medicine, is the medical specialty concerned with the care of illnesses or injuries requiring immediate medical attention. Emergency physicians care for unscheduled and undifferentiated patients of all ages. As first-line providers, their primary responsibility is to initiate resuscitation and stabilization and to start investigations and interventions to diagnose and treat illnesses in the acute phase. *'''Endocrine system''' – is a chemical messenger system comprising feedback loops of hormones released by internal glands of an organism directly into the circulatory system, regulating distant target organs. In humans, the major endocrine glands are the thyroid gland and the adrenal glands. In vertebrates, the hypothalamus is the neural control center for all endocrine systems. The study of the endocrine system and its disorders is known as endocrinology. Endocrinology is a branch of internal medicine.<ref name="Marieb">{{cite book | last = Marieb | first = Elaine | name-list-style = vanc | title = Anatomy & physiology | publisher = Pearson Education, Inc | location = Glenview, IL | year = 2014 | isbn = 978-0-321-86158-0 }}</ref> *'''Endocrinology''' – is a branch of biology and medicine dealing with the endocrine system, its diseases, and its specific secretions known as hormones. It is also concerned with the integration of developmental events proliferation, growth, and differentiation, and the psychological or behavioral activities of metabolism, growth and development, tissue function, sleep, digestion, respiration, excretion, mood, stress, lactation, movement, reproduction, and sensory perception caused by hormones. Specializations include behavioral endocrinology<ref>Nelson, R. J. 2005. An Introduction to Behavioral Endocrinology, Fourth Edition. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://idea.ucr.edu/documents/flash/introduction_to_behavioral_endocrinology/story.htm|title=Introduction to Behavioral Endocrinology|website=idea.ucr.edu|access-date=2020-02-06|archive-date=2018-05-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180518160008/http://idea.ucr.edu/documents/flash/introduction_to_behavioral_endocrinology/story.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-rci.rutgers.edu/~jmstern/chapter1/index.htm|title=Behavioral Endocrinology|website=www-rci.rutgers.edu|access-date=2014-03-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104075936/http://www-rci.rutgers.edu/~jmstern/chapter1/index.htm|archive-date=2016-11-04}}</ref> and comparative endocrinology. *'''Epidemiology''' – is the study and analysis of the distribution (who, when, and where), patterns and determinants of health and disease conditions in defined populations. It is a cornerstone of public health, and shapes policy decisions and evidence-based practice by identifying risk factors for disease and targets for preventive healthcare. Epidemiologists help with study design, collection, and statistical analysis of data, amend interpretation and dissemination of results (including peer review and occasional systematic review). Epidemiology has helped develop methodology used in clinical research, public health studies, and, to a lesser extent, basic research in the biological sciences.<ref>{{cite book |author=Miquel Porta |title=A Dictionary of Epidemiology |url=http://global.oup.com/academic/product/a-dictionary-of-epidemiology-9780199976737?cc=us&lang=en |edition=6th |year=2014 |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-997673-7 |access-date=16 July 2014}}</ref> *'''Epiglottis''' – is a leaf-shaped flap in the throat that prevents food from entering the windpipe and the lungs. It stands open during breathing, allowing air into the larynx. During swallowing, it closes to prevent aspiration of food into the lungs, forcing the swallowed liquids or food to go along the esophagus toward the stomach instead. It is thus the valve that diverts passage to either the trachea or the esophagus. *'''Epilepsy''' – is a group of neurological disorders characterized by recurrent epileptic seizures.<ref name=NEJM2003>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chang BS, Lowenstein DH | title = Epilepsy | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 349 | issue = 13 | pages = 1257–66 | date = September 2003 | pmid = 14507951 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMra022308 }}</ref><ref name=Fisher2014>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fisher RS, Acevedo C, Arzimanoglou A, Bogacz A, Cross JH, Elger CE, Engel J, Forsgren L, French JA, Glynn M, Hesdorffer DC, Lee BI, Mathern GW, Moshé SL, Perucca E, Scheffer IE, Tomson T, Watanabe M, Wiebe S | title = ILAE official report: a practical clinical definition of epilepsy | journal = Epilepsia | volume = 55 | issue = 4 | pages = 475–82 | date = April 2014 | pmid = 24730690 | doi = 10.1111/epi.12550 | s2cid = 35958237 | url = http://www.ilae.org/Visitors/Centre/documents/Definition2014-RFisher.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140609024638/http://www.ilae.org/Visitors/Centre/documents/Definition2014-RFisher.pdf| archive-date = 9 June 2014 }}</ref> Epileptic seizures are episodes that can vary from brief and nearly undetectable periods to long periods of vigorous shaking.<ref name="WHO 2016">"Epilepsy Fact sheet". WHO. February 2016. Archivedfrom the original on 11 March 2016. Retrieved 4 March 2016.</ref> These episodes can result in physical injuries, including occasionally broken bones.<ref name="WHO 2016"/> In epilepsy, seizures have a tendency to recur and, as a rule, have no immediate underlying cause.<ref name=NEJM2003/> Isolated seizures that are provoked by a specific cause such as poisoning are not deemed to represent epilepsy.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Fisher | first1 = R | last2 = van Emde Boas | first2 = W | last3 = Blume | first3 = W | last4 = Elger | first4 = C | last5 = Genton | first5 = P | last6 = Lee | first6 = P | last7 = Engel | first7 = J | year = 2005 | title = Epileptic seizures and epilepsy: definitions proposed by the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE) and the International Bureau for Epilepsy (IBE) | url = | journal = Epilepsia | volume = 46 | issue = 4| pages = 470–2 | doi = 10.1111/j.0013-9580.2005.66104.x | pmid = 15816939 }}</ref> *'''Erectile dysfunction''' – (ED), also called '''impotence''', is the type of sexual dysfunction in which the penis fails to become or stay erect during sexual activity. It is the most common sexual problem in men.<ref name="uptodate">Cunningham GR, Rosen RC. Overview of male sexual dysfunction. In: UpToDate, Martin KA (Ed), UpToDate, Waltham, MA, 2018.</ref> Through its connection to self-image and to problems in sexual relationships, erectile dysfunction can cause psychological harm. *'''Erector spinae muscles''' – The ''erector spinae'' or ''spinal erectors'' is a set of muscles that straighten and rotate the back. *'''Esophagus''' – The esophagus, (American English) or oesophagus (British English; see spelling differences) ({{IPAc-en|ᵻ|ˈ|s|ɒ||f|ə|ɡ|ə|s}}), informally known as the food pipe or gullet, is an organ in vertebrates through which food passes, aided by peristaltic contractions, from the pharynx to the stomach. The esophagus is a fibromuscular tube, about {{convert|25|cm|in|abbr=on|sigfig=1}} long in adults, which travels behind the trachea and heart, passes through the diaphragm and empties into the uppermost region of the stomach. During swallowing, the epiglottis tilts backwards to prevent food from going down the larynx and lungs. *'''Expedition medicine''' – The medical specialty concerned with the medical care, planning, and prevention for expeditions in remote and resource-limited settings.<ref name="Ex & Wild Medicine">{{cite book |last1=Bledsoe |first1=Gregory |last2=Manyak |first2=Michael J. |last3=Townes |first3=David A. |title=Expedition and Wilderness Medicine |date=3 November 2008 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521868730 |pages=772 |edition=1st}}</ref> *'''Extensor pollicis brevis muscle''' – In human anatomy, the extensor pollicis brevis is a skeletal muscle on the dorsal side of the forearm. It lies on the medial side of, and is closely connected with, the abductor pollicis longus. *'''Extensor pollicis et indicis communis muscle''' – In human anatomy, the extensor pollicis et indicis communis is an aberrant muscle in the posterior compartment of forearm. It was first described in 1863.<ref>{{Cite book|title = On Some Varieties in Human Myology.|url = https://archive.org/details/philtrans08076476|publisher = Royal Society of London|date = 1863-01-01|first = J.|last = Wood}}</ref> The muscle has a prevalence from 0.5% to 4%.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Extensor pollicis et indicis communis or extensor indicis radialis muscle|journal = Anatomical Science International|date = 2012-12-20|issn = 1447-6959|pages = 153–155|volume = 88|issue = 3|doi = 10.1007/s12565-012-0164-8|pmid = 23255266|language = en|first1 = Daniel Casanova|last1 = Martínez|first2 = Iván Valdivia|last2 = Gandur|first3 = Pau|last3 = Golanó|s2cid = 8043419}}</ref> *'''Extensor pollicis longus muscle''' – In human anatomy, the extensor pollicis longus muscle (EPL) is a skeletal muscle located dorsally on the forearm. It is much larger than the extensor pollicis brevis, the origin of which it partly covers and acts to stretch the thumb together with this muscle. *'''External carotid artery''' – is a major artery of the head and neck. It arises from the common carotid artery when it splits into the external and internal carotid artery. External carotid artery supplies blood to the face and neck.<ref name="Carotid artery"/> *'''External iliac artery''' – The '''external iliac arteries''' are two major arteries which bifurcate off the common iliac arteries anterior to the sacroiliac joint of the pelvis. *'''External iliac vein''' – The '''external iliac veins''' are large veins that connect the femoral veins to the common iliac veins. Their origin is at the inferior margin of the inguinal ligaments and they terminate when they join the internal iliac veins (to form the common iliac veins). Both external iliac veins are accompanied along their course by external iliac arteries. *'''External jugular vein''' – receives the greater part of the blood from the exterior of the cranium and the deep parts of the face, being formed by the junction of the posterior division of the retromandibular vein with the posterior auricular vein. *'''Eye''' – The human eye is a sense organ that reacts to light and allows vision. Rod and cone cells in the retina are photoreceptive cells which are able to detect visible light and convey this information to the brain. Eyes signal information which is used by the brain to elicit the perception of color, shape, depth, movement, and other features. The eye is part of the sensory nervous system. Similar to the eyes of other mammals, the human eye's non-image-forming photosensitive ganglion cells in the retina receive light signals which affect adjustment of the size of the pupil, regulation and suppression of the hormone melatonin, and entrainment of the circadian rhythm.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://discovermagazine.com/2012/jan-feb/12-the-brain-our-strange-light-detector/article_view?b_start:int=0&-C= | title= Our Strange, Important, Subconscious Light Detectors |access-date= 2012-05-05 |last= Zimmer |first= Carl |date=February 2012 |publisher= Discover Magazine }}</ref> *'''Eye surgery''' – also known as ophthalmic surgery, is a medical procedure performed on the eye or its surrounding tissues to treat various conditions, improve vision, or correct eye disorders.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Eye Surgery: Types, Details & Risks |url=https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/treatments/24546-eye-surgery |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250707185048/https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/treatments/24546-eye-surgery |archive-date=2025-07-07 |access-date=2025-07-31 |website=Cleveland Clinic |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref>

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==F== *'''Face''' – is the front of an animal's head that features three of the head's sense organs, the eyes, nose, and mouth, and through which animals express many of their emotions.<ref name="Moore">{{cite book | title=Moore's clinical anatomy | publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |author1=Moore, Keith L. |author2=Dalley, Arthur F. |author3=Agur, Anne M. R. | year=2010 | location=United States of America | pages=843–980 | isbn=978-1-60547-652-0}}</ref><ref name="Scotland Governement Year of Discovery 2011">{{cite web | url=http://www.scotland.gov.uk/News/Releases/2011/12/22105642 | title=Year of Discovery, Faceless and Brainless Fish | date=2011-12-29 | access-date=December 11, 2013 | archive-date=2014-10-06 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006085750/http://www.scotland.gov.uk/News/Releases/2011/12/22105642 }}</ref> The face is crucial for human identity, and damage such as scarring or developmental deformities affects the psyche adversely.<ref name="Moore" /> *'''Fallopian tube''' – The fallopian tubes, also known as uterine tubes or salpinges (singular salpinx), are tubes that stretch from the uterus to the ovaries, and are part of the female reproductive system. The fertilized egg passes through the fallopian tubes from the ovaries of female mammals to the uterus. The fallopian tube is simple columnar epithelium with hair-like extensions called cilia which carry the fertilized egg. In other animals, the equivalent of a fallopian tube is an oviduct. *'''Fellowship (medicine)''' – is the period of medical training, in the United States and Canada, that a physician, dentist, or veterinarian may undertake after completing a specialty training program (residency). During this time (usually more than one year), the physician is known as a fellow. Fellows are capable of acting as an attending physician or a consultant physician in the specialist field in which they were trained, such as Internal Medicine or Pediatrics. After completing a fellowship in the relevant sub-specialty, the physician is permitted to practice without direct supervision by other physicians in that sub-specialty, such as Cardiology or Oncology. *'''Female reproductive system''' – is made up of the internal and external sex organs that function in reproduction of new offspring. In humans, the female reproductive system is immature at birth and develops to maturity at puberty to be able to produce gametes, and to carry a foetus to full term. The internal sex organs are the uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries. The uterus or womb accommodates the embryo which develops into the foetus. The uterus also produces vaginal and uterine secretions which help the transit of sperm to the fallopian tubes. The ovaries produce the ova (egg cells). The external sex organs are also known as the ''genitals'' and these are the organs of the vulva including the labia, clitoris, and vaginal opening. The vagina is connected to the uterus at the cervix.<ref name="Ellis 2013">{{cite book|last1=Mahadevan|first1=Harold Ellis, Vishy|title=Clinical anatomy applied anatomy for students and junior doctors|date=2013|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=Chichester, West Sussex, UK|isbn=978-1-118-37376-7|edition=13th}}</ref> *'''Femoral artery''' – is a large artery in the thigh and the main arterial supply to the thigh and leg. It enters the thigh from behind the inguinal ligament as the continuation of the external iliac artery. *'''Femoral nerve''' – is a nerve in the thigh that supplies skin on the upper thigh and inner leg, and the muscles that extend the knee. *'''Femoral vein''' – In the human body, the femoral vein is a blood vessel that accompanies the femoral artery in the femoral sheath. It begins at the adductor hiatus (an opening in the adductor magnus muscle) and is a continuation of the popliteal vein. It ends at the inferior margin of the inguinal ligament, where it becomes the external iliac vein. The femoral vein bears valves which are mostly bicuspid and whose number is variable between individuals and often between left and right leg.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Jonas Keiler |author2=Marko Schulze |author3=Host Claassen |author4=Andreas Wree |year=2018 |title=Femoral vein diameter, valve and tributary topography in humans - a post mortem analysis |journal=Clinical Anatomy |volume=31 |issue=7 |pages=1065–1076 | doi=10.1002/ca.23224|pmid=30240062 |s2cid=52308003 }}</ref> *'''Femur''' – The femur, or thigh bone, is the proximal bone of the hindlimb in tetrapod vertebrate, the largest bone of the human body. The head of the femur articulates with the acetabulum in the pelvic bone forming the hip joint, while the distal part of the femur articulates with the tibia and kneecap, forming the knee joint. *'''Fibromyalgia''' – a chronic condition characterized by widespread pain in muscles and soft tissues throughout the body. It is believed to affect how the brain and spinal cord process pain signals, leading to increased sensitivity to pain.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Fibromyalgia: Combination of treatments often required-Fibromyalgia - Symptoms & causes |url=https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/fibromyalgia/symptoms-causes/syc-20354780 |access-date=2025-07-30 |website=Mayo Clinic |language=en}}</ref> *'''Fibrous joint''' – a type of joint in the human body where adjacent bones are connected by fibrous connective tissue. These joints are characterized by their lack of a joint cavity and minimal to no movement, making them classified as synarthroses'''.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Biga |first=Lindsay M. |last2=Bronson |first2=Staci |last3=Dawson |first3=Sierra |last4=Harwell |first4=Amy |last5=Hopkins |first5=Robin |last6=Kaufmann |first6=Joel |last7=LeMaster |first7=Mike |last8=Matern |first8=Philip |last9=Morrison-Graham |first9=Katie |last10=Oja |first10=Kristen |last11=Quick |first11=Devon |last12=Runyeon |first12=Jon |last13=Oeru |first13=Osu |last14=OpenStax |date=2019-09-26 |title=9.2 Fibrous Joints |url=https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/9-2-fibrous-joints/ |language=en}}</ref> *'''Fibula''' – is a long bone located on the lateral side of the tibia in the leg. It is the smaller of the two bones in the lower leg and plays a crucial role in maintaining stability and supporting the ankle joint.<ref>{{Citation |last=Gupton |first=Marco |title=Anatomy, Bony Pelvis and Lower Limb: Fibula |date=2025 |work=StatPearls |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470591/ |access-date=2025-07-30 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=29261984 |last2=Munjal |first2=Akul |last3=Kang |first3=Michael}}</ref> *'''Finger''' – is one of the digits located on the hand of a human or animal, typically used for gripping, touching, or manipulating objects. Each finger consists of three little bones known as phalanges, which confer structure and strength. These bones are interconnected by joints encased in muscles, tendons, and ligaments, facilitating smooth movement. *'''First aid''' – is the immediate assistance provided to someone who is injured or ill, aimed at preserving life, preventing the condition from worsening, and promoting recovery until professional medical help arrives.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is First Aid? {{!}} Understand First Aid |url=https://www.redcross.org/take-a-class/first-aid/performing-first-aid/what-is-first-aid |access-date=2025-07-30 |website=Red Cross |language=en}}</ref> *'''Flat bone''' – are one of the main types of bones in the human body, characterized by their thin and flattened shape. They consist of two layers of compact bone surrounding a layer of spongy bone, which contains red bone marrow. This structure provides strength while keeping the bones lightweight, allowing them to effectively protect underlying organs and serve as attachment points for muscles.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Biga |first=Lindsay M. |last2=Bronson |first2=Staci |last3=Dawson |first3=Sierra |last4=Harwell |first4=Amy |last5=Hopkins |first5=Robin |last6=Kaufmann |first6=Joel |last7=LeMaster |first7=Mike |last8=Matern |first8=Philip |last9=Morrison-Graham |first9=Katie |last10=Oja |first10=Kristen |last11=Quick |first11=Devon |last12=Runyeon |first12=Jon |last13=Oeru |first13=Osu |last14=OpenStax |date=2019-09-26 |title=6.2 Bone Classification |url=https://open.oregonstate.education/aandp/chapter/6-2-bone-classification/ |language=en}}</ref> *'''Foot''' – The foot is a complex anatomical structure made up of multiple joints, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and a network of blood vessels and nerves that are intended to support weight, allow movement, and maintain balance. It is divided into three sections: the forefoot (toes and metatarsals), the midfoot (arch-forming bones), and the hindfoot (heel and ankle). Crucial bones include the calcaneus (heel bone), talus (ankle bone), and tarsals. The plantar fascia is a thick band of connective tissue that supports the arch and absorbs trauma. Plantar fasciitis, bunions, flat feet, and fractures are all common foot-related medical conditions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Feet - Structure, Function, Location, Anatomy, Diagram |url=https://anatomy.co.uk/feet |access-date=2025-07-31 |website=anatomy.co.uk}}</ref> *'''Forearm''' – is the region of the upper limb located between the elbow and the wrist. It consists of two bones, the radius and the ulna, and contains 20 muscles that facilitate various movements, such as bending and rotating the wrist and hand. The forearm plays a crucial role in force application and the precise placement of the hand in space, aided by the elbow and distal and proximal radioulnar joints. *'''Forehead''' – is the area of the face located above the eyes and below the hairline. It constitutes the upper third of the face and is bounded by the hairline at the top, the eyebrows at the bottom, and the glabella (the smooth part of the forehead between the eyebrows) centrally.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2025-04-09 |title=Forehead Anatomy: Surface Anatomy, Bones of the Forehead, Forehead and Scalp |url=https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/834862-overview}}</ref> *'''Frontal bone''' – *'''Frontal nerve''' – is the largest branch of the ophthalmic nerve (V1), itself a branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V).<ref name="grays41e">{{Cite book|title=Gray's anatomy: the anatomical basis of clinical practice|last=Gray|first=Henry|others=Standring, Susan|date=2016|isbn=978-0-7020-5230-9|edition=41st|location=[Philadelphia]|oclc=920806541}}</ref> The frontal nerve branches from the ophthalmic nerve immediately before entering the superior orbital fissure. In then travels superolateral to the annulus of Zinn between the lacrimal nerve and inferior ophthalmic vein. After entering the orbit it travels anteriorly between the roof periosteum and the levator palpebrae superioris. Midway between the apex and base of the orbit it divides into two branches, the supratrochlear nerve and supraorbital nerve. The two branches of the frontal nerve provide sensory innervation to the skin of the forehead, mucosa of the frontal sinus, and the skin of the upper eyelid. *'''Frontalis muscle''' – is a thin, flat muscle located on the forehead. It originates from the galea aponeurotica and inserts into the skin of the eyebrows, playing a key role in facial expressions by raising the eyebrows and wrinkling the forehead. Innervated by the temporal branch of the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII), it helps convey emotions like surprise or concern. Its activity is also relevant in clinical conditions such as Bell's palsy and cosmetic procedures like Botox, which target its function to reduce forehead lines.<ref>{{Citation |last=Pessino |first=Kenneth |title=Anatomy, Head and Neck; Frontalis Muscle |date=2025 |work=StatPearls |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557752/ |access-date=2025-07-31 |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=32491684 |last2=Patel |first2=Jay |last3=Patel |first3=Bhupendra C.}}</ref>

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==G== *'''Gallbladder''' – In vertebrates, the gallbladder is a small hollow organ where bile is stored and concentrated before it is released into the small intestine. In humans, the pear-shaped gallbladder lies beneath the liver, although the structure and position of the gallbladder can vary significantly among animal species. It receives and stores bile, produced by the liver, via the common hepatic duct and releases it via the common bile duct into the duodenum, where the bile helps in the digestion of fats. *'''Gamete''' – is a haploid cell that fuses with another haploid cell during fertilization in organisms that reproduce sexually.<ref>{{Cite web|title=gamete {{!}} Definition, Formation, Examples, & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/gamete|access-date=2020-10-20|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref> Gametes are an organism's '''reproductive cells''', also referred to as '''sex cells'''.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=gamete / gametes {{!}} Learn Science at Scitable|url=https://www.nature.com/scitable/definition/gamete-gametes-311/|access-date=2020-10-20|website=www.nature.com}}</ref> *'''Ganglion''' – is a group of neuron cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system. In the somatic nervous system this includes dorsal root ganglia and trigeminal ganglia among a few others. In the autonomic nervous system there are both sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia which contain the cell bodies of postganglionic sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons respectively. *'''Gastrocnemius muscle''' – (plural ''gastrocnemii'') is a superficial two-headed muscle that is in the back part of the lower leg of humans. It runs from its two heads just above the knee to the heel, a three joint muscle (knee, ankle and subtalar joints). The muscle is named via Latin, from Greek ''γαστήρ'' (''gaster'') 'belly' or 'stomach' and ''κνήμη'' (''knḗmē'') 'leg', meaning 'stomach of leg' (referring to the bulging shape of the calf). *'''Gastroenterology''' – Gastroenterology<ref>MeSH heading [https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?name=gastroenterology gastroenterology]</ref> is the branch of medicine focused on the digestive system and its disorders. Diseases affecting the gastrointestinal tract, which include the organs from mouth into anus, along the alimentary canal, are the focus of this speciality. *'''Gastrointestinal tract''' – The gastrointestinal tract, (''GI tract'', ''GIT'', ''digestive tract'', ''digestion tract'', ''alimentary canal'') is the tract from the mouth to the anus which includes all the organs of the digestive system in humans and other animals. Food taken in through the mouth is digested to extract nutrients and absorb energy, and the waste expelled as feces. The mouth, esophagus, stomach and intestines are all part of the gastrointestinal tract. ''Gastrointestinal'' is an adjective meaning of or pertaining to the stomach and intestines. A tract is a collection of related anatomic structures or a series of connected body organs. *'''Gene therapy''' – (also called ''human gene transfer'') is a medical field which focuses on the utilization of the therapeutic delivery of nucleic acids into a patient's cells as a drug to treat disease.<ref>{{cite book|title=Emerging Medical Technologies|last=Ermak|first=Gennady| name-list-style = vanc |publisher=World Scientific|year=2015|isbn=978-981-4675-81-9}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaji|first=Eugene H.|date=2001-02-07|title=Gene and Stem Cell Therapies|journal=JAMA|volume=285|issue=5|pages=545–550|doi=10.1001/jama.285.5.545|pmid=11176856|issn=0098-7484|doi-access=free}}</ref> *'''General surgery''' – is a surgical specialty that focuses on abdominal contents including esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, pancreas, gallbladder, appendix and bile ducts, and often the thyroid gland (depending on local referral patterns). They also deal with diseases involving the skin, breast, soft tissue, trauma, Peripheral artery disease and hernias and perform endoscopic procedures such as gastroscopy and colonoscopy. *'''Genetics''' – is a branch of biology concerned with the study of genes, genetic variation, and heredity in organisms.<ref name=griffiths2000sect60>{{cite book |editor-first=Anthony J.F. |editor-last=Griffiths |editor2-first=Jeffrey H. |editor2-last=Miller |editor3-first=David T. |editor3-last=Suzuki |editor4-first=Richard C. |editor4-last=Lewontin |editor5-last=Gelbart | name-list-style = vanc |title=An Introduction to Genetic Analysis |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7167-3520-5 |edition=7th |publisher=W.H. Freeman |location=New York |chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?rid=iga.section.60 |chapter=Genetics and the Organism: Introduction}}</ref><ref name=Hartl_and_Jones>{{cite book|last1=Hartl|first1= D|last2= Jones|first2= E |date=2005|title = Essential Genetics: A Genomic Perspective|isbn = 978-0-7637-3527-2|edition = 4th|publisher = Jones & Bartlett Learning }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/genetics|title=the definition of genetics|website=www.dictionary.com|language=en|access-date=2018-10-25}}</ref> *'''Genitourinary system''' – The genitourinary system, or ''urogenital system'', are the organs of the reproductive system and the urinary system.<ref>{{DorlandsDict|eight/000105290|genitourinary system}}</ref> These are grouped together because of their proximity to each other, their common embryological origin and the use of common pathways, like the male urethra. Also, because of their proximity, the systems are sometimes imaged together.<ref name="urlUC Davis Department of Radiology - Genitourinary Radiology">{{cite web |url=http://www.ucdmc.ucdavis.edu/radiology/specialties/genitourinary.html |title=UC Davis Department of Radiology - Genitourinary Radiology |access-date=2010-03-16}}</ref> *'''Geriatrics''' – or ''geriatric medicine'',<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=18390|title=Definition of Geriatric medicine|website=MedicineNet|access-date=2021-02-15|archive-date=2020-08-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801004536/https://www.medicinenet.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=18390}}</ref> is a specialty that focuses on health care of elderly people.<ref>[http://www.med.umn.edu/agingcf/continuity.html Geriatrics separation from internal medicine] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114131504/http://www.med.umn.edu/agingcf/continuity.html |date=14 January 2009 }}</ref> It aims to promote health by preventing and treating diseases and disabilities in older adults.<ref>{{cite web | title = Geriatric Medicine Specialty Description | publisher = American Medical Association | url = https://www.ama-assn.org/specialty/geriatric-medicine-specialty-description | access-date = 5 September 2020}}</ref> There is no set age at which patients may be under the care of a ''geriatrician'', or ''geriatric physician'', a physician who specializes in the care of elderly people. Rather, this decision is determined by the individual patient's needs, and the availability of a specialist. It is important to note the difference between geriatrics, the care of aged people, and gerontology, which is the study of the aging process itself. The term ''geriatrics'' comes from the Greek γέρων ''geron'' meaning "old man", and ιατρός ''iatros'' meaning "healer". However, geriatrics is sometimes called ''medical gerontology''. *'''Gonad''' – A gonad, '''sex gland''', or '''reproductive gland'''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/sex+gland?r=66|title=the definition of sex gland|website=Dictionary.com|access-date=8 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722180541/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/sex+gland?r=66|archive-date=22 July 2015}}</ref> is a mixed gland that produces the gametes (sex cells) and sex hormones of an organism. In the female of the species the reproductive cells are the egg cells, and in the male the reproductive cells are the sperm.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.macmillandictionary.com/dictionary/american/gonad|title=gonad (noun) American English definition and synonyms - Macmillan Dictionary|website=www.macmillandictionary.com|access-date=8 May 2018|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180508154610/http://www.macmillandictionary.com/dictionary/american/gonad|archive-date=8 May 2018}}</ref> The male gonad, the testicle, produces sperm in the form of spermatozoa. The female gonad, the ovary, produces egg cells. Both of these gametes are haploid cells. Some hermaphroditic animals have a type of gonad called an ovotestis. *'''Gout''' – is a form of inflammatory arthritis characterized by recurrent attacks of a red, tender, hot, and swollen joint.<ref name=Review08>{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen LX, Schumacher HR |title=Gout: an evidence-based review |journal=J Clin Rheumatol |volume=14 |issue=5 Suppl |pages=S55–62 |date=October 2008 |pmid=18830092 |doi=10.1097/RHU.0b013e3181896921 |s2cid=6644013 }}</ref><ref name=Hui2017>{{cite journal|last1=Hui|first1=M|last2=Carr|first2=A|last3=Cameron|first3=S|last4=Davenport|first4=G|last5=Doherty|first5=M|last6=Forrester|first6=H|last7=Jenkins|first7=W|last8=Jordan|first8=KM|last9=Mallen|first9=CD|last10=McDonald|first10=TM|last11=Nuki|first11=G|last12=Pywell|first12=A|last13=Zhang|first13=W|last14=Roddy|first14=E|last15=British Society for Rheumatology Standards, Audit and Guidelines Working|first15=Group.|title=The British Society for Rheumatology Guideline for the Management of Gout|journal=Rheumatology|volume=56|issue=7|pages=e1–e20|date=26 May 2017|doi=10.1093/rheumatology/kex156|pmid=28549177|doi-access=free}}</ref> Pain typically comes on rapidly, reaching maximal intensity in less than 12 hours.<ref name="auto1">{{cite journal | last1 = Richette | first1 = P | last2 = Bardin | first2 = T | year = 2010 | title = Gout | journal = Lancet | volume = 375 | issue = 9711| pages = 318–28 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60883-7 | pmid = 19692116 | s2cid = 208793280 }}</ref> The joint at the base of the big toe is affected in about half of cases.<ref name=PM2010>{{cite journal |author=Schlesinger N |title=Diagnosing and treating gout: a review to aid primary care physicians |journal=Postgrad Med |volume=122 |issue=2 |pages=157–61 |date=March 2010 |pmid=20203467 |doi=10.3810/pgm.2010.03.2133 |s2cid=35321485 }}</ref> It may also result in tophi, kidney stones, or urate nephropathy.<ref name="auto1"/> *'''Gracilis muscle''' – is the most superficial muscle on the medial side of the thigh. It is thin and flattened, broad above, narrow and tapering below. *'''Great saphenous vein''' – ('''GSV''', alternately "'''long saphenous vein'''"; {{IPAc-en|s|ə|ˈ|f|iː|n|ə|s}}) is a large, subcutaneous, superficial vein of the leg. It is the longest vein in the body, running along the length of the lower limb, returning blood from the foot, leg and thigh to the deep femoral vein at the femoral triangle. *The '''guarding reflex''' in the urinary system is the gradual tightening of the external urethral sphincter, which prevents urine from exiting the bladder as the bladder fills and pressure on the sphincter increases. At low levels of pressure this occurs unconsciously.<ref>British Journal of Urology (1997), 80, 940–945 The guarding reflex revisited J.M. PARK, D.A. BLOOM and E.J . McGUIRE* Section of Urology, Department of Surgery, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, Michigan, and *Department of Urology, University of Texas Medical School Houston, Texas, USA</ref> *'''Gynaecology''' – or '''gynecology''' (see spelling differences) is the medical practice dealing with the health of the female reproductive system. Almost all modern gynaecologists are also obstetricians (see ''obstetrics and gynaecology''). In many areas, the specialities of gynaecology and obstetrics overlap. The term means "the science of women".<ref>[https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-science-of-women:-gynaecology-and-gender-in-Porter/9c2955ffce6e0de9ef557bad8d8f3f521b6fc1a5 R .Porter (1991), reviews Ornella Moscucci, The science of women: gynaecology and gender in England, 1800-1929, Cambridge History of Medicine, Cambridge University Press, 1990, 8vo, pp. x, 278] retrieved 2021-March-07</ref> Its counterpart is andrology, which deals with medical issues specific to the male reproductive system.

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==H== *'''Hand''' – A hand is a prehensile, multi-fingered appendage located at the end of the forearm or forelimb of primates. The human hand normally has five digits: four fingers plus one thumb;<ref name=Latash2008>{{cite book|author=Mark L. Latash|title=Synergy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=640UDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA137|date=18 March 2008|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|isbn=978-0-19-533316-9|pages=137–}}</ref><ref name=KivellLemelin2016>{{cite book|author1=Tracy L. Kivell|author2=Pierre Lemelin|author3=Brian G. Richmond|author4=Daniel Schmitt|title=The Evolution of the Primate Hand: Anatomical, Developmental, Functional, and Paleontological Evidence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R1nSDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|date=10 August 2016|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4939-3646-5|pages=7–}}</ref> these are often referred to collectively as five fingers, however, whereby the thumb is included as one of the fingers.<ref name=Latash2008/><ref>{{cite book|last1=Goldfinger|first1=Eliot|title=Human Anatomy for Artists: The Elements of Form: The Elements of Form|url=https://archive.org/details/humananatomyfora00gold|url-access=limited|date=1991|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=[https://archive.org/details/humananatomyfora00gold/page/n104 177], 295|isbn=978-0-19-505206-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=O'Rahilly|first1=Ronan|last2=Müller|first2=Fabiola |title=Basic Human Anatomy: A Regional Study of Human Structure|date=1983|publisher=Saunders|page=93}}</ref> It has 27 bones, not including sesmoid bones, the number of which varies between people,<ref name="Schmidt 2003 105">{{Harvnb|Schmidt|Lanz|2003| p=105}}</ref> 14 of which are the phalanges (proximal, intermediate and distal) of the fingers and thumb. The metacarpal bones connect the fingers and the carpal bones of the wrist. Each human hand has five metacarpals<ref>{{Harvnb|Marieb|2004| p=237}}</ref> and eight carpal bones. *'''Hand surgery''' – deals with both surgical and non-surgical treatment of conditions and problems that may take place in the hand or upper extremity (commonly from the tip of the hand to the shoulder)<ref name=assh>Hand surgery is extremely difficult, ranking last on what most doctors would consider "easy." It can cause loss of memory, loss of fingers, loss of hand or hands, loss of leg and, in above average cases, death. [http://www.assh.org/Public/About/Pages/default.aspx "About Hand Surgery"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413141453/http://www.assh.org/Public/About/Pages/default.aspx |date=2014-04-13 }}, American Society for Surgery of the Hand. Retrieved on 2011-02-24.</ref> including injury and infection.<ref>[http://www.assh.org/Public/About/Pages/Why.aspx "Why Visit a Hand Surgeon"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131209175314/http://www.assh.org/Public/About/Pages/Why.aspx |date=2013-12-09 }}, American Society for Surgery of the Hand. Retrieved on 2011-02-24.</ref> Hand surgery may be practiced by graduates of general surgery, orthopedic surgery and plastic surgery.<ref name=assh /> ''Chiroplasty'', or ''cheiroplasty'', is plastic surgery of the hands.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?chiroplasty |title=Definition: cheiroplasty from Online Medical Dictionary |access-date=2009-01-06 |publisher=Online Medical Dictionary}}</ref><ref name="freedictionary">{{cite web |url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/chiroplasty |title=Definition of chiroplasty by the Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia |access-date=2009-01-06 |publisher=The Free Dictionary}}</ref> *'''Head''' – In human anatomy, the head is at the top of the human body. It supports the face and is maintained by the skull, which itself encloses the brain. The human head consists of a fleshy outer portion, which surrounds the bony skull. The brain is enclosed within the skull. There are 22 bones in the human head. The head rests on the neck, and the seven cervical vertebrae support it. The human head typically weighs between {{convert|2.3|and|5|kg|abbr=}} The face is the anterior part of the head, containing the eyes, nose, and mouth. On either side of the mouth, the cheeks provide a fleshy border to the oral cavity. The ears sit to either side of the head. *'''Health''' – as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO), is "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity."<ref name="WHO definition">World Health Organization.Constitution of the World Health Organization as adopted by the International Health Conference, New York, 19–22 June 1946; signed on 22 July 1946 by the representatives of 61 States (Official Records of the World Health Organization, no. 2, p. 100) and entered into force on 7 April 1948. In {{cite journal|journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization |year=2002|volume= 80 |issue=12|page=982|title=The Preamble of the Constitution of the World Health Organization|author=Grad, Frank P. |pmid=12571728|pmc=2567708}}</ref><ref name="WHO constitution">World Health Organization. (2006). [https://www.who.int/governance/eb/who_constitution_en.pdf ''Constitution of the World Health Organization''] – ''Basic Documents'', Forty-fifth edition, Supplement, October 2006.</ref> This definition has been subject to controversy, as it may have limited value for implementation.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Jadad AR, O'Grady L: How should health be defined? |title=How should health be defined?|journal=BMJ (Clinical Research Ed.)|volume=337|article-number=a2900|pmid=19073663|year=2008|doi=10.1136/bmj.a2900|s2cid=8842596}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Callahan D.|title=The WHO definition of 'health'|journal=The Hastings Center Studies|volume=1|issue=3|year= 1973|pages=77–87|jstor=3527467|doi=10.2307/3527467|pmid=4607284}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Taylor S, Marandi A | title = How should health be defined? | journal = BMJ | volume = 337 | pages = a290 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18614520 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.a290 | s2cid = 19081214 }}</ref> Health may be defined as the ability to adapt and manage physical, mental and social challenges throughout life.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Huber|first1=Machteld|last2=Knottnerus|first2=J. André|last3=Green|first3=Lawrence|last4=Horst|first4=Henriëtte van der|last5=Jadad|first5=Alejandro R.|last6=Kromhout|first6=Daan|last7=Leonard|first7=Brian|last8=Lorig|first8=Kate|last9=Loureiro|first9=Maria Isabel|date=2011-07-26|title=How should we define health?|url=https://www.bmj.com/content/343/bmj.d4163|journal=BMJ|language=en|volume=343|article-number=d4163|doi=10.1136/bmj.d4163|issn=0959-8138|pmid=21791490|hdl=1885/17067|s2cid=19573798|hdl-access=free}}</ref> *'''Health care''' – Health care, health-care, or healthcare is the maintenance or improvement of health via the prevention, diagnosis, treatment, recovery, or cure of disease, illness, injury, and other physical and mental impairments in people. Health care is delivered by health professionals and allied health fields. Physicians and physician associates are a part of these health professionals. Dentistry, pharmacy, midwifery, nursing, medicine, optometry, audiology, psychology, occupational therapy, physical therapy, athletic training and other health professions are all part of health care. It includes work done in providing primary care, secondary care, and tertiary care, as well as in public health. *'''Hearing''' – *'''Heart''' – *'''Heel''' – *'''Hematemesis'''- *'''Hematology''' – *'''Hematoma'''- *'''Hematuria'''- *'''Hemodialysis'''- *'''Hemolysis'''- *'''Hemopathy'''- *'''Hemoperfusion'''- *'''Hemophilia'''- *'''Hemoptysis'''- *'''Hemorrhoid'''- *'''Hyperhydrosis'''- *'''High blood pressure''' – *'''Hyperkalemia'''- *'''Hip bone''' – *'''Histology''' – *'''Homeostasis''' – *'''Hormone''' – *'''Hospice''' – *'''Hospital''' – *'''Hospital medicine''' – *'''Human back''' – *'''Human body''' – *'''Human brain''' – *'''Human digestive system''' – *'''Human eye''' – *'''Human head''' – *'''Human mouth''' – *'''Human musculoskeletal system''' – *'''Human nose''' – *'''Human reproductive system''' – *'''Human skeleton''' – *'''Humerus''' – *'''Hydrocele''' – *'''Hypersalivation''' – *'''Hypertension''' –

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==I== *'''Iliac artery, common''' – The common iliac arteries are two large arteries that originate from the aortic bifurcation at the level of the fourth lumbar vertebra. They end in front of the sacroiliac joint, one on either side, and each bifurcates into the external and internal iliac arteries. *'''Iliac artery, external''' – The external iliac arteries are two major arteries which bifurcate off the common iliac arteries anterior to the sacroiliac joint of the pelvis. They proceed anterior and inferior along the medial border of the psoas major muscles. They exit the pelvic girdle posterior and inferior to the inguinal ligament about one third laterally from the insertion point of the inguinal ligament on the pubic tubercle at which point they are referred to as the femoral arteries.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tortora |first1=Gerard J. |last2=Grabowski |first2=Sandra R. |editor1-first=Bonnie |editor1-last=Roesch |title=Principles of Anatomy and Physiology: Volume 4 Maintenance and Continuity of the Human Body |type=Textbook |edition=10th |volume=4 |year=2003 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |location=New York, NY |isbn=0-471-22934-2 |page=734}}</ref> The external iliac artery is usually the artery used to attach the renal artery to the recipient of a kidney transplant. *'''Ilium''' – (plural '''ilia'''), is the uppermost and largest part of the hip bone, and appears in most vertebrates including mammals and birds, but not bony fish. All reptiles have an ilium except snakes, although some snake species have a tiny bone which is considered to be an ilium.<ref name=reptiles_disease_book> {{cite book | last = Jacobson | first = Elliott R. | title = Infectious Diseases and Pathology of Reptiles | page = 7 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hhO4WAZcVLEC&q=%22ilium%22+%22in+snakes%22&pg=PA7 | year = 2007 | access-date = 2009-01-09 | publisher = CRC Press | isbn = 978-0-8493-2321-8 }} </ref> The ilium of the human is divisible into two parts, the body and the wing; the separation is indicated on the top surface by a curved line, the arcuate line, and on the external surface by the margin of the acetabulum. *'''Immune system''' – is a network of biological processes that protects an organism against disease. It detects and responds to a wide variety of pathogens, from viruses to parasitic worms, as well as objects such as wood splinters, distinguishing them from the organism's own healthy tissue. Many species have two major subsystems of the immune system. The innate immune system provides a preconfigured response to broad groups of situations and stimuli. The adaptive immune system provides a tailored response to each stimulus by learning to recognize molecules it has previously encountered. Both use molecules and cells to perform their functions. *'''Immunohistochemistry''' – *'''Immunology''' – is a branch of biology<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ntnu.edu/biology/about-us/what-is-biology|title=What is Biology?|last=Fossen|first=Christian | name-list-style = vanc |website=www.ntnu.edu | access-date=2018-07-25}}</ref> that covers the study of immune systems<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Villani AC, Sarkizova S, Hacohen N | title = Systems Immunology: Learning the Rules of the Immune System | journal = Annual Review of Immunology | volume = 36 | issue = 1 | pages = 813–842 | date = April 2018 | pmid = 29677477 | pmc = 6597491 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-immunol-042617-053035 }}</ref> in all organisms.<ref>[https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK10757/?depth=2 Janeway's Immunobiology textbook] Searchable free online version at the National Center for Biotechnology Information</ref> Immunology charts, measures, and contextualizes the physiological functioning of the immune system in states of both health and diseases; malfunctions of the immune system in immunological disorders (such as autoimmune diseases, hypersensitivities, immune deficiency,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://primaryimmune.org/about-primary-immunodeficiencies/specific-disease-types|title=Specific Disease Types {{!}} Immune Deficiency Foundation|website=primaryimmune.org | access-date=2018-07-25}}</ref> and transplant rejection<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000815.htm|title=Transplant rejection: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia|website=medlineplus.gov | access-date=2018-07-25}}</ref>); and the physical, chemical, and physiological characteristics of the components of the immune system ''in vitro'',<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pierce CW, Solliday SM, Asofsky R | title = Immune responses in vitro. IV. Suppression of primary M, G, and A plaque-forming cell responses in mouse spleen cell cultures by class-specific antibody to mouse immunoglobulins | journal = The Journal of Experimental Medicine | volume = 135 | issue = 3 | pages = 675–97 | date = March 1972 | pmid = 4536706 | pmc = 2139142 | doi = 10.1084/jem.135.3.675 }}</ref> ''in situ'', and ''in vivo''.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Miyahara S, Yokomuro K, Takahashi H, Kimura Y | title = Regeneration and the immune system. I. In vitro and in vivo activation of lymphocytes by liver regeneration and the role of Kupffer cells in stimulation | journal = European Journal of Immunology | volume = 13 | issue = 11 | pages = 878–83 | date = November 1983 | pmid = 6227489 | doi = 10.1002/eji.1830131104 | s2cid = 22400759 }}</ref> Immunology has applications in numerous disciplines of medicine, particularly in the fields of organ transplantation, oncology, rheumatology, virology, bacteriology, parasitology, psychiatry, and dermatology. *'''Iliac vein, common''' – In human anatomy, the common iliac veins are formed by the external iliac veins and internal iliac veins. The left and right common iliac veins come together in the abdomen at the level of the fifth lumbar vertebra,<ref>{{Citation | title = Anatomy of the Human Body | author = Henry Gray | year = 1918 | page = 677 | url = http://education.yahoo.com/reference/gray/subjects/subject/173#p677 | access-date = 2008-06-15 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091222220850/http://education.yahoo.com/reference/gray/subjects/subject/173#p677 | archive-date = 2009-12-22 }}</ref> forming the inferior vena cava. They drain blood from the pelvis and lower limbs. Both common iliac veins are accompanied along their course by common iliac arteries. *'''Iliac vein, deep circumflex''' – *'''Iliac vein, external''' – *'''Iliac vein, internal''' – *'''Index finger''' – *'''Infectious diseases (medical specialty)''' – *'''Inferior oblique muscle''' – *'''Inferior thyroid artery''' – *'''Inferior vena cava''' – *'''Influenza''' – *'''Inspection (medicine)''' – *'''Integumentary system''' – *'''Intensive care medicine''' – *'''Internal carotid artery''' – *'''Internal iliac vein''' – *'''Internal jugular vein''' – *'''Internal medicine''' – *'''Internship (medicine)''' – *'''Interventional cardiology''' – *'''Interventional radiology''' – *'''Ischium''' –

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==J== *'''Jaundice'''- also known as icterus, is a yellowish or greenish pigmentation of the skin and whites of the eyes due to high bilirubin levels.<ref name=NIH2016>{{cite web|title=Jaundice|url=https://medlineplus.gov/jaundice.html|website=MedlinePlus|access-date=13 August 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827200257/https://medlineplus.gov/jaundice.html|archive-date=27 August 2016}}</ref><ref name=But2012>{{cite book|last1=Buttaro|first1=Terry Mahan|last2=Trybulski|first2=JoAnn|last3=Polgar-Bailey|first3=Patricia|last4=Sandberg-Cook|first4=Joanne|title=Primary Care: A Collaborative Practice|date=2012|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-0-323-07585-5|page=690|edition=4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YBcHR-wQOWQC&pg=PA690|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908204555/https://books.google.com/books?id=YBcHR-wQOWQC&pg=PA690|archive-date=2017-09-08}}</ref> It is commonly associated with itchiness.<ref name=Bas2015>{{cite journal|last1=Bassari|first1=R|last2=Koea|first2=JB|title=Jaundice associated {{sic|hide=y|pruritis}}: a review of pathophysiology and treatment.|journal=World Journal of Gastroenterology|date=7 February 2015|volume=21|issue=5|pages=1404–13|pmid=25663760|doi=10.3748/wjg.v21.i5.1404|pmc=4316083|doi-access=free}}</ref> The feces may be pale and the urine dark.<ref name=Rog2004>{{cite book|last1=(Prof.)|first1=Roger Jones|title=Oxford Textbook of Primary Medical Care|date=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-856782-0|page=758|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2LB0PC17uFsC&pg=PA758|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908204555/https://books.google.com/books?id=2LB0PC17uFsC&pg=PA758|archive-date=2017-09-08}}</ref> Jaundice in babies occurs in over half in the first week following birth and does not pose a serious threat in most.<ref name=NIH2016/><ref name=But2012/> If bilirubin levels in babies are very high for too long, a type of brain damage, known as kernicterus, may occur.<ref>{{cite web|title=Facts about Jaundice and Kernicterus|url=https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/jaundice/facts.html|website=CDC|access-date=13 August 2016|date=February 23, 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808204002/http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/jaundice/facts.html|archive-date=8 August 2016}}</ref> *'''Jaw''' – The jaw is any opposable articulated structure at the entrance of the mouth, typically used for grasping and manipulating food. The term ''jaws'' is also broadly applied to the whole of the structures constituting the vault of the mouth and serving to open and close it and is part of the body plan of humans and most animals. *'''Jejunum'''- is the second part of the small intestine in humans and most higher vertebrates, including mammals, reptiles, and birds. Its lining is specialised for the absorption by enterocytes of small nutrient molecules which have been previously digested by enzymes in the duodenum. *'''Joint''' – A joint or articulation (or articular surface) is the connection made between bones in the body which link the skeletal system into a functional whole.<ref name="Whiting2006p40">{{cite book |last1=Whiting |first1=William Charles |last2=Rugg |first2=Stuart |year=2006 |title=Dynamic Human Anatomy |volume=10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ylyAXBPno2IC&pg=PA40 |page=40|publisher=Human Kinetics |isbn=978-0-7360-3682-5 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.emedicinehealth.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=8746|title=Articulation definition|publisher=eMedicine Dictionary|date=30 October 2013|access-date=18 November 2013|archive-date=31 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120731092044/http://www.emedicinehealth.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=8746}}</ref><ref name="Saladinp274">Saladin, Ken. Anatomy & Physiology. 7th ed. McGraw-Hill Connect. Web. [http://connect.mheducation.com/connect/hmEBook.do?setTab=sectionTabs p.274]</ref> They are constructed to allow for different degrees and types of movement. Some joints, such as the knee, elbow, and shoulder, are self-lubricating, almost frictionless, and are able to withstand compression and maintain heavy loads while still executing smooth and precise movements.<ref name="Saladinp274"/> Other joints such as sutures between the bones of the skull permit very little movement (only during birth) in order to protect the brain and the sense organs.<ref name="Saladinp274"/> The connection between a tooth and the jawbone is also called a joint, and is described as a fibrous joint known as a gomphosis. Joints are classified both structurally and functionally.<ref name="isbn0-443-07168-3">{{cite book|editor-last1=Standring|editor-first1=Susan|title=Gray's anatomy: the anatomical basis of clinical practice.|date=2006|publisher=Elsevier Churchill Livingstone|location=Edinburgh|isbn=0-443-07168-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyanat0000unse/page/38 38]|edition=39th|url=https://archive.org/details/graysanatomyanat0000unse/page/38}}</ref> *'''Jugular vein''' – The jugular veins are veins that take deoxygenated blood from the head back to the heart via the superior vena cava.

==K== *'''Keratogenesis'''– The production of horny cells in the epidermis.<ref>{{Citation |title=keratogenesis |url=https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/keratogenesis |work=Farlex Partner Medical Dictionary |access-date=2022-11-03}}</ref> *'''Keratopathy'''- *'''Kidney''' – The kidneys are two reddish-brown bean-shaped organs found in vertebrates. They are located on the left and right in the retroperitoneal space, and in adult humans are about {{convert|12|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=off}} in length.<ref name="lote">{{cite book |last=Lote |first=Christopher J. |title= Principles of Renal Physiology, 5th edition|page=21|year=2012|publisher=Springer}}</ref><ref name="junqueiras">{{cite book |last=Mescher |first=Anthony L. |year=2016 |title=Junqueira's Basic Histology, 14th edition |publisher=Lange |page=393}}</ref> They receive blood from the paired renal arteries; blood exits into the paired renal veins. Each kidney is attached to a ureter, a tube that carries excreted urine to the bladder. *'''Knee''' – In humans and other primates, the knee joins the thigh with the leg and consists of two joints: one between the femur and tibia (tibiofemoral joint), and one between the femur and patella (patellofemoral joint).<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Anatomy of Knee |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KquYyFiVHtIC&pg=PA10 |pages=10–1 |first=Bimal |last=Chhajer |year=2006 |title=Knee Pain |publisher=Fusion Books |isbn=978-81-8419-181-3}}</ref> It is the largest joint in the human body.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kulowski |first1=Jacob |date=July 1932 |title=Flexion contracture of the knee |journal=The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=618–63 |url=http://jbjs.org/content/14/3/618 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20160803181853/http://jbjs.org/content/14/3/618 |archive-date=2016-08-03 }} Republished as: {{cite journal |pmid=17975372 |year=2007 |last1=Kulowski |first1=J |title=Flexion contracture of the knee: The mechanics of the muscular contracture and the turnbuckle cast method of treatment; with a review of fifty-five cases. 1932 |journal=Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research |volume=464 |pages=4–10 |doi=10.1097/BLO.0b013e31815760ca |s2cid=9932906 }}</ref> The knee is a modified hinge joint, which permits flexion and extension as well as slight internal and external rotation. The knee is vulnerable to injury and to the development of osteoarthritis. *'''Korsakoff syndrome'''- (KS)<ref name="MeSH">{{cite web |title=Korsakoff Syndrome - MeSH - NCBI |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mesh/68020915 |website=www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov}}</ref> is an amnestic disorder caused by thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency typically associated with prolonged use of alcohol.<ref name="Alz">{{cite web |title=Korsakoff syndrome |url=https://www.alz.org/alzheimers-dementia/what-is-dementia/types-of-dementia/korsakoff-syndrome |access-date=14 October 2020}}</ref> The syndrome and psychosis are named after Sergei Korsakoff, the Russian neuropsychiatrist who discovered it during the late 19th century. This neurological disorder is caused by a lack of thiamine in the brain, and is also exacerbated by the neurotoxic effects of alcohol. When Wernicke encephalopathy accompanies Korsakoff syndrome the combination is called Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome; however, a recognized episode of Wernicke encephalopathy is not always obvious.

==L== *'''Large intestine''' –The large intestine, also known as the large bowel or colon, is the last part of the gastrointestinal tract and of the digestive system in vertebrates. Water is absorbed here and the remaining waste material is stored as feces before being removed by defecation.<ref name="NCILargeIntestineDef">{{cite web | url=http://www.cancer.gov/dictionary?cdrid=45097 | title=large intestine | publisher=National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health | work=NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms | access-date=2014-03-04| date=2011-02-02 }}</ref> *'''Laryngeal prominence''' – The Adam's apple, or laryngeal prominence, colloquially known as the neck triangle, is the lump or protrusion in the human neck formed by the angle of the thyroid cartilage surrounding the larynx seen especially in males. *'''Laryngeal ventricle''' – (also called the ''ventricle of the larynx'', ''laryngeal sinus'', or ''Morgagni's sinus'')<ref>[http://www.lexic.us/definition-of/laryngeal_sinus Medical Definition of Laryngeal sinus] in lexic.us. Updated 05 Mar 2000</ref> is a fusiform fossa, situated between the vestibular and vocal folds on either side, and extending nearly their entire length. There is also a sinus of Morgagni in the pharynx. *'''Laryngospasm''' – *'''Ligament''' – is the fibrous connective tissue that connects bones to other bones. *'''Lips''' – are a visible body part at the mouth of many animals, including humans. Lips are soft, movable, and serve as the opening for food intake and in the articulation of sound and speech. Human lips are a tactile sensory organ, and can be an erogenous zone when used in kissing and other acts of intimacy. *'''Little finger''' – or ''pinky finger'', also known as the ''fifth digit'', or ''pinkie'', is the most ulnar and smallest finger of the human hand, opposite the thumb, and next to the ring finger. *'''Liver''' – is an organ only found in vertebrates which detoxifies various metabolites, synthesizes proteins and produces biochemicals necessary for digestion and growth.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Elias|first1=H.|last2=Bengelsdorf|first2=H.|title=The Structure of the Liver in Vertebrates|journal=Cells Tissues Organs|date=1 July 1952|volume=14|issue=4|pages=297–337|doi=10.1159/000140715|pmid=14943381}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abdel-Misih |first1=Sherif R.Z. |last2=Bloomston |first2=Mark |title=Liver Anatomy |journal=Surgical Clinics of North America |volume=90 |issue=4 |pages=643–653 |year=2010 |pmid=20637938 |pmc=4038911 |doi=10.1016/j.suc.2010.04.017 }}</ref><ref name="cancer.ca">{{cite web |url=http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/liver/anatomy-and-physiology/?region=on |title=Anatomy and physiology of the liver – Canadian Cancer Society |publisher=Cancer.ca |access-date=2015-06-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626110554/http://www.cancer.ca/en/cancer-information/cancer-type/liver/anatomy-and-physiology/?region=on |archive-date=2015-06-26 }}</ref> In humans, it is located in the right upper quadrant of the abdomen, below the diaphragm. Its other roles in metabolism include the regulation of glycogen storage, decomposition of red blood cells, and the production of hormones.<ref name="cancer.ca"/> *'''Long bone''' – *'''Lumbar vertebrae''' – *'''Lung''' – *'''Lung cancer''' – *'''Lupus erythematosus''' – *'''Lymph''' – *'''Lymphatic system''' – *'''Lymphatic vessel''' – *'''Lymph node''' – *'''Lymphocyte''' – *'''Lymphoma''' - Cancer of the lymphatic system.

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==M== *'''Major depressive disorder''' – (MDD), also known simply as depression, is a mental disorder characterized by at least two weeks of pervasive low mood. Low self-esteem, loss of interest in normally enjoyable activities, low energy, and pain without a clear cause are common symptoms.<ref name="auto11">""Depression". NIMH. May 2016. Archived from the original on 5 August 2016. Retrieved 31 July 2016.</ref> Those affected may also occasionally have delusions or hallucinations.<ref name="auto11"/> Some people have periods of depression separated by years, while others nearly always have symptoms present.<ref name="auto9">American Psychiatric Association (2013), Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.), Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing, pp. 160–68, {{ISBN|978-0-89042-555-8}}, retrieved 22 July 2016</ref> Major depression is more severe and lasts longer than sadness, which is a normal part of life.<ref name="auto9"/> *'''Male reproductive system''' – *'''Mammary gland''' – *'''Mandible''' – The mandible, lower jaw or jawbone is the largest, strongest and lowest bone in the human face.<ref>Gray's Anatomy – The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice, 40th Edition, p. 530</ref> It forms the lower jaw and holds the lower teeth in place. The mandible sits beneath the maxilla. It is the only movable bone of the skull (discounting the ossicles of the middle ear).<ref name="Tortora">{{cite book |last1=Tortora |first1=G |last2=Derrickson |first2=B |title=Principles of anatomy & physiology. |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-470-64608-3 |page=226 |edition=13th.|year=2011 }}</ref> *'''Masseter muscle''' – In human anatomy, the masseter is one of the muscles of mastication. Found only in mammals, it is particularly powerful in herbivores to facilitate chewing of plant matter.<ref name=VB>{{cite book |author=Romer, Alfred Sherwood|author2=Parsons, Thomas S.|year=1977 |title=The Vertebrate Body |publisher=Holt-Saunders International |location= Philadelphia, PA|page= 283|isbn= 0-03-910284-X}}</ref> The most obvious muscle of mastication is the masseter muscle, since it is the most superficial and one of the strongest. *'''Maternal-fetal medicine''' – (MFM), also known as ''perinatology'', is a branch of medicine that focuses on managing health concerns of the mother and fetus prior to, during, and shortly after pregnancy. *'''Maxilla''' – in vertebrates, is the upper fixed (not fixed in Neopterygii) bone of the jaw formed from the fusion of two maxillary bones. In humans, the upper jaw includes the hard palate in the front of the mouth.<ref>[http://webster.com Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary].</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Illustrated Anatomy of the Head and Neck |last1=Fehrenbach |last2=Herring |publisher=Elsevier |year=2012 |page=55 |isbn=978-1-4377-2419-6 }}</ref> The two maxillary bones are fused at the intermaxillary suture, forming the anterior nasal spine. This is similar to the mandible (lower jaw), which is also a fusion of two mandibular bones at the mandibular symphysis. The mandible is the movable part of the jaw. *'''MCAT''' – Medical College Admission Test. *'''Medical biology''' – *'''Medical classification''' – A medical classification is a list of standardized codes used in the process of medical coding and medical billing. *'''Medical coding''' – The practice of assigning statistical codes to medical statements, such as those made during a hospital stay. Closely related to medical billing. *'''Medical College Admission Test''' – (MCAT), is a computer-based standardized examination for prospective medical students in the United States, Australia,<ref>{{cite web|title=Melbourne Medical School International Applicants|url=http://medicine.unimelb.edu.au/study-here/doctor_of_medicine/application_process/international|website=University of Melbourne|access-date=23 October 2015}}</ref> Canada, and Caribbean Islands. It is designed to assess problem solving, critical thinking, written analysis and knowledge of scientific concepts and principles. *'''Medical device''' – is any device intended to be used for medical purposes. Medical devices benefit patients by helping health care providers diagnose and treat patients and helping patients overcome sickness or disease, improving their quality of life. Significant potential for hazards are inherent when using a device for medical purposes and thus medical devices must be proved safe and effective with reasonable assurance before regulating governments allow marketing of the device in their country. As a general rule, as the associated risk of the device increases the amount of testing required to establish safety and efficacy also increases. Further, as associated risk increases the potential benefit to the patient must also increase. *'''Medical diagnosis''' – (abbreviated Dx<ref name="ReferenceA"/> or DS) is the process of determining which disease or condition explains a person's symptoms and signs. It is most often referred to as ''diagnosis'' with the medical context being implicit. The information required for diagnosis is typically collected from a history and physical examination of the person seeking medical care. Often, one or more ''diagnostic procedures'', such as medical tests, are also done during the process. Sometimes posthumous diagnosis is considered a kind of medical diagnosis. *'''Medical ethics''' – *'''Medical history''' – *'''Medical imaging''' – *'''Medical laboratory''' – *'''Medical research''' – *'''Medical school''' – *'''Medical sign''' – *'''Medical speciality''' – *'''Medication''' – *'''Medulla oblongata''' – *'''Metacarpal bones''' – *'''Metatarsal bones''' – *'''Microbiology''' – *'''Middle finger''' – *'''Middle temporal artery''' – *'''Molecular biology''' – *'''Mouth''' – *'''Muscle''' – *'''Muscular system''' – *'''Musculoskeletal system''' –

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== N == *'''Nail''' – A nail is a claw-like keratinous plate at the tip of the fingers and toes in most primates. Nails correspond to claws found in other animals. Fingernails and toenails are made of a tough protective protein called alpha-keratin which is found in the hooves, hair, claws and horns of vertebrates.<ref name="Wang 2016">{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Bin |title=Keratin: Structure, mechanical properties, occurrence in biological organisms, and efforts at bioinspiration |journal=Progress in Materials Science |volume=76 |pages=229–318 |year=2016 |doi=10.1016/j.pmatsci.2015.06.001|url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt5sb7q6jp/qt5sb7q6jp.pdf?t=o9xpu0 }}</ref> *'''Nanobiotechnology''' – Nanobiotechnology, bionanotechnology, and nanobiology are terms that refer to the intersection of nanotechnology and biology.<ref>Ehud Gazit, Plenty of room for biology at the bottom: An introduction to bionanotechnology. Imperial College Press, 2007, {{ISBN|978-1-86094-677-6}}</ref> Given that the subject is one that has only emerged very recently, bionanotechnology and nanobiotechnology serve as blanket terms for various related technologies. *'''Nasal cavity''' – is a large, air-filled space above and behind the nose in the middle of the face. The nasal septum divides the cavity into two cavities,<ref name="grays41e"/> also known as fossae.<ref name="Free">{{cite web |title=nasal fossa |url=https://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/nasal+fossa |website=TheFreeDictionary.com}}</ref> Each cavity is the continuation of one of the two nostrils. The nasal cavity is the uppermost part of the respiratory system and provides the nasal passage for inhaled air from the nostrils to the nasopharynx and rest of the respiratory tract. The paranasal sinuses surround and drain into the nasal cavity. *'''Nasopharynx''' – The upper portion of the pharynx, the nasopharynx, extends from the base of the skull to the upper surface of the soft palate.<ref>Clinical Head and Neck and Functional Neuroscience Course Notes, 2008-2009, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences School of Medicine, Bethesda, Maryland</ref> It includes the space between the internal nares and the soft palate and lies above the oral cavity. The adenoids, also known as the pharyngeal tonsils, are lymphoid tissue structures located in the posterior wall of the nasopharynx. Waldeyer's tonsillar ring is an annular arrangement of lymphoid tissue in both the nasopharynx and oropharynx. The nasopharynx is lined by respiratory epithelium that is pseudostratified, columnar, and ciliated. *'''Navel''' – The navel (clinically known as the umbilicus, colloquially known as the belly button) is a protruding, flat, or hollowed area on the abdomen at the attachment site of the umbilical cord.<ref>{{cite web|title=Definition of NAVEL|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/navel|website=www.merriam-webster.com|date=13 May 2023 |language=en}}</ref> All placental mammals have a navel. *'''Nephrology''' – is a specialty of medicine that concerns with study of the kidneys, specifically normal kidney function and kidney disease, the preservation of kidney health, and the treatment of kidney disease, from diet and medication to renal replacement therapy (dialysis and kidney transplantation). *'''Nerve''' – is an enclosed, cable-like bundle of nerve fibres called axons, in the peripheral nervous system. A nerve transmits electrical impulses and is the basic unit of the peripheral nervous system. A nerve provides a common pathway for the electrochemical nerve impulses called action potentials that are transmitted along each of the axons to peripheral organs or, in the case of sensory nerves, from the periphery back to the central nervous system. Each axon within the nerve is an extension of an individual neuron, along with other supportive cells such as some Schwann cells that coat the axons in myelin. *'''Nervous system''' – is a highly complex part of an animal that coordinates its actions and sensory information by transmitting signals to and from different parts of its body. The nervous system detects environmental changes that impact the body, then works in tandem with the endocrine system to respond to such events.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Tortora |first1=Gerard J. |last2=Derrickson |first2=Bryan H.|title=Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, 15e WileyPLUS Registration Card + Loose-leaf Print Companion |date=2016-09-06 |publisher=Wiley (WileyPLUS Products)|isbn=978-1-119-34373-8|ol=28367744M |edition=15th}}</ref> *'''Neurology''' – is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the nervous system. Neurology deals with the diagnosis and treatment of all categories of conditions and disease involving the central and peripheral nervous systems (and their subdivisions, the autonomic and somatic nervous systems), including their coverings, blood vessels, and all effector tissue, such as muscle.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.acgme.org/Portals/0/PFAssets/ProgramRequirements/180_neurology_2016.pdf|title=ACGME Program Requirements for Graduate Medical Education in Neurology|last=ACGME|date=1 July 2016|website=www.acgme.org|access-date=10 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170113141847/https://www.acgme.org/Portals/0/PFAssets/ProgramRequirements/180_neurology_2016.pdf|archive-date=13 January 2017|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Neurological practice relies heavily on the field of neuroscience, the scientific study of the nervous system. *'''Neuroscience''' – (or neurobiology), is the scientific study of the nervous system.<ref name=Merriam>{{cite web|title=Neuroscience|work=Merriam-Webster Medical Dictionary|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/medlineplus/neuroscience}}</ref> It is a multidisciplinary science that combines physiology, anatomy, molecular biology, developmental biology, cytology, mathematical modeling, and psychology to understand the fundamental and emergent properties of neurons and neural circuits.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Principles of Neural Science, Fifth Edition|last=Kandel|first=Eric R.|publisher=McGraw-Hill Education|year=2012|isbn=978-0-07-139011-8|pages=I. Overall perspective}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ea_QVG2BFy8C&q=neuroscience+multidisciplinary&pg=PA688|title=Lexicon of Psychiatry, Neurology and the Neurosciences|last=Ayd|first=Frank J. Jr. |date=2000|publisher=Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins|isbn=978-0-7817-2468-5|page=688}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xfSVcBL7CSMC&q=neuroscience+multidisciplinary&pg=PA59|title=Brain Imaging: What it Can (and Cannot) Tell Us About Consciousness|last=Shulman|first=Robert G.|date=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-983872-1|page=59|chapter=Neuroscience: A Multidisciplinary, Multilevel Field}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3CK4BAAAQBAJ&q=neuroscience+multidisciplinary&pg=PR5|title=Methods in Neuroethological Research|last1=Ogawa|first1=Hiroto|last2=Oka|first2=Kotaro|date=2013|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-4-431-54330-5|page=v}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tanner|first=Kimberly D.|date=2006-01-01|title=Issues in Neuroscience Education: Making Connections|journal=CBE: Life Sciences Education|volume=5|issue=2|page=85|doi=10.1187/cbe.06-04-0156|issn=1931-7913|pmc=1618510}}</ref> *'''Neurosurgery''' – or neurological surgery, is the medical specialty concerned with the prevention, diagnosis, surgical treatment, and rehabilitation of disorders which affect any portion of the nervous system including the brain, spinal cord, central and peripheral nervous system, and cerebrovascular system.<ref>{{cite web | title = Neurological Surgery Specialty Description | publisher = American Medical Association | url = https://www.ama-assn.org/specialty/neurological-surgery-specialty-description | access-date = 4 October 2020}}</ref> *'''Nose''' – The human nose is the most protruding part of the face. It bears the nostrils and is the first organ of the respiratory system. It is also the principal organ in the olfactory system. The shape of the nose is determined by the nasal bones and the nasal cartilages, including the nasal septum which separates the nostrils and divides the nasal cavity into two. On average the nose of a male is larger than that of a female. *'''Nuclear medicine''' – is a medical specialty involving the application of radioactive substances in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. Nuclear medicine imaging, in a sense, is "radiology done inside out" or "endoradiology" because it records radiation emitting from within the body rather than radiation that is generated by external sources like X-rays. In addition, nuclear medicine scans differ from radiology, as the emphasis is not on imaging anatomy, but on the function. For such reason, it is called a physiological imaging modality. Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and positron emission tomography (PET) scans are the two most common imaging modalities in nuclear medicine.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saintpetershcs.com/Nuclear-Medicine|title=Nuclear Medicine|access-date=20 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150227082414/http://www.saintpetershcs.com/Nuclear-Medicine/|archive-date=27 February 2015}}</ref> *'''Nutrition''' – is the science that interprets the nutrients and other substances in food in relation to maintenance, growth, reproduction, health and disease of an organism. It includes ingestion, absorption, assimilation, biosynthesis, catabolism and excretion.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/cd_hum.nut.html#2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19981203030049/http://www2.nlm.nih.gov/pubs/cd_hum.nut.html#2|archive-date=December 3, 1998|title=Joint Collection Development Policy: Human Nutrition and Food|publisher=US National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health|date=14 October 2014|access-date=13 December 2014}}</ref>

==O== *'''Oblique muscle of auricle''' – The oblique muscle of auricle (oblique auricular muscle or Tod muscle<ref name="medilexicon">{{Cite web|url=http://www.medilexicon.com/medicaldictionary.php?t=56930|publisher=MediLexicon International Ltd|title=Definition: 'Oblique Muscle Of Auricle'|access-date=April 23, 2013|archive-date=May 11, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511081137/http://www.medilexicon.com/medicaldictionary.php?t=56930}}</ref>) is an intrinsic muscle of the outer ear. The oblique muscle of auricle is placed on the cranial surface of the pinna. It consists of a few fibers extending from the upper and back part of the concha to the convexity immediately above it.<ref>This article incorporates text in the public domain from page 1035 of the 20th edition of Gray's Anatomy (1918)</ref> *'''Obstetrics''' – is the field of study concentrated on pregnancy, childbirth and the postpartum period. As a medical specialty, obstetrics is combined with gynecology under the discipline known as obstetrics and gynecology (OB/GYN), which is a surgical field.<ref>{{cite web|title=Obstetrics and Gynecology Specialty Description |publisher=American Medical Association|url=https://www.ama-assn.org/specialty/obstetrics-and-gynecology-specialty-description|access-date=24 October 2020}}</ref> *'''Obstetrics and gynaecology''' – Obstetrics and gynaecology (British English) or obstetrics and gynecology (American English) is the medical specialty that encompasses the two subspecialties of obstetrics (covering pregnancy, childbirth, and the postpartum period) and gynecology (covering the health of the female reproductive system – vagina, uterus, ovaries, and breasts). It is commonly abbreviated as OB-GYN or OB/GYN in US English, and as obs and gynae or O&G in British English. *'''Occipital bone''' – is a cranial dermal bone and the main bone of the occiput (back and lower part of the skull). It is trapezoidal in shape and curved on itself like a shallow dish. The occipital bone overlies the occipital lobes of the cerebrum. At the base of skull in the occipital bone, there is a large oval opening called the foramen magnum, which allows the passage of the spinal cord. *'''Ocular surgery''' – *'''Olfaction''' – or the sense of smell,<ref>{{cite web |title=Definition of olfaction |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/olfaction |website=www.merriam-webster.com |date=18 May 2023 |language=en}}</ref> is the process of creating the perception of smell.<ref name="wol">{{cite book|last1=Wolfe|first1=J|title=Sensation & perception|last2=Kluender|first2=K|last3=Levi|first3=D|publisher=Sinauer Associates|year=2012|isbn=978-0-87893-572-7|edition=3rd|page=7}}</ref> It occurs when an odor binds to a receptor within the nose, transmitting a signal through the olfactory system. Olfaction has many purposes, including detecting hazards, pheromones, and plays a role in taste. *'''Oncology''' – is a branch of medicine that deals with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of cancer. A medical professional who practices oncology is an ''oncologist''.<ref>Maureen McCutcheon. ''Where Have My Eyebrows Gone?''. Cengage Learning, 2001. {{ISBN|0766839346}}. Page 5.</ref> *'''Ophthalmology''' – is a branch of medicine and surgery which deals with the diagnosis and treatment of eye disorders.<ref name="mrcophth">{{cite web|title=History of Ophthalmology|url=http://www.mrcophth.com/Historyofophthalmology/Introductory.htm|website=www.mrcophth.com}}</ref> An ophthalmologist is a specialist in ophthalmology.<ref>{{cite web | title = Ophthalmology | publisher = American Medical Association | url = https://www.ama-assn.org/specialty/ophthalmology | access-date = 28 March 2020}}</ref> The credentials include a degree in medicine, followed by additional four to five years of ophthalmology residency training. Ophthalmology residency training programs may require a one-year pre-residency training in internal medicine, pediatrics, or general surgery. Additional specialty training (or fellowship) may be sought in a particular aspect of eye pathology.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Boyd|first1=Kierstan|title=Ophthalmology Subspecialists|work=American Academy of Ophthalmology |url=https://www.aao.org/eye-health/tips-prevention/ophthalmology-subspecialists|date=6 June 2016|publisher=American Academy of Ophthalmology}}</ref> Ophthalmologists are allowed to use medications to treat eye diseases, implement laser therapy, and perform surgery when needed.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Smith|first1=Yolanda|title=Ophthalmology|url=https://www.news-medical.net/health/Ophthalmology.aspx|website=News-Medical.net|language=en|date=5 September 2016}}</ref> Ophthalmologists may participate in academic research on the diagnosis and treatment for eye disorders.<ref>{{cite web|first1=Jennifer|last1=Churchill|first2=Dan T.|last2=Gudgel|title=What is an Ophthalmologist?|url=https://www.aao.org/eye-health/tips-prevention/what-is-ophthalmologist|publisher=American Academy of Ophthalmology|date=1 November 2013}}</ref> *'''Optometry''' – is a health care profession that involves examining the eyes and applicable visual systems for defects or abnormalities as well as prescribing the correction of refractive error with glasses or contact lenses and the treatment of eye diseases. *'''Organ''' – is a group of tissues with similar functions. Plant life and animal life rely on many organs that co-exist in organ systems.<ref>{{cite book | author = Widmaier E P |author2=Raff H |author3=Strang KT | year = 2014 | title = Vander's Human Physiology |publisher=McGraw-Hill Higher Education | edition = 12th | isbn = 978-0-07-128366-3 }}{{page needed|date=May 2015}}</ref> *'''Oral and maxillofacial surgery''' – is a surgical specialty focusing on reconstructive surgery of the face, facial trauma surgery, the oral cavity, head and neck, mouth, and jaws, as well as facial cosmetic surgery. *'''Orbicularis oculi muscle''' – *'''Orbicularis oris muscle''' – *'''Orthopedic surgery''' – *'''Ossicles''' – *'''Otitis''' – *'''Otorhinolaryngology''' – *'''Ovary''' –

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==P== *'''Palate''' – is the roof of the mouth in humans and other mammals. It separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity.<ref name="Wingerd166"> {{cite book | last = Wingerd | first = Bruce D. | title = The Human Body Concepts of Anatomy and Physiology | publisher = Saunders College Publishing | year = 1811 | location = Fort Worth | page = 166 | isbn = 0-03-055507-8}}</ref> A similar structure is found in crocodilians, but in most other tetrapods, the oral and nasal cavities are not truly separated. The palate is divided into two parts, the anterior, bony hard palate and the posterior, fleshy soft palate (or velum).<ref name="Wingerd478">{{cite book | last = Wingerd | first = Bruce D. | title = The Human Body Concepts of Anatomy and Physiology | publisher = Saunders College Publishing | year = 1994 | location = Fort Worth | page = 478 | isbn = 0-03-055507-8}}</ref><ref name="Gray1172"> {{cite book | last = Goss | first = Charles Mayo | title = Gray's Anatomy | publisher = Lea & Febiger | year = 1966 | location = Philadelphia | page = 1172 }}</ref> *'''Palliative care''' – (derived from the Latin root ''palliare, or'' "to cloak") is an interdisciplinary medical caregiving approach aimed at optimizing quality of life and mitigating suffering among people with serious, complex illness.<ref name=":5">{{cite book |title=Primer of Palliative Care |last=Zhukovsky |first=Donna | name-list-style = vanc |publisher=American Association of Hospice and Palliative Medicine|year=2019|isbn=978-1-889296-08-1}}</ref> Within the published literature, many definitions of palliative care exist; most notably, the World Health Organization describes palliative care as "an approach that improves the quality of life of patients and their families facing the problems associated with life-threatening illness, through the prevention and relief of suffering by means of early identification and impeccable assessment and treatment of pain and other problems, physical, psychosocial, and spiritual."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/cancer/palliative/definition/en/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031004221126/http://www.who.int/cancer/palliative/definition/en/|archive-date=October 4, 2003|title=WHO {{!}} WHO Definition of Palliative Care|website=WHO|access-date=2019-12-04}}</ref> In the past, palliative care was a disease specific approach, but today the World Health Organization takes a more broad approach, that the principles of palliative care should be applied as early as possible to any chronic and ultimately fatal illness.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Sepulveda|first1=Cecilia|last2=Marlin|first2=Amanda|last3=Yoshida|first3=Tokuo|last4=Ullrich|first4=Andreas|date=2 August 2002|title=Palliative Care: The World Health's Global Perspective|journal=Journal of Pain and Symptom Management|volume=24|issue=2|pages=91–96|doi=10.1016/S0885-3924(02)00440-2|pmid=12231124|doi-access=free}}</ref> *'''Palpation''' – is the process of using one's hands to check the body, especially while perceiving/diagnosing a disease or illness.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/palpation|title=the definition of palpation|website=Dictionary.com|access-date=10 April 2018}}</ref> *'''Pancreas''' – is an organ of the digestive system and endocrine system of vertebrates. In humans, it is located in the abdomen behind the stomach and functions as a gland. The pancreas has both an endocrine and a digestive exocrine function. As an endocrine gland, it functions mostly to regulate blood sugar levels, secreting the hormones insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and pancreatic polypeptide. As a part of the digestive system, it functions as an exocrine gland secreting pancreatic juice into the duodenum through the pancreatic duct. This juice contains bicarbonate, which neutralizes acid entering the duodenum from the stomach; and digestive enzymes, which break down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats in food entering the duodenum from the stomach. *'''Papillary''' - In oncology, papillary refers to neoplasms with projections ("papillae", from Latin, 'nipple') that have fibrovascular cores. *'''Parasitology''' – is the study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them. As a biological discipline, the scope of parasitology is not determined by the organism or environment in question but by their way of life. This means it forms a synthesis of other disciplines, and draws on techniques from fields such as cell biology, bioinformatics, biochemistry, molecular biology, immunology, genetics, evolution and ecology. *'''Parathyroid glands''' – are small endocrine glands in the neck of humans and other tetrapods. Humans usually have four parathyroid glands, located on the back of the thyroid gland in variable locations. The parathyroid gland produces and secretes parathyroid hormone in response to a low blood calcium, which plays a key role in regulating the amount of calcium in the blood and within the bones. *'''Parkinson's disease''' – *'''Patella''' – *'''Pathology''' – *'''Pectineus muscle''' – *'''Pectoralis major muscle''' – *'''Pectoralis minor muscle''' – *'''Pediatrics''' – *'''Pelvis''' – *'''Penis''' – *'''Percussion (medicine)''' – *'''Peripheral nervous system''' – *'''Peripheral vision''' – *'''Phalanx bone''' – *'''Pharmacology''' – *'''Pharynx''' – *'''Physician''' – *'''Physical examination''' – *'''Physiology''' – *'''Pineal gland''' – *'''Pituitary gland''' – *'''Placenta''' – *'''Plastic surgery''' – *'''Plexus''' – A branching network of vessels or nerves. *'''Pons''' – *'''Posterior tibial artery''' – *'''Preventive healthcare''' – *'''Prognosis''' – *'''Prostate''' – *'''Psychiatry''' – *'''Pubis''' – *'''Pulmonary artery''' – *'''Pulmonary circulation''' – *'''Pulmonary vein''' – *'''Pulmonology''' – *'''Pulse''' –

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==Q== *'''Quadriplegia''' – Tetraplegia, also known as quadriplegia, is paralysis caused by illness or injury that results in the partial or total loss of use of all four limbs and torso; paraplegia is similar but does not affect the arms. The loss is usually sensory and motor, which means that both sensation and control are lost. The paralysis may be flaccid or spastic.

==R== *'''Radial artery''' – In human anatomy, the radial artery is the main artery of the lateral aspect of the forearm. *'''Radial nerve''' – is a nerve in the human body that supplies the posterior portion of the upper limb. It innervates the medial and lateral heads of the triceps brachii muscle of the arm, as well as all 12 muscles in the posterior osteofascial compartment of the forearm and the associated joints and overlying skin. It originates from the brachial plexus, carrying fibers from the ventral roots of spinal nerves C5, C6, C7, C8 & T1.<ref name=":0">{{Citation|last1=Scott|first1=Kevin R.|title=Chapter 42 - Rehabilitation of brachial plexus and peripheral nerve disorders|date=2013-01-01|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444529015000423|journal=Handbook of Clinical Neurology|volume=110|pages=499–514|editor-last=Barnes|editor-first=Michael P.|series=Neurological Rehabilitation|publisher=Elsevier|language=en|doi=10.1016/b978-0-444-52901-5.00042-3|access-date=2020-10-25|last2=Ahmed|first2=Aiesha|last3=Scott|first3=Linda|last4=Kothari|first4=Milind J.|pmid=23312667|isbn=978-0-444-52901-5|editor2-last=Good|editor2-first=David C.|url-access=subscription}}</ref> *'''Radiology''' – is the medical discipline that uses medical imaging to diagnose and treat diseases within the body. *'''Radius''' – The radius, or radial bone, is one of the two large bones of the forearm, the other being the ulna. It extends from the lateral side of the elbow to the thumb side of the wrist and runs parallel to the ulna. The ulna is usually slightly longer than the radius, but the radius is thicker. Therefore, the radius is considered to be the larger of the two. It is a long bone, prism-shaped and slightly curved longitudinally. *'''Rectum''' – is the final straight portion of the large intestine in humans and some other mammals, and the gut in others. The adult human rectum is about {{convert|12|cm|inch}} long,<ref>{{citation |title= AJCC Cancer Staging Atlas |chapter= 12. Colon and Rectum |publisher= American Joint Committee on Cancer |year= 2006 |page= 109 |chapter-url= https://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/colon_rectum_chpt_14.pdf?SGWID=0-0-45-313390-0 |access-date= 2021-03-02 |archive-date= 2018-06-12 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180612194902/https://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/colon_rectum_chpt_14.pdf?SGWID=0-0-45-313390-0 }}</ref> and begins at the rectosigmoid junction, the end of the sigmoid colon, at the level of the third sacral vertebra or the sacral promontory depending upon what definition is used.<ref name=ASCRS>{{cite book | veditors = Wolff BG, Fleshman JW, Beck DE, Pemberton JH, Wexner SD, Church JM, Garcia-Aguilar J, Roberts PL, Saclarides TJ |title=The ASCRS textbook of colon and rectal surgery|year=2007|publisher=Springer|location=New York|isbn=978-0-387-24846-2}}</ref> Its caliber is similar to that of the sigmoid colon at its commencement, but it is dilated near its termination, forming the rectal ampulla. It terminates at the level of the anorectal ring (the level of the puborectalis sling) or the dentate line, again depending upon which definition is used.<ref name=ASCRS /> In humans, the rectum is followed by the anal canal which is about {{convert|4|cm|inch}} long, before the gastrointestinal tract terminates at the anal verge. The word rectum comes from the Latin ''rectum intestinum'', meaning ''straight intestine''. *'''Rectus abdominis muscle''' – also known as the ''abdominal muscle'', is a paired muscle running vertically on each side of the anterior wall of the human abdomen, as well as that of some other mammals. There are two parallel muscles, separated by a midline band of connective tissue called the linea alba. It extends from the pubic symphysis, pubic crest and pubic tubercle inferiorly, to the xiphoid process and costal cartilages of ribs V to VII superiorly.<ref>Gray's Anatomy for students, 2nd edition, Page:176</ref> The proximal attachments are the pubic crest and the pubic symphysis. It attaches distally at the costal cartilages of ribs 5-7 and the xiphoid process of the sternum.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.getbodysmart.com/ap/muscularsystem/abdominalmuscles/rectusabdominis/tutorial.html|title=Rectus Abdominis Muscle {{!}} Actions {{!}} Attachments {{!}} Origin & Insertion|website=www.getbodysmart.com|access-date=2016-11-29}}</ref> *'''Rectus femoris muscle''' – is one of the four quadriceps muscles of the human body. The others are the vastus medialis, the vastus intermedius (deep to the rectus femoris), and the vastus lateralis. All four parts of the quadriceps muscle attach to the patella (knee cap) by the quadriceps tendon. The rectus femoris is situated in the middle of the front of the thigh; it is fusiform in shape, and its superficial fibers are arranged in a bipenniform manner, the deep fibers running straight ({{langx|la|rectus}}) down to the deep aponeurosis. Its functions are to flex the thigh at the hip joint and to extend the leg at the knee joint.<ref>[http://sportsmedicine.about.com/od/glossary/g/Rectusfemoris.htm Sportsmedicine: Rectus Femoris] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303220411/http://sportsmedicine.about.com/od/glossary/g/Rectusfemoris.htm |date=2016-03-03 }}. Sportsmedicine.about.com. Retrieved on 2015-09-30.</ref> *'''Red blood cell''' – The most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate's principal means of delivering oxygen to the body tissues — via blood flow through the circulatory system. Red blood cells take up oxygen in the lungs and release it into tissues while squeezing through the body's capillaries. *'''Renal artery''' – *'''Renal vein''' – *'''Reproductive system''' – *'''Residency (medicine)''' – *'''Respiratory system''' – *'''Rheumatology''' – *'''Rib cage''' – *'''Ring finger''' –

==S== *'''Sacrum''' – The sacrum (plural: ''sacra'' or ''sacrums''<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140126225723/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/sacrum Oxford Dictionaries] and [http://www.yourdictionary.com/sacrum Webster's New College Dictionary] (2010) admit the plural ''sacrums'' alongside ''sacra''; [https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=sacrum The American Heritage Dictionary], [http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/sacrum Collins Dictionary] and [http://machaut.uchicago.edu/?resource=Webster%27s&word=sacrum&use1913=on Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary] (1913) give ''sacra'' as the only plural.</ref>), in human anatomy, is a large, triangular bone at the base of the spine that forms by the fusing of sacral vertebrae S1{{ndash}}S5 between 18 and 30{{nbsp}}years of age.<ref>{{Cite web |title=SACRUM ANATOMY |url=http://www.scientificspine.com/spinal-anatomy/sacrum-anatomy.html |access-date=2022-11-03 |website=www.scientificspine.com |archive-date=2021-10-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008145220/http://www.scientificspine.com/spinal-anatomy/sacrum-anatomy.html }}</ref> *'''Salivary gland''' – The salivary glands in mammals are exocrine glands that produce saliva through a system of ducts. Humans have three paired major salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual), a pair of seromucous tubarial glands (discovered in 2020) as well as hundreds of minor salivary glands.<ref name="Edgar12">{{Cite book|title=Saliva and oral health |publisher=Stephen Hancocks |year=2012|isbn=978-0-9565668-3-6|editor-last=Edgar|editor-first=Michael|edition=4th |page=1|editor-last2=Dawes|editor-first2=Colin|editor-last3=O'Mullane|editor-first3=Denis}}</ref> Salivary glands can be classified as serous, mucous or seromucous (mixed). *'''Saphenous nerve''' – (long or internal saphenous nerve) is the largest cutaneous branch of the femoral nerve. It is a strictly sensory nerve, and has no motor function. *'''Saphenous vein, great''' – *'''Saphenous vein, small''' – *'''Sartorius muscle''' – *'''Scalp''' – *'''Scapula''' – *'''Sciatic nerve''' – *'''Scrotum''' – *'''Sebaceous gland''' – *'''Seminal vesicle''' – *'''Sensory nervous system''' – *'''Sensory processing''' – *'''Serratus anterior muscle''' – *'''Serratus posterior inferior muscle''' – *'''Serratus posterior superior muscle''' – *'''Skeletal muscle''' – *'''Skin''' – *'''Skull''' – *'''Small intestine''' – *'''Small saphenous vein''' – *'''Smooth muscle tissue''' – *'''Special senses''' – *'''Specialty (medicine)''' – *'''Spinal cord''' – *'''Spinal nerve''' – *'''Sole''' – *'''Soleus muscle''' – *'''Spleen''' – *'''Sports medicine''' – *'''Sternohyoid muscle''' – *'''Sternum''' – *'''Stomach''' – *'''Striated muscle tissue''' – *'''Subclavian artery''' – *'''Subcutaneous tissue''' – *'''Superficial temporal artery''' – *'''Superior oblique muscle''' – *'''Superior thyroid artery''' – *'''Superior vena cava''' – *'''Surgery''' – *'''Sweat gland''' – *'''Symptom''' – *'''Synovial bursa''' – *'''Synovial joint''' – *'''Synovial membrane''' – *'''Systemic lupus erythematosus''' – *'''Systems biology''' –

{{compact TOC|side=yes|center=yes|nobreak=yes|seealso=yes|refs=yes|}}

==T== *'''Tarsus''' – In the human body, the tarsus is a cluster of seven articulating bones in each foot situated between the lower end of the tibia and the fibula of the lower leg and the metatarsus. It is made up of the midfoot (cuboid, medial, intermediate, and lateral cuneiform, and navicular) and hindfoot (talus and calcaneus). *'''Taste''' – The gustatory system or sense of taste is the sensory system that is partially responsible for the perception of taste (flavor).<ref name="Trivedi">{{cite journal | last=Trivedi | first=Bijal P. | title=Gustatory system: The finer points of taste | journal=Nature| volume=486 | issue=7403 | year=2012 | issn=0028-0836 | doi=10.1038/486s2a | pages=S2–S3|pmid=22717400| bibcode=2012Natur.486S...2T | s2cid=4325945 | doi-access=free }}</ref> Taste is the perception produced or stimulated when a substance in the mouth reacts chemically with taste receptor cells located on taste buds in the oral cavity, mostly on the tongue. Taste, along with smell (olfaction) and trigeminal nerve stimulation (registering texture, pain, and temperature), determines flavors of food and other substances. Humans have taste receptors on taste buds and other areas including the upper surface of the tongue and the epiglottis.<ref name="Witt">{{cite book | last=Witt | first=Martin | title=Smell and Taste | chapter=Anatomy and development of the human taste system | series=Handbook of Clinical Neurology | volume=164 | year=2019 | isbn=978-0-444-63855-7 | issn=0072-9752 | pmid=31604544 | doi=10.1016/b978-0-444-63855-7.00010-1 | pages=147–171| s2cid=204332286 }}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=dNhFLnc6NRkC&q=taste+bud+concentrated&pg=PA201 Human biology (Page 201/464)] Daniel D. Chiras. Jones & Bartlett Learning, 2005.</ref> The gustatory cortex is responsible for the perception of taste. *'''Teeth''' – *'''Temple''' – *'''Temporal arteries, deep''' – *'''Temporal artery, middle''' – *'''Temporal artery, superficial''' – *'''Temporal muscle''' – *'''Tendon''' – *'''Tensor fasciae latae muscle''' – *'''Testicle''' – *'''Thigh''' – *'''Thoracic diaphragm''' – *'''Thorax''' – *'''Throat''' – *'''Thumb''' – *'''Thymus''' – *'''Thyroid''' – *'''Thyroid artery, inferior''' – *'''Thyroid artery, superior''' – *'''Thyroid ima artery''' – *'''Tibia''' – *'''Tibialis anterior muscle''' – *'''Tibialis posterior muscle''' – *'''Tissue''' – *'''Toe''' – *'''Toll-like receptor''' – *'''Tongue''' – *'''Toxicology''' – *'''Trachea''' – *'''Trapezius muscle''' – *'''Triceps brachii muscle''' –

{{compact TOC|side=yes|center=yes|nobreak=yes|seealso=yes|refs=yes|}}

==U== *'''Ulna''' – is a long bone found in the forearm that stretches from the elbow to the smallest finger, and when in anatomical position, is found on the medial side of the forearm. It runs parallel to the radius, the other long bone in the forearm. The ulna is usually slightly longer than the radius, but the radius is thicker. Therefore, the radius is considered to be the larger of the two. *'''Ulnar artery''' – is the main blood vessel, with oxygenated blood, of the medial aspects of the forearm. It arises from the brachial artery and terminates in the superficial palmar arch, which joins with the superficial branch of the radial artery. It is palpable on the anterior and medial aspect of the wrist. *'''Ulnar nerve''' – In human anatomy, the ulnar nerve is a nerve that runs near the ulna bone. The ulnar collateral ligament of elbow joint is in relation with the ulnar nerve. The nerve is the largest in the human body unprotected by muscle or bone, so injury is common.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Risk of Ulnar Nerve Injury During Cross-Pinning in Supine and Prone Position for Supracondylar Humeral Fractures in Children: A Recent Literature Review|last1=N|first1=Catena|last2=Mg|first2=Calevo|journal=European Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery & Traumatology: Orthopedie Traumatologie|language=en|pmid=31037406|last3=D|first3=Fracassetti|last4=D|first4=Moharamzadeh|last5=C|first5=Origo|last6=M|first6=De Pellegrin|year=2019|volume=29|issue=6|pages=1169–1175|doi=10.1007/s00590-019-02444-0|s2cid=139108013}}</ref> This nerve is directly connected to the little finger, and the adjacent half of the ring finger, innervating the palmar aspect of these fingers, including both front and back of the tips, perhaps as far back as the fingernail beds. *'''Ureter''' – The ureters are tubes made of smooth muscle that propel urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. In the human adult, the ureters are usually {{convert|20|-|30|cm|in|abbr=on|0}} long and around {{convert|3|-|4|mm|in|abbr=on|2}} in diameter. The ureter is lined by urothelial cells, a type of transitional epithelium, and has an additional smooth muscle layer in third closest to the bladder that assists with peristalsis. *'''Urethra''' – The urethra is a tube that connects the urinary bladder to the urinary meatus for the removal of urine from the body of both females and males. In human females and other primates, the urethra connects to the urinary meatus above the vagina, whereas in marsupials, the female's urethra empties into the urogenital sinus.<ref name="Tyndale-BiscoeRenfree1987">{{cite book|author1=Hugh Tyndale-Biscoe|author2=Marilyn Renfree|title=Reproductive Physiology of Marsupials|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HpjovN0vXW4C&q=%22urogenital+sinus%22+urethra+marsupial&pg=PA172|date=30 January 1987|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-33792-2|pages=172–}}</ref> Females use their urethra only for urinating, but males use their urethra for both urination and ejaculation.<ref name="Wake1992">{{cite book|author=Marvalee H. Wake|title=Hyman's Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VKlWjdOkiMwC&q=placental+mammal+urethra&pg=PA583|access-date=6 May 2013|date=15 September 1992|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-87013-7|pages=583–}}</ref> The external urethral sphincter is a striated muscle that allows voluntary control over urination.<ref>{{cite book| title = Principles of Gender-specific Medicine | volume = 1 | chapter = 109: The Evaluation and Treatment of Urinary Incontinence | page = 1187 | publisher = Gulf Professional Publishing | year = 2004| editor1 = Marianne J. Legato |editor2=John P. Bilezikian }}</ref> The internal sphincter, formed by the involuntary smooth muscles lining the bladder neck and urethra, receives its nerve supply by the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.<ref name=Chancellor2004>{{cite journal |last1=Chancellor |first1=Michael B |last2=Yoshimura |first2=Naoki |title=Neurophysiology of Stress Urinary Incontinence |journal=Reviews in Urology |date=2004 |volume=6 |issue=Suppl 3 |pages=S19–S28 |pmid=16985861 |pmc=1472861 }}</ref> The internal sphincter is present both in males and females.<ref name=Jung2012>{{cite journal |last1=Jung |first1=Junyang |last2=Anh |first2=Hyo Kwang |last3=Huh |first3=Youngbuhm |date=September 2012 |title=Clinical and Functional Anatomy of the Urethral Sphincter |journal=International Neurourology Journal |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=102–106 |pmid=23094214 |pmc=3469827 |doi=10.5213/inj.2012.16.3.102 }}</ref><ref name=Karam2005>{{cite journal |last1=Karam |first1=I. |last2=Moudouni |first2=S. |last3=Droupy |first3=S. |last4=Abd-Almasad |first4=I. |last5= Uhl |first5= J. F. |last6=Delmas |first6=V. |date=April 2005 |title=The structure and innervation of the male urethra: histological and immunohistochemical studies with three-dimensional reconstruction |journal=Journal of Anatomy |volume=206 |issue=4 |pages=395–403 |pmid=15817107 |pmc=1571491 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00402.x }}</ref><ref name =AshtonMiller2007>{{cite journal |last1=Ashton-Miller |first1=J. A. |last2=DeLancey |first2=J. O. |date=April 2007 |title=Functional anatomy of the female pelvic floor. |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |volume=1101 |issue=1 |pages=266–296 |pmid=17416924 |doi=10.1196/annals.1389.034 |bibcode=2007NYASA1101..266A |hdl=2027.42/72597 |s2cid=6310287 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> *'''Urinary bladder''' – The urinary bladder, or simply bladder, is a hollow muscular organ in humans and other vertebrates that stores urine from the kidneys before disposal by urination. In the human the bladder is a hollow muscular, and distensible organ that sits on the pelvic floor. Urine enters the bladder via the ureters and exits via the urethra. The typical human bladder will hold between 300 and {{nowrap|500 ml}} (10.14 and {{nowrap|16.91 fl oz}}) before the urge to empty occurs, but can hold considerably more.<ref name="medphys">{{cite book|last1=Boron|first1=Walter F.|last2=Boulpaep|first2=Emile L.|title=Medical Physiology|date=2016|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-1-4557-3328-6|page=738|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6QzhCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA738|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref name="Cardozo99">{{cite book|last1=Walker-Smith|first1=John|last2=Murch|first2=Simon|editor1-last=Cardozo|editor1-first=Linda|title=Diseases of the Small Intestine in Childhood|date=1999|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-901865-05-9|page=16|edition=4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EMMUyiKOOiEC&pg=PA16|access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> *'''Urinary system''' – The urinary system, also known as the renal system or urinary tract, consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and the urethra. The purpose of the urinary system is to eliminate waste from the body, regulate blood volume and blood pressure, control levels of electrolytes and metabolites, and regulate blood pH. The urinary tract is the body's drainage system for the eventual removal of urine.<ref name="NIH">{{cite web|title=The Urinary Tract & How It Works {{!}} NIDDK|url=https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/urologic-diseases/urinary-tract-how-it-works|website=National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases}}</ref> The kidneys have an extensive blood supply via the renal arteries which leave the kidneys via the renal vein. Each kidney consists of functional units called nephrons. Following filtration of blood and further processing, wastes (in the form of urine) exit the kidney via the ureters, tubes made of smooth muscle fibres that propel urine towards the urinary bladder, where it is stored and subsequently expelled from the body by urination (voiding). The female and male urinary system are very similar, differing only in the length of the urethra.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.medlineplus.gov/ency/imagepages/1122.htm |title=Female urinary tract |encyclopedia=MedLine Plus Medical Encyclopedia |date=16 September 2011 |first=David |last=C. Dugdale}}</ref> *'''Urology''' – also known as genitourinary surgery, is the branch of medicine that focuses on surgical and medical diseases of the male and female urinary-tract system and the male reproductive organs. Organs under the domain of urology include the kidneys, adrenal glands, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra, and the male reproductive organs (testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, and penis). *'''Uterus''' – The uterus or womb is a major female hormone-responsive secondary sex organ of the reproductive system in humans and most other mammals. In the human, the lower end of the uterus, the cervix, opens into the vagina, while the upper end, the fundus, is connected to the fallopian tubes. It is within the uterus that the fetus develops during gestation. In the human embryo, the uterus develops from the paramesonephric ducts which fuse into the single organ known as a simplex uterus. The uterus has different forms in many other animals and in some it exists as two separate uteri known as a duplex uterus.

==V== *'''Vaccine''' – is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or killed forms of the microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body's immune system to recognize the agent as a threat, destroy it, and to further recognize and destroy any of the microorganisms associated with that agent that it may encounter in the future. Vaccines can be prophylactic (to prevent or ameliorate the effects of a future infection by a natural or "wild" pathogen), or therapeutic (e.g., vaccines against cancer, which are being investigated).<ref name="pmid26214521">{{cite journal | vauthors = Melief CJ, van Hall T, Arens R, Ossendorp F, van der Burg SH | title = Therapeutic cancer vaccines | journal = The Journal of Clinical Investigation | volume = 125 | issue = 9 | pages = 3401–12 | date = September 2015 | pmid = 26214521 | pmc = 4588240 | doi = 10.1172/JCI80009 }}</ref><ref name="pmid26861670">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bol KF, Aarntzen EH, Pots JM, Olde Nordkamp MA, van de Rakt MW, Scharenborg NM, de Boer AJ, van Oorschot TG, Croockewit SA, Blokx WA, Oyen WJ, Boerman OC, Mus RD, van Rossum MM, van der Graaf CA, Punt CJ, Adema GJ, Figdor CG, de Vries IJ, Schreibelt G | title = Prophylactic vaccines are potent activators of monocyte-derived dendritic cells and drive effective anti-tumor responses in melanoma patients at the cost of toxicity | journal = Cancer Immunology, Immunotherapy | volume = 65 | issue = 3 | pages = 327–39 | date = March 2016 | pmid = 26861670 | pmc = 4779136 | doi = 10.1007/s00262-016-1796-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Brotherton J |title=HPV prophylactic vaccines: lessons learned from 10 years experience |journal= Future Virology|volume=10 |issue=8 |pages=999–1009 |year=2015 |doi=10.2217/fvl.15.60 }}</ref><ref name="pmid24748633">{{cite journal | vauthors = Frazer IH | title = Development and implementation of papillomavirus prophylactic vaccines | journal = Journal of Immunology | volume = 192 | issue = 9 | pages = 4007–11 | date = May 2014 | pmid = 24748633 | doi = 10.4049/jimmunol.1490012 | s2cid = 24181641 | doi-access = free }}</ref> *'''Vagina''' – In mammals, the vagina is the elastic, muscular part of the female genital tract. In humans, it extends from the vulva to the cervix. The outer vaginal opening is normally partly covered by a membrane called the hymen. At the deep end, the cervix (neck of the uterus) bulges into the vagina. The vagina allows for sexual intercourse and birth. It also channels menstrual flow (menses), which occurs in humans and closely related primates as part of the monthly menstrual cycle. *'''Vas deferens''' – also called ductus deferens, is part of the male reproductive system of many vertebrates; these ducts transport sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory ducts in anticipation of ejaculation. It is a partially coiled tube which exits the abdominal cavity through the inguinal canal. *'''Vastus intermedius muscle''' – arises from the front and lateral surfaces of the body of the femur in its upper two-thirds, sitting under the rectus femoris muscle and from the lower part of the lateral intermuscular septum. Its fibers end in a superficial aponeurosis, which forms the deep part of the quadriceps femoris tendon. *'''Vastus lateralis muscle''' – *'''Vastus medialis''' – *'''Vein''' – *'''Vena cava, inferior''' – *'''Vena cava, superior''' – *'''Ventricle''' – *'''Ventricle system''' – *'''Venule''' – *'''Vertebral column''' – *'''Virology''' – is the study of viral – submicroscopic, parasitic particles of genetic material contained in a protein coat<ref>{{cite book|last=Crawford|first=Dorothy|title=Viruses: A Very Short Introduction|page=[https://archive.org/details/virusesveryshort0000craw/page/4 4]|year=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York, NY|isbn=978-0-19-957485-8|url=https://archive.org/details/virusesveryshort0000craw/page/4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Cann|first=Alan|title=Principles of Molecular Virology|year=2011|publisher=Academic Press|location=London|isbn=978-0-12-384939-7|edition=5}}</ref> – and virus-like agents. It focuses on the following aspects of viruses: their structure, classification and evolution, their ways to infect and exploit host cells for reproduction, their interaction with host organism physiology and immunity, the diseases they cause, the techniques to isolate and culture them, and their use in research and therapy. Virology is considered to be a subfield of microbiology or of medicine. *'''Visual acuity''' – (VA), commonly refers to the clarity of vision, but technically rates an examinee's ability to recognize small details with precision. Visual acuity is dependent on optical and neural factors, i.e., (1) the sharpness of the retinal image within the eye, (2) the health and functioning of the retina, and (3) the sensitivity of the interpretative faculty of the brain.<ref name="Cline">{{cite book | last1=Cline | first1=D | last2=Hofstetter | first2=HW | last3=Griffin | first3=JR. | title=Dictionary of Visual Science | edition=4th | publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann | location=Boston | date=1997 | isbn=978-0-7506-9895-5 | name-list-style=vanc}}</ref> *'''Visual cortex''' – The visual cortex of the brain is the area of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information. It is located in the occipital lobe. Sensory input originating from the eyes travels through the lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus and then reaches the visual cortex. The area of the visual cortex that receives the sensory input from the lateral geniculate nucleus is the primary visual cortex, also known as visual area 1 (V1), Brodmann area 17, or the striate cortex. The extrastriate areas consist of visual areas 2, 3, 4, and 5 (also known as V2, V3, V4, and V5, or Brodmann area 18 and all Brodmann area 19).<ref>{{cite web|last1=Mather|first1=George|title=The Visual Cortex|url=http://www.lifesci.sussex.ac.uk/home/George_Mather/Linked%20Pages/Physiol/Cortex.html|website=School of Life Sciences: University of Sussex|publisher=University of Sussex|access-date=6 March 2017|language=en|archive-date=3 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203175847/http://www.lifesci.sussex.ac.uk/home/George_Mather/Linked%20Pages/Physiol/Cortex.html}}</ref> *'''Visual field test''' – is an eye examination that can detect dysfunction in central and peripheral vision which may be caused by various medical conditions such as glaucoma, stroke, pituitary disease, brain tumours or other neurological deficits. Visual field testing can be performed clinically by keeping the subject's gaze fixed while presenting objects at various places within their visual field. Simple manual equipment can be used such as in the tangent screen test or the Amsler grid. When dedicated machinery is used it is called a perimeter. *'''Visual perception''' – is the ability to interpret the surrounding environment using light in the visible spectrum reflected by the objects in the environment. This is different from visual acuity, which refers to how clearly a person sees (for example "20/20 vision"). A person can have problems with visual perceptual processing even if they have 20/20 vision. *'''Vital signs''' – (also known as ''vitals'') are a group of the four to six most important medical signs that indicate the status of the body's vital (life-sustaining) functions. These measurements are taken to help assess the general physical health of a person, give clues to possible diseases, and show progress toward recovery.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://my.clevelandclinic.org/healthy_living/prevention/hic_vital_signs.aspx|title=Vital Signs}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.emergencyphysicians.org/|title=Emergency Physicians Home|website=www.emergencyphysicians.org}}</ref> The normal ranges for a person's vital signs vary with age, weight, gender, and overall health.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://prohealthsys.com/site/resources/assessment/physical-assessment/vital-signs/vital_signs_table/|title=Vital Signs Table - ProHealthSys|date=3 July 2013 }}</ref> There are four ''primary vital signs'': body temperature, blood pressure, pulse (heart rate), and breathing rate (respiratory rate), often notated as BT, BP, HR, and RR. However, depending on the clinical setting, the vital signs may include other measurements called the "fifth vital sign" or "sixth vital sign". Vital signs are recorded using the LOINC internationally accepted standard coding system.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://loinc.org/|title=Home|website=LOINC}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://loinc.org/news/loinc-a-lingua-franca-critical-for-electronic-medical-records-and-health-information-exchange.html/?searchterm=blood%20pressure|title=LOINC - A Lingua Franca Critical for Electronic Medical Records and Health Information Exchange|access-date=2021-02-17|archive-date=2016-03-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160308095824/http://loinc.org/news/loinc-a-lingua-franca-critical-for-electronic-medical-records-and-health-information-exchange.html?searchterm=blood%20pressure}}</ref> *'''Vitamin D''' – is a group of fat-soluble secosteroids responsible for increasing intestinal absorption of calcium, magnesium, and phosphate, and many other biological effects.<ref name="NIH-ODS-2020">{{cite web |title=Office of Dietary Supplements - Vitamin D |url=https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/VitaminD-HealthProfessional/ |website=ods.od.nih.gov |date=9 October 2020 |access-date=31 October 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Norman_2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Norman AW | title = From vitamin D to hormone D: fundamentals of the vitamin D endocrine system essential for good health | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 88 | issue = 2 | pages = 491S–499S | date = August 2008 | pmid = 18689389 | doi = 10.1093/ajcn/88.2.491S | doi-access = free }}</ref> In humans, the most important compounds in this group are vitamin D3 (also known as cholecalciferol) and vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol).<ref name="NIH-ODS-2020" /><ref name="Norman_2008" /><ref name=Bikle>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bikle DD | title = Vitamin D metabolism, mechanism of action, and clinical applications | journal = Chemistry & Biology | volume = 21 | issue = 3 | pages = 319–29 | date = March 2014 | pmid = 24529992 | pmc = 3968073 | doi = 10.1016/j.chembiol.2013.12.016 }}</ref> *'''Vitrectomy''' – is a surgery to remove some or all of the vitreous humor from the eye. ''Anterior vitrectomy'' entails removing small portions of the vitreous humor from the front structures of the eye—often because these are tangled in an intraocular lens or other structures. ''Pars plana vitrectomy'' is a general term for a group of operations accomplished in the deeper part of the eye, all of which involve removing some or all of the vitreous humor—the eye's clear internal jelly. *'''Vitreous body''' – *'''Vulva''' –

==W== *'''Waist''' – is the part of the abdomen between the rib cage and hips. On people with slim bodies, the waist is the narrowest part of the torso. The waistline refers to the horizontal line where the waist is narrowest, or to the general appearance of the waist. *'''Wart''' – Warts are typically small, rough, hard growths that are similar in color to the rest of the skin. They typically do not result in other symptoms, except when on the bottom of the feet, where they may be painful. While they usually occur on the hands and feet, they can also affect other locations.<ref name="auto7">{{cite journal | pmid = 24921240 | volume=2014 | title=Warts (non-genital) | pmc=4054795 | year=2014 | journal=BMJ Clin Evid | last1 = Loo | first1 = SK | last2 = Tang | first2 = WY}}</ref> One or many warts may appear. They are not cancerous.<ref name=IQ2014>{{Cite book |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279586/ |title=Warts: Overview |date=2019-11-07 |publisher=Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWiG) |language=en| url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170910145251/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0072770/|archive-date=10 September 2017}}</ref> *'''Weber test''' – is a screening test for hearing performed with a tuning fork.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Kong|first1=Erwin L.|title=Rinne Test|date=2019|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK431071/|work=StatPearls|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|pmid=28613725|access-date=2019-04-24|last2=Fowler|first2=James B.}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last1=Wahid|first1=Nur Wahidah B.|title=Weber Test|date=2019|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK526135/|work=StatPearls|publisher=StatPearls Publishing|pmid=30252391|access-date=2019-04-24|last2=Attia|first2=Maximos}}</ref> It can detect unilateral (one-sided) conductive hearing loss (middle ear hearing loss) and unilateral sensorineural hearing loss (inner ear hearing loss). The test is named after Ernst Heinrich Weber (1795–1878). Conductive hearing ability is mediated by the middle ear composed of the ossicles: the malleus, the incus, and the stapes. Sensorineural hearing ability is mediated by the inner ear composed of the cochlea with its internal basilar membrane and attached cochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII). The outer ear consisting of the pinna, ear canal, and ear drum or tympanic membrane transmits sounds to the middle ear but does not contribute to the conduction or sensorineural hearing ability save for hearing transmissions limited by cerumen impaction (wax collection in the ear canal). The Weber test has had its value as a screening test questioned in the literature.<ref name="pmid16434632">{{cite journal |vauthors=Bagai A, Thavendiranathan P, Detsky AS |title=Does this patient have hearing impairment? |journal=JAMA |volume=295 |issue=4 |pages=416–28 |date=January 2006 |pmid=16434632 |doi=10.1001/jama.295.4.416 |url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16434632|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mugunthan|first1=Kayalvili|last2=Doust|first2=Jenny|last3=Kurz|first3=Bodo|last4=Glasziou|first4=Paul|date=2014-08-04|title=Is there sufficient evidence for tuning fork tests in diagnosing fractures? A systematic review|journal=BMJ Open|volume=4|issue=8|article-number=e005238|doi=10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005238|doi-access=free|issn=2044-6055|pmid=25091014|pmc=4127942}}</ref> *'''Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome''' – (WKS) is the combined presence of Wernicke encephalopathy (WE) and alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome. Due to the close relationship between these two disorders, people with either are usually diagnosed with WKS as a single syndrome. It mainly causes vision changes, ataxia and impaired memory.<ref name="Medline771">{{MedlinePlusEncyclopedia|000771|Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome}}</ref> *'''Wernicke's area''' – also called Wernicke's speech area, is one of the two parts of the cerebral cortex that are linked to speech, the other being Broca's area. It is involved in the comprehension of written and spoken language, in contrast to Broca's area, which is involved in the production of language. It is traditionally thought to reside in Brodmann area 22, which is located in the superior temporal gyrus in the dominant cerebral hemisphere, which is the left hemisphere in about 95% of right-handed individuals and 60% of left-handed individuals. *'''Whiplash''' – is a non-medical term describing a range of injuries to the neck caused by or related to a sudden distortion of the neck<ref>{{cite web | author-link = Insurance Institute for Highway Safety | author = Insurance Institute for Highway Safety | url = http://www.iihs.org/research/qanda/neck_injury.html#1 | title = Q&A: Neck Injury | access-date = 2007-09-18 | archive-date = 2007-10-04 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071004190149/http://www.iihs.org/research/qanda/neck_injury.html#1 }}</ref> associated with extension,<ref>{{DorlandsDict|nine/000117316|whiplash}}</ref> although the exact injury mechanisms remain unknown. The term "whiplash" is a colloquialism. "Cervical acceleration–deceleration" (CAD) describes the mechanism of the injury, while the term "whiplash associated disorders" (WAD) describes the injury sequelae and symptoms. *'''White blood cell''' – White blood cells (WBCs), also called leukocytes or leucocytes, are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. All white blood cells are produced and derived from multipotent cells in the bone marrow known as hematopoietic stem cells. Leukocytes are found throughout the body, including the blood and lymphatic system.<ref name="maton" /> *'''White matter''' – refers to areas of the central nervous system (CNS) that are mainly made up of myelinated axons, also called tracts.<ref>{{cite book|title=Neuroanatomy through clinical cases|date=2010|publisher=Sinauer Associates|isbn=978-0-87893-613-7|edition=2nd|location=Sunderland, Mass.|page=21|quote=Areas of the CNS made up mainly of myelinated axons are called white matter.|last1=Blumenfeld|first1=Hal}}</ref> Long thought to be passive tissue, white matter affects learning and brain functions, modulating the distribution of action potentials, acting as a relay and coordinating communication between different brain regions.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0308-54 |bibcode=2008SciAm.298c..54D |title=White Matter Matters |journal=Scientific American |volume=298 |issue=3 |pages=54–61 |year=2008 |last1=Douglas Fields |first1=R. }}</ref> *'''Working memory''' – is a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Models of working memory. Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control|editor1=Miyake, A.|editor2=Shah, P.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1999 |isbn=0-521-58325-X}}</ref> Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior.<ref name="Executive functions">{{cite journal | author = Diamond A | title = Executive functions | journal = Annu Rev Psychol | volume = 64 | pages = 135–168 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23020641 | pmc = 4084861 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 | quote = WM (holding information in mind and manipulating it) is distinct from short-term memory (just holding information in mind). They cluster onto separate factors in factor analyses of children, adolescents, and adults (Alloway et al. 2004, Gathercole et al. 2004). They are linked to different neural subsystems. WM relies more on dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, whereas maintaining information in mind but not manipulating it [as long as the number of items is not huge (suprathreshold)] does not need involvement of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (D'Esposito et al. 1999, Eldreth et al. 2006, Smith & Jonides 1999). Imaging studies show frontal activation only in ventrolateral prefrontal cortex for memory maintenance that is not suprathreshold. WM and short-term memory also show different developmental progressions; the latter develops earlier and faster.}}</ref><ref name="NHM-Cognitive Control">{{cite book|title=Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience|vauthors=Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE|publisher=McGraw-Hill Medical|year=2009|isbn=978-0-07-148127-4|veditors=Sydor A, Brown RY|edition=2nd|location= New York|pages=313–321|chapter=Chapter 13: Higher Cognitive Function and Behavioral Control|quote={{bull}} Executive function, the cognitive control of behavior, depends on the prefrontal cortex, which is highly developed in higher primates and especially humans. {{bull}} Working memory is a short-term, capacity-limited cognitive buffer that stores information and permits its manipulation to guide decision-making and behavior. ... working memory may be impaired in ADHD, the most common childhood psychiatric disorder seen in clinical settings ... ADHD can be conceptualized as a disorder of executive function; specifically, ADHD is characterized by reduced ability to exert and maintain cognitive control of behavior. Compared with healthy individuals, those with ADHD have diminished ability to suppress inappropriate prepotent responses to stimuli (impaired response inhibition) and diminished ability to inhibit responses to irrelevant stimuli (impaired interference suppression). ... Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention.}}</ref> Working memory is often used synonymously with short-term memory, but some theorists consider the two forms of memory distinct, assuming that working memory allows for the manipulation of stored information, whereas short-term memory only refers to the short-term storage of information.<ref name="Executive functions" /><ref name="Cowan">{{Cite book | author=Cowan, Nelson | title=Essence of Memory | chapter=Chapter 20 What are the differences between long-term, short-term, and working memory? | year=2008 | issue=169 | pages=323–338 |pmid= 18394484 | doi=10.1016/S0079-6123(07)00020-9 | pmc=2657600 | volume=169| series=Progress in Brain Research | isbn=978-0-444-53164-3 }}</ref> Working memory is a theoretical concept central to cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and neuroscience. *'''Wrist''' – In human anatomy, the wrist is variously defined as 1) the carpus or carpal bones, the complex of eight bones forming the proximal skeletal segment of the hand;<ref name="Behnke-76">Behnke 2006, p. 76. "The wrist contains eight bones, roughly aligned in two rows, known as the carpal bones."</ref><ref name="Moore-485">Moore 2006, p. 485. "The wrist (carpus), the proximal segment of the hand, is a complex of eight carpal bones. The carpus articulates proximally with the forearm at the wrist joint and distally with the five metacarpals. The joints formed by the carpus include the wrist (radiocarpal joint), intercarpal, carpometacarpal and intermetacarpal joints. Augmenting movement at the wrist joint, the rows of carpals glide on each other [...] "</ref> (2) the wrist joint or radiocarpal joint, the joint between the radius and the carpus<ref name="Moore-485" /> and; (3) the anatomical region surrounding the carpus including the distal parts of the bones of the forearm and the proximal parts of the metacarpus or five metacarpal bones and the series of joints between these bones, thus referred to as ''wrist joints''.<ref name="Behnke-77">Behnke 2006, p. 77. "With the large number of bones composing the wrist (ulna, radius, eight carpas, and five metacarpals), it makes sense that there are many, many joints that make up the structure known as the wrist."</ref><ref name="Baratz-391">Baratz 1999, p. 391. "The wrist joint is composed of not only the radiocarpal and distal radioulnar joints but also the intercarpal articulations."</ref> This region also includes the carpal tunnel, the anatomical snuff box, bracelet lines, the flexor retinaculum, and the extensor retinaculum. As a consequence of these various definitions, fractures to the carpal bones are referred to as carpal fractures, while fractures such as distal radius fracture are often considered fractures to the wrist.

==X== *'''Xanthoma''' – A xanthoma (pl. xanthomas or xanthomata) (condition: xanthomatosis), {{ety|gre|''ξανθός'' (xanthós)|yellow}}, is a deposition of yellowish cholesterol-rich material that can appear anywhere in the body in various disease states.<ref name="Andrews">{{cite book |author1=James, William D. |author2 = Berger, Timothy G. |title=Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: clinical Dermatology |publisher=Saunders Elsevier |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7216-2921-6 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> They are cutaneous manifestations of lipidosis in which lipids accumulate in large foam cells within the skin.<ref name="Andrews"/> They are associated with hyperlipidemias, both primary and secondary types.

==Y==

*'''Yaws''' – is a tropical infection of the skin, bones and joints caused by the spirochete bacterium ''Treponema pallidum pertenue''.<ref name=Mit2013>{{cite journal|author=Mitjà O|author2=Asiedu K|author3=Mabey D|s2cid=208791874|title=Yaws|journal=The Lancet|year=2013|volume=381|issue=9868|pages=763–73|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62130-8|pmid=23415015}}</ref><ref name=Mit2012>{{cite journal|author=Mitjà O|author2=Hays R|author3=Rinaldi AC|author4=McDermott R|author5=Bassat Q|title=New treatment schemes for yaws: the path toward eradication|journal=Clinical Infectious Diseases|year=2012|volume=55|issue=3|pages=406–412|doi=10.1093/cid/cis444|pmid=22610931|doi-access=free|hdl=11584/42046|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The disease begins with a round, hard swelling of the skin, 2 to 5 centimeters in diameter.<ref name=Mit2013/> The center may break open and form an ulcer.<ref name=Mit2013/> This initial skin lesion typically heals after three to six months.<ref name="auto8">"Yaws Fact sheet N°316". World Health Organization. February 2014. Archived from the original on 3 March 2014. Retrieved 27 February 2014.</ref> After weeks to years, joints and bones may become painful, fatigue may develop, and new skin lesions may appear.<ref name=Mit2013/> The skin of the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet may become thick and break open.<ref name="auto8"/> The bones (especially those of the nose) may become misshapen.<ref name="auto8"/> After five years or more large areas of skin may die, leaving a scar.<ref name=Mit2013/> *'''Yellow fever''' – is a viral disease of typically short duration.<ref name="auto6">"Yellow fever Fact sheet N°100". World Health Organization. May 2013. Archived from the original on 19 February 2014. Retrieved 23 February 2014.</ref> In most cases, symptoms include fever, chills, loss of appetite, nausea, muscle pains particularly in the back, and headaches.<ref name="auto6"/> Symptoms typically improve within five days.<ref name="auto6"/> In about 15% of people, within a day of improving the fever comes back, abdominal pain occurs, and liver damage begins causing yellow skin.<ref name="auto6"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Scully |first1=Crispian |title=Scully's Medical Problems in Dentistry |date=2014 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=978-0-7020-5963-6 |page=572 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OZXdAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA572 |language=en }}</ref> If this occurs, the risk of bleeding and kidney problems is increased.<ref name="auto6"/>

==Z== *'''Zellweger spectrum disorders''' – are a group of rare disorders that create the same disease process.<ref>{{cite web|title=zellweger|url=http://www.zellweger.org.uk|website=Zellweger UK|access-date=20 February 2018}}</ref> The subdivisions of this spectrum are hyperpipecolic acidemia, Infantile Refsum disease, neonatal adrenoleukodystrophy (NALD), and Zellweger syndrome. It can also be referred to as Peroxisomal Biogenesis Disorders, Zellweger Syndrome Spectrum, NALD, Cerebrohepatorenal Syndrome, and ZSS.<ref>{{cite web|title=Zellweger Spectrum Disorders|url=http://www.uofmhealth.org/node/657529|website=University of Michigan|access-date=20 February 2018}}</ref> It can affect many body organs, including the kidneys, eyes, and hearing.<ref>{{cite web|title=Zellweger Spectrum Disorder|url=https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/zellweger-spectrum-disorders/|website=National Organization of Rare Diseases|access-date=20 February 2018}}</ref> It is named after Hans Zellweger. *'''Zika virus''' – (ZIKV) (pronounced {{IPAc-en|ˈ|z|iː|k|ə|}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|z|ɪ|k|ə|}}<ref name="Pronunciation">{{cite web |url=https://www.howtopronounce.com/zika/ |title=How to pronounce Zika |work=HowToPronounce.com}}</ref><ref name="eid14">{{cite journal |title=Zika virus |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |volume=20 |issue=6 |page=1090 |date=June 2014 |pmid=24983096 |pmc=4036762 |doi=10.3201/eid2006.ET2006}}</ref>) is a member of the virus family ''Flaviviridae''.<ref name="MaloneHoman2016">{{cite journal |vauthors=Malone RW, Homan J, Callahan MV, Glasspool-Malone J, Damodaran L, Schneider A, Zimler R, Talton J, Cobb RR, Ruzic I, Smith-Gagen J, Janies D, Wilson J |display-authors=6 |title=Zika Virus: Medical Countermeasure Development Challenges |journal=PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases |volume=10 |issue=3 |article-number=e0004530 |date= March 2016 |pmid=26934531 |pmc=4774925 |doi=10.1371/journal.pntd.0004530 |doi-access=free }}</ref> It is spread by daytime-active ''Aedes'' mosquitoes, such as ''A. aegypti'' and ''A. albopictus''.<ref name="MaloneHoman2016"/> Its name comes from the Ziika Forest of Uganda, where the virus was first isolated in 1947.<ref name="SikkaChattu2016">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sikka V, Chattu VK, Popli RK, Galwankar SC, Kelkar D, Sawicki SG, Stawicki SP, Papadimos TJ |title=The Emergence of Zika Virus as a Global Health Security Threat: A Review and a Consensus Statement of the INDUSEM Joint working Group (JWG) |journal=Journal of Global Infectious Diseases |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages= 3–15 |date=11 February 2016 |pmid=27013839 |pmc=4785754 |doi=10.4103/0974-777X.176140 |doi-access=free }}</ref> ''Zika virus'' shares a genus with the dengue, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, and West Nile viruses.<ref name="SikkaChattu2016"/> Since the 1950s, it has been known to occur within a narrow equatorial belt from Africa to Asia. From 2007 to {{As of|2016|alt=2016}}, the virus spread eastward, across the Pacific Ocean to the Americas, leading to the 2015–2016 Zika virus epidemic.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Mehrjardi MZ |title=Is Zika Virus an Emerging TORCH Agent? An Invited Commentary |journal=Virology |volume=8 |article-number=1178122X17708993 |date=2017-01-01 |df=dmy-all |pmid=28579764 |pmc=5439991 |doi=10.1177/1178122X17708993}}</ref> *'''Zoonosis''' – A zoonosis (plural zoonoses, or zoonotic diseases) is an infectious disease caused by a pathogen (an infectious agent, such as a bacterium, virus, parasite or prion) that has jumped from a non-human animal (usually a vertebrate) to a human.<ref>"zoonosis". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 29 March 2019.</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=WHO|title=Zoonoses|url=https://www.who.int/topics/zoonoses/en/|access-date=18 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103010751/http://www.who.int/topics/zoonoses/en/|archive-date=3 January 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="sgc">{{cite web |title=A glimpse into Canada's highest containment laboratory for animal health: The National Centre for Foreign Animal Diseases |url=http://www.science.gc.ca/eic/site/063.nsf/eng/97704.html |website=science.gc.ca |publisher=Government of Canada |date=22 October 2018 |quote=Zoonoses are infectious diseases which jump from an animal host or reservoir into humans. |access-date=16 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190620024804/http://science.gc.ca/eic/site/063.nsf/eng/97704.html |archive-date=20 June 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref> Typically, the first infected human transmits the infectious agent to at least one other human, who, in turn, infects others. *'''Zygomatic bone''' – In the human skull, the zygomatic bone (cheekbone or malar bone) is a paired irregular bone which articulates with the maxilla, the temporal bone, the sphenoid bone and the frontal bone. It is situated at the upper and lateral part of the face and forms the prominence of the cheek, part of the lateral wall and floor of the orbit, and parts of the temporal fossa and the infratemporal fossa. It presents a malar and a temporal surface; four processes (the frontosphenoidal, orbital, maxillary, and temporal), and four borders. *'''Zonular dialysis''' – Deficient support of the lenticular capsule of the eye by the Zonules of Zinn.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.practiceupdate.com/content/characteristics-and-outcomes-of-patients-with-zonular-dialysis-who-underwent-cataract-surgery/147261 |journal=Canadian Journal of Ophthalmology |title=Zonular dialysis and cataract surgery: results from a UK tertiary eye care referral centre |date=7 January 2023 |first1=F |last1=Aiello |first2=R |last2=Rampat |first3=G Gallo |last3=Afflitto |first4=N |last4=Din |first5=N |last5=Mandal |first6=V |last6=Maurino |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=67–72 |doi=10.1016/j.jcjo.2022.12.001 |pmid=36627103 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

{{compact TOC|side=yes|center=yes|nobreak=yes|seealso=yes|refs=yes|}}

==References== {{Reflist}}

===Works cited=== {{Refbegin|2}} * {{cite web |ref={{harvid|British Guideline|2009}} |url=http://www.sign.ac.uk/pdf/sign101.pdf |title=British Guideline on the Management of Asthma |work=British Thoracic Society |orig-date=2008 |year=2012 |access-date=2008-08-04 |archive-date=2008-08-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819203455/http://www.sign.ac.uk/pdf/sign101.pdf |id=SIGN 101}} * {{cite book |last=Kapandji |first=Ibrahim Adalbert |title=The Physiology of the Joints: Volume One Upper Limb |publisher=Churchill Livingstone |location=New York |year=1982 |edition=5th}} * {{Cite book |last=Marieb |first=Elaine N |title=Human Anatomy & Physiology |year=2004 |publisher=Pearson PLC |isbn=978-0-321-20413-4 |edition=Sixth |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/humananatomyphys0006mari}} * {{cite web |ref={{harvid|NHLBI Guideline|2007}} |author=National Asthma Education and Prevention Program |url=https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/guidelines-for-diagnosis-management-of-asthma |title=Guidelines for the Diagnosis and Management of Asthma |id=EPR-3 |publisher=National Heart Lung and Blood Institute |year=2007 }} * {{Cite book |last1=Palastanga |first1=Nigel |last2=Soames |first2=Roger |title=Anatomy and Human Movement: Structure and Function |publisher=Elsevier |year=2012 |edition=6th |isbn=978-0-7020-4053-5}} * {{Cite book |last1=Schmidt |first1=Hans-Martin |last2=Lanz |first2=Ulrich |title=Surgical Anatomy of the Hand |publisher=Thieme |year=2003 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L7a1tkBU8eMC |isbn=978-1-58890-007-4}} {{refend}}

Medicine Medicine Category:Wikipedia glossaries using unordered lists