{{short description|Capital of Kurdistan Region of Iraq}} {{pp-extended|small=yes}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}} {{Use British English|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox settlement | name = Erbil | settlement_type = City | native_name_lang = ku | other_name = Hewlêr | native_name = {{Lang|ku|ھەولێر}} | nickname = The City of Citadel and Minaret<br /><small>(Kurdish: شاری قەڵا و منارە)</small><ref>{{cite web |title=ھەولێر |url=http://chawykurd.com/details.aspx?=hewal&jmare=271&Jor=65&Jor2=4 |website=chawykurd.com |publisher=چاوی کورد |access-date=2 December 2020 |archive-date=30 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210730142337/http://chawykurd.com/details.aspx?=hewal&jmare=271&Jor=65&Jor2=4 |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{force singular}} | motto = | image_skyline = {{multiple image |perrow = 1/2/2 |border = infobox |total_width = 280 |image1 = Shar Park, Hawler, Erbil Governorate, Iraq.jpg |caption1 = Downtown Erbil |image2 = Mudhafaria Minaret (evening).jpg |caption2 = Mudhafaria Minaret |image3 = A traditional Kurdish house interior, Kurdish Textile and Cultural Museum, Citadel of Erbil.jpg |caption3 = Kurdish Textile Museum |image4 = Chaldean Catholic Cathedral of Saint Joseph 2005 (Ankawa, Erbil, Iraq).jpg |caption4 = Cathedral of Saint Joseph |image5 = Citadel of Hewlêr (Erbil), Iraqi Kurdistan.jpg |caption5 = Citadel of Erbil }} | flag_size = | seal_size = | image_shield = | shield_size = | image_map = | mapsize = | map_caption = Location of Erbil within the Kurdistan Region | pushpin_map = Iraqi Kurdistan#Iraq | pushpin_label = Erbil | pushpin_label_position = top | pushpin_mapsize = 270px | pushpin_map_caption = Location of Erbil within the Kurdistan Region##Location of Erbil within Iraq | pushpin_relief = 1 | coordinates = {{coord|36.191188|N|44.009189|E|region:IQ|display=inline,title}} | seat_type = | seat = | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = {{flag|Iraq}} | subdivision_type1 = Federal region | subdivision_name1 = {{flagcountry|Kurdistan Region}} | subdivision_type2 = Governorate | subdivision_name2 = Erbil | government_type = | leader_title = Mayor | leader_name = Omed Khoshnaw | leader_title1 = | leader_name1 = | established_title = | established_date = | established_title2 = <!-- Incorporated (town) --> | established_date2 = | area_magnitude = | unit_pref = <!--Enter: Imperial, if Imperial (metric) is desired--> | area_footnotes = | area_total_km2 = 115 | area_land_km2 = 113 | area_water_km2 = 2 | area_total_sq_mi = | area_land_sq_mi = | area_water_sq_mi = | area_water_percent = | area_urban_km2 = | area_urban_sq_mi = | area_metro_km2 = | area_metro_sq_mi = |population_rank = | population_note = | population_density_km2 = {{round|10434.78|-0}} | population_density_sq_mi = | elevation_footnotes = <!--for references: use <ref> </ref> tags--> | elevation_m = 390 | elevation_ft = | postal_code_type = Postal code | postal_code = 44001 | area_code = 066 | timezone = AST | utc_offset = +3 | timezone_DST = | utc_offset_DST = | blank_name = | blank_info = | blank1_name = | blank1_info = Erbil international airport | website = [https://www.hawlergov.org/app/en HawlerGov.org] | population_est = 1.2 million | pop_est_as_of = 2024 | population_metro = 1.4 million | pop_est_footnotes = <ref name="urbanet.info">{{cite web|url=https://www.urbanet.info/erbil-oak-planting-climate-adaption|title=Growing a Greener City: Erbil's Roadmap to Climate Adaptation}}</ref> }}
'''Erbil''' ({{langx|ar|أربيل|ʾArbīl}};<ref>{{cite news|title=أربيل|language=ar|publisher=Al Jazeera|url=https://www.aljazeera.net/encyclopedia/citiesandregions/2015/5/21/أربيل|access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref> {{langx|syr|ܐܲܪܒܹܝܠ|Arbēl}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Search Entry|url=https://www.assyrianlanguages.org/sureth/dosearch.php?searchkey=16848&language=id|access-date=2021-05-26|website=assyrianlanguages.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Khan |first1=Geoffrey |title=A Grammar of Neo-Aramaic: The Dialect of the Jews of Arbel |date=1999 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-30504-5 |page=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0rS9CwAAQBAJ |language=en|quote=There are a number of variant forms of the name Arbel. The form Arbel, which is used throughout this book, is the Neo-Aramaic form of the name. The Arabic-speaking Jews of the town refer to it as Arbīl or Arwīl. In Classical Arabic sources it is known as Irbīl. The Kurds call it Hawler, which appears to have developed from the form Arbel by a series of metatheses of consonants. The name appears to be of non-Semitic origin. It is first found in cuneiform texts dating to the third millennium B.C., where it usually has the form Urbilum.}}</ref>), also called '''Hawler''' ({{Langx|ku|هەولێر|Hewlêr}}),<ref>{{cite news |title=Hewlêr dixwaze Bexda paşekeftiya mûçeyan bide |url=https://www.rudaw.net/kurmanci/kurdistan/160920198 |access-date=28 December 2019 |language=ku}}</ref> is the capital and most populated city in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq and the capital of the Erbil Governorate.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_yVxDwAAQBAJ&q=rudaw.net+kurdistan&pg=PT54|title=Federalism, Secession, and International Recognition Regime: Iraqi Kurdistan|last=Danilovich|first=Alex|date=2018-10-12|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9780429827655|language=en}}</ref> Erbil is described as the region's cultural, economic, industrial, educational and medical hub.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |date=October 2024 |title=PROJECT FOR UPDATE OF ERBIL CITY MASTER PLAN TOWARDS SUSTAINABLE CITY DEVELOPMENT IN THE KURDISTAN REGION OF THE REPUBLIC OF IRAQ |url=https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/12387932_01.pdf |journal=Japan International Cooperation Agency}}</ref>
Erbil is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. Human settlement at Erbil may be dated back to the 5th millennium BC.<ref name="Novice">{{cite journal|last1=Novice|first1=Karel|title=Research of the Arbil Citadel, Iraq, First Season|journal=Památky Archaeological|date=2008|issue=XCIX|pages=259–302}}</ref> At the heart of the city is the ancient Citadel of Erbil and Mudhafaria Minaret. The earliest historical reference to the region dates to the Third Dynasty of Ur of Sumer, when King Shulgi mentioned the city of Urbilum. The city was later conquered by the Assyrians.<ref name=villard>{{harvnb|Villard|2001}}</ref><ref name='Hamblin'>{{Cite book|last=Hamblin|first=William J.|author-link=William J. Hamblin|title=Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC|publisher=Routledge|year=2006|page=111|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=en9tzr1-VM4C|isbn=0-415-25589-9}}</ref>
In the 3rd millennium BC, Erbil was an independent power in its area. It was conquered for a time by the Gutians. Beginning in the late 2nd millennium BC, it came under Assyrian control. Subsequent to this, it was part of the geopolitical province of Assyria under several empires in turn, including the Median Empire, the Achaemenid Empire (Achaemenid Assyria), Macedonian Empire, Seleucid Empire, Armenian Empire, Parthian Empire, Roman Assyria and Sasanian Empire, as well as being the capital of the tributary state of Adiabene between the mid-second century BC and early 2nd century AD. In ancient times the patron deity of the city was Ishtar of Arbela.<ref>Porter, Barbara Nevling, "Ishtar of Niniveh and her collaborator, Ishtar of Arbela, in the Reign of Assurbanipal", Iraq, vol. 66, pp. 41–44, 2004</ref>
Following the Muslim conquest of Persia, the region no longer remained united, and during the Middle Ages, the city came to be ruled by the Seljuk and Ottoman empires.<ref>Georges Roux – Ancient Iraq</ref>
Erbil's archaeological museum houses a large collection of pre-Islamic artifacts, particularly the art of Mesopotamia, and is a centre for archaeological projects in the area.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The city was designated as the Arab Tourism Capital 2014 by the Arab Council of Tourism.<ref>[http://cabinet.gov.krd/a/d.aspx?l=12&a=45887 Erbil named 2014 Arab Tourism Capital] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150708071630/http://cabinet.gov.krd/a/d.aspx?l=12&a=45887 |date=8 July 2015 }}. Retrieved 30 January 2014</ref><ref>[http://rudaw.net/english/opinion/23122013 "Erbil: Kurdish City, Arab Capital"], Rudaw. Retrieved 30 January 2014</ref> In July 2014, the Citadel of Erbil was inscribed as a World Heritage Site.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Erbil Citadel |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1437/ |access-date=2022-10-28 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref>
{{anchor|Etymology|Toponymy|Name}} ==Names== ''Erbil'' is the romanization of the city's Ottoman Turkish name {{lang|ota|اربيل}},<ref>{{citation |last=Nasrullah |first=Mehmet |title=مكمل آوروپا خريطه سى |language=ota |trans-title=Complete Map of Europe |date=1908 |publisher=Tefeyyüz Kitaphanesi |location=Istanbul }}.</ref> still used as the city's name in official English translation.<ref>{{citation |last= |first= |contribution-url=https://gov.krd/english/the-governments-mission/erbil-baghdad-relations/ |url=https://gov.krd/english/ |contribution=Erbil{{ndash}}Baghdad Relations... |title=''Official site'' |publisher=Kurdistan Regional Government |location=Erbil |date=2024 }}.</ref> The Modern Standard Arabic form of the name is ''Arbīl'' ({{lang|ar|أربيل}}).<ref>{{citation |last= |first= |contribution-url=https://gov.krd/arabic/the-governments-mission/erbil-baghdad-relations/ |url=https://gov.krd/arabic/ |contribution=العلاقات بين أربيل وبغداد |title=''Official site'' |publisher=Kurdistan Regional Government |location=Erbil |date=2024 |language=ar |trans-contribution=Erbil{{ndash}}Baghdad Relations... }}.</ref> In classical antiquity, it was known as '''Arbela''' in Latin and {{translit|grc|Arbēla}} ({{lang|grc|Ἄρβηλα}}) in Greek, derived from Old Persian ''Arbairā'' ({{lang|peo|𐎠𐎼𐎲𐎡𐎼𐎠𐏓}}), from Assyrian ''Arbaʾilu'',<ref>{{EI2|last=Sourdel|first=D.|title=Irbil|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/irbil-SIM_3589?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2&s.q=irbil|volume=4}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last =Kessler | first =Karlheinz | date = 2006| title = Arbela | encyclopedia = Brill's New Pauly | publisher = Brill Online | editor-last1 = Salazar | editor-first1 = Christine F. | editor-last2 = Landfester | editor-first2 = Manfred | editor-last3 = Gentry | editor-first3 = Francis G. | url =https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/*-e131650}}</ref> from Sumerian ''Urbilum'' ({{lang|sux|{{linktext|𒌨|𒉈|𒈝|𒆠}}}}, ''ur-bi₂-lum<sup>ki</sup>'').<ref>{{citation |last= |first= |contribution-url=https://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/epsd2/cbd/sux/o0048244.html |url=https://oracc.museum.upenn.edu |contribution=Urbilum [1] (SN) |title=Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus |publisher=University of Pennsylvania |location=Philadelphia |date=2022 }}.</ref>
==Archaeology== In 2006 a small excavation was conducted by Karel Novacek of the University of West Bohemia. While the citadel remains were of the Ottoman Period a field survey of the western slope of the tell found a few pottery shards from the Neolithic to Middle Bronze Age with more numerous finds from the Late Bronze to Iron Ages and from the Hellenistic, Arsacid, Sassanid Periods.{{sfn|Nováček|2008}} Being so heavily occupied, the site has never been properly excavated. In 2013 a team from the Sapienza University of Rome conducted some ground penetrating radar work on the center of the citadel. Starting in 2014 an Iraqi-led excavation began on a citadel location where the collapse of a modern building provided an opportunity for excavation. Historical aerial photographs and ground survey have also begun on the lower city.<ref>Lawler, Andrew, "Erbil Revealed", Archaeology, vol. 67, no. 5, pp. 38–43, 2014</ref><ref>Al Yaqoobi, Dara, et al., "Archaeological investigations on the citadel of Erbil: background, framework and results", The archaeology of the Kurdistan region of Iraq and adjacent regions, pp. 23-27, 2016</ref><ref>Macginnis, J. D. A., "Archaeology of the Town under the Citadel Erbil/Hawlér", Subartu 4-5, pp. 10-13, 2011</ref>
The wider plain around Erbil has a number of promising archaeological sites, most notably Tell Baqrta. The Erbil Plain Archaeological Survey began in 2012. The survey combines satellite imagery and field work to determine the development and archaeology of the plain around Erbil.<ref>Ur, Jason, et al., "Ancient Cities and Landscapes in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq: The Erbil Plain Archaeological Survey 2012 Season", Iraq, vol. 75, pp. 89–117, 2013</ref> Tell Baqrta is a very large, 80 hectare, site which dates back to the Early Bronze Age.<ref>Kopanias, Konstantinos, et al., "The Tell Nader and Tell Baqrta Project in the Kurdistan region of Iraq: Preliminary report of the 2011 season", Subartu 6, pp. 23–57, 2013</ref><ref>Peyronel, Luca et al., "The Italian Archaeological Expedition in the Erbil Plain, Kurdistan Region of Iraq. Preliminary Report on the 2016 – 2018 Excavations at Helawa", Mesopotamia, vol. 54, pp. 1-104, 2019</ref>
==History== {{Further|Timeline of Erbil}}
=== Neolithic === Erbil was among the earliest regions of agricultural settlement during the Neolithic period, marking a significant stage in the development of human civilization in Mesopotamia.<ref name=":1" />
===Bronze Age=== ====Early Bronze==== The region in which Erbil lies was largely under Sumerian domination from {{Circa|3000 BC}}.
With the rise of the Akkadian Empire (2335–2154 BC) all of the Akkadian Semites and Sumerians of Mesopotamia were united under one rule.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Statistics |title=UNPO: Assyria |url=http://unpo.org/members/7859 |website=unpo.org |date=9 May 2024 |language=en}}</ref> Erridupizir, king of the kingdom of Gutium, captured the city in 2150 BC.<ref>[http://www.erbilcitadel.org/arbil/index.php?option=com_k2&view=itemlist&layout=category&task=category&id=116&Itemid=696 Timeline] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814010854/http://www.erbilcitadel.org/arbil/index.php?option=com_k2&view=itemlist&layout=category&task=category&id=116&Itemid=696 |date=14 August 2014 }} ErbilCitadel.orq</ref>
The first mention of Erbil in literary sources comes from the archives of the kingdom of Ebla. They record two journeys to Erbil (''Irbilum'') by a messenger from Ebla around 2300 BFC.
The Neo-Sumerian ruler of Ur, Amar-Sin, sacked ''Urbilum'' in his second year, c. 1975 BC.<ref name=Hamblin/>
====Middle Bronze==== In the centuries after the fall of the Ur III empire Erbil became a power in its area. It was conquered by Shamsi-Adad I during his short lived Upper Mesopotamian Kingdom, becoming independent after its fall.
====Late Bronze==== By the time of the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1050 BC) Erbil was within the Assyrian zone of control.
===Iron Age=== The region fell under the Neo-Assyrian Empire (935–605 BC). The city then changed hands a number of times including the Persian, Greek, Parthian, Roman and Sassanid rule.
Under the Medes, Cyaxares might have settled a number of people from the ancient Iranian tribe of Sagartians in the Assyrian cities of Arbela and Arrapha (modern Kirkuk), probably as a reward for their help in the capture of Nineveh. According to Classical authors, the Persian emperor Cyrus the Great occupied Assyria in 547 BC and established it as an Achaemenid military protectorate state (or satrapy) called in Old Persian ''Aθurā (Athura)'', with Babylon as the capital.<ref>Yarshater, Ehsan (1993). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3. Cambridge University Press. p. 482. {{ISBN|978-0-521-20092-9}}. <q>Of the four residences of the Achaemenids named by Herodotus—Ecbatana, Pasargadae or Persepolis, Susa and Babylon—the last [situated in Iraq] was maintained as their most important capital, the fixed winter quarters, the central office of bureaucracy, exchanged only in the heat of summer for some cool spot in the highlands. Under the Seleucids and the Parthians the site of the Mesopotamian capital moved slightly to the north on the Tigris—to Seleucia and Ctesiphon. It is indeed symbolic that these new foundations were built from the bricks of ancient Babylon, just as later Baghdad, a little further upstream, was built out of the ruins of the Sassanian double city of Seleucia-Ctesiphon.</q></ref>
The Medes, and with them the Sagarthians, were to revolt against Darius I of Persia in 522 BC, but this revolt was firmly put down by the army which Darius sent out under the leadership of General Takhmaspada the following year. The events are depicted in the Behistun Inscription which stands today in the mountains of Iran's Kermanshah province.{{Citation needed|date=November 2024}}
The Battle of Gaugamela, in which Alexander the Great defeated Darius III of Persia, took place in 331 BC approximately {{convert|100|km}} west of Erbil according to Urbano Monti's world map.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Composite: Tavola 1–60. (Map of the World) (Re-projected in Plate Carree or Geographic, Marinus of Tyre, Ptolemy) – David Rumsey Historical Map Collection|url=https://www.davidrumsey.com/luna/servlet/workspace/handleMediaPlayer?lunaMediaId=RUMSEY~8~1~303667~90074316|access-date=2022-02-19|website=davidrumsey.com}}</ref> After the battle, Darius managed to flee to the city. (Somewhat inaccurately, the confrontation is sometimes known as the "Battle of Arbela".) Subsequently, Arbela was part of Alexander's Empire. After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, Arbela became part of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire.
Erbil became part of the region disputed between Rome and Persia under the Sasanids. During the Parthian era to early Sassanian era, Erbil became the capital of the state of Adiabene (Assyrian ''Ḥadyab''). The town and kingdom are known in Jewish history for the conversion of the royal family, notably Queen Helena of Adiabene, to Judaism.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brook |first=Kevin Alan |date=2018 |title=The Jews of Khazaria |edition=3rd |location=Lanham |publisher=Rowman and Littlefield Publishers |pages=241–243 |isbn=9781538103425}}</ref>
Its populace then gradually converted from the ancient Mesopotamian religion between the first and fourth centuries to Christianity, with Pkidha traditionally becoming its first bishop around 104 AD. The ancient Mesopotamian religion did not die out entirely in the region until the tenth century AD.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/arbela_02_text.htm |title=HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF ADIABENE UNDER THE PARTHIANS AND THE SASSANIDS |author= MŠIHA-ZKHA |publisher=Tertullian.org }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Neusner|first=Jacob|title=A history of the Jews in Babylonia, Volume 2|year=1969|publisher=Brill Archive|page=354}}</ref> There also existed a Christian community thought to be converts from Judaism.<ref name=":2" /> The Adiabene (East Syriac ecclesiastical province) in Arbela (Syriac: {{lang|syc|ܐܪܒܝܠ}} ''Arbel'') became a centre of eastern Syriac Christianity until late in the Middle Ages.<ref name=":2">{{cite book|last=British Institute of Persian Studies|title=Iran, Volumes 19–21|year=1981|publisher=the University of Michigan|pages=15, 17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rNdtAAAAMAAJ&q=adiabene}}</ref>
===Medieval history=== As many of the Assyrians who had converted to Christianity adopted Biblical (including Jewish) names, most of the early bishops had Eastern Aramaic or Jewish/Biblical names, which does not suggest that many of the early Christians in this city were converts from Judaism.<ref>Gillman, Ian and Hans-Joachim Klimkeit. ''Christians in Asia before 1500''. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1999) p. 33</ref> It served as the seat of a Metropolitan of the Assyrian Church of the East. From the city's Christian period come many church fathers and well-known authors in Aramaic.
Following the Muslim conquest of Persia, the Sassanian province of Naxwardašīragān and later Garamig ud Nodardashiragan,<ref>D. Sellwood, [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/adiabene "ADIABENE,"] Encyclopædia Iranica, I/5, pp. 456–459</ref> of which Erbil made part of, was dissolved, and from the mid-seventh century AD the region saw a gradual influx of Muslim peoples, predominantly Arabs and Turkic peoples.
The most notable Kurdish tribe in the region was the Hadhabani, of which several individuals also acted as governors for the city from the late tenth century until the 12th century when it was conquered by the Zengids and its governorship given to the Turkic Begtegenids, of whom the most notable was Gökböri, who retained the city during the Ayyubid era.<ref>V. Minorsky. Studies in Caucasian History III, Prehistory of Saladin. Cambridge University Press. 208 pp. 1953.</ref><ref>Nováček, K., Amin, N., & Melčák, M. (2013). A Medieval City Within Assyrian Walls: The Continuity of the Town of Arbīl in Northern Mesopotamia. Iraq, 75, 1–42. {{doi|10.1017/S0021088900000401}}</ref> Yaqut al-Hamawi further describes Erbil as being mostly Kurdish-populated in the 13th century.<ref>B. James. Le « territoire tribal des Kurdes » et l’aire iraqienne (xe-xiiie siècles): Esquisse des recompositions spatiales. Revue des Mondes Musulmans et de la Méditerranée, 2007. P. 101-126.</ref>
[[File:Siège d'Irbil 1258-1259.jpeg|thumb|left|Siege of Erbil by the Ilkhanid Mongols in 1258–59 depicted in the ''Jami' al-tawarikh'' by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Département des Manuscrits, Division Orientale]] When the Mongols invaded the Near East in the 13th century, they attacked Arbil for the first time in 1237. They plundered the lower town but had to retreat before an approaching Caliphate army and had to put off the capture of the citadel.<ref>{{harvnb|Woods|1977|pp=49–50}}</ref>{{Broken footnote|date=February 2020}} After the fall of Baghdad to Hülegü and the Mongols in 1258, the last Begtegenid ruler surrendered to the Mongols, claiming the Kurdish garrison of the city would follow suit; they refused this however, therefore the Mongols returned to Arbil and were able to capture the citadel after a siege lasting six months.<ref name=novacek261>{{harvnb|Nováček|2008|p=261}}</ref><ref>J. von Hammer-Purgstall. 1842. Geschichte der Ilchane, das ist der Mongolen in Persien, Volume 1. P. 159-161.</ref> Hülegü then appointed a Christian Assyrian governor to the town, and the Syriac Orthodox Church was allowed to build a church.
As time passed, sustained persecutions of Christians, Jews and Buddhists throughout the Ilkhanate began in earnest in 1295 under the rule of Oïrat amir Nauruz, which affected the indigenous Christian Assyrians greatly.<ref>Grousset, p. 379</ref> This manifested early on in the reign of the Ilkhan Ghazan. In 1297, after Ghazan had felt strong enough to overcome Nauruz's influence, he put a stop to the persecutions.
During the reign of the Ilkhan Öljeitü, the Assyrian inhabitants retreated to the citadel to escape persecution. In the Spring of 1310, the Malek (governor) of the region attempted to seize it from them with the help of the Kurds. Despite the Turkic bishop Mar Yahballaha's best efforts to avert the impending doom, the citadel was at last taken after a siege by Ilkhanate troops and Kurdish tribesmen on 1 July 1310, and all the defenders were massacred, including many of the Assyrian inhabitants of the lower town.<ref name=sourdel>{{harvnb|Sourdel|2010}}</ref><ref>Grousset, p. 383</ref>
However, the city's Assyrian population remained numerically significant until the destruction of the city by the forces of Timur in 1397.<ref>Edwin Munsell Bliss, ''Turkey and the Armenian Atrocities'', (Chicago 1896) p. 153</ref>
In the Middle Ages, Erbil was ruled successively by the Umayyads, the Abbasids, the Buwayhids, the Seljuks and then the Turkmen Begtegīnid Emirs of Erbil (1131–1232), most notably Gökböri, one of Saladin's leading generals; they were in turn followed by the Ilkhanids, the Jalayirids, the Kara Koyunlu, the Timurids and the Ak Koyunlu. Erbil was the birthplace of the famous 12th and 13th century Kurdish historians and writers Ibn Khallikan and Ibn al-Mustawfi. After the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514, Erbil came under the Soran emirate. In the 18th century Baban Emirate took the city but it was retaken by Soran ruler Mir Muhammed Kor in 1822. The Soran emirate continued ruling over Erbil until it was taken by the Ottomans in 1851. Erbil became a part of the Mosul vilayet in Ottoman Empire until World War I, when the Ottomans and their Kurdish and Turkmen allies were defeated by the British Empire. [[File:Kurdistan1920.png|thumb|Provisions of the Treaty of Sèvres for an independent Kurdistan (in 1920)]]
===Modern history=== Erbil lies on the plain beneath the mountains, but for the most part, the inhabitants of Iraqi Kurdistan dwell up above in the rugged and rocky terrain that is the traditional habitat of the Kurds since time immemorial.<ref name="abebooks.co.uk">{{Cite web |title=9781906768188: Kurdistan – a Nation Emerges – AbeBooks – Jonathan Fryer: 1906768188 |url=https://www.abebooks.co.uk/9781906768188/Kurdistan-Nation-Emerges-Jonathan-Fryer-1906768188/plp |access-date=2021-01-22 |website=abebooks.co.uk |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Fryer |first=Jonathan |title=Kurdistan: a nation emerges |date=2010 |publisher=Stacey International |isbn=978-1-906768-18-8 |location=London}}</ref>alt=A postcard showing the city of Erbil in 1900|thumb|A postcard showing the city of Erbil in 1900 The modern town of Erbil stands on a tell topped by an Ottoman fort. During the Middle Ages, Erbil became a major trading centre on the route between Baghdad and Mosul, a role which it still plays today with important road links to the outside world. 250px|thumb|Erbil Main Square [[File:The patriarchate of the Assyrian Church of the East in Erbil.jpg|thumb|200px|The patriarchate of the Assyrian Church of the East in Erbil]] Erbil is also home to a large population of refugees due to ongoing conflicts in Syria. In 2020, it was estimated that 450,000 refugees had settled in the Erbil metropolitan area since 2003, with many of them expected to remain.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Interview with Nihad Salim Qoja: "Iranian hegemony in Iraq is very strong" – Qantara.de|url=https://en.qantara.de/content/interview-with-nihad-salim-qoja-iranian-hegemony-in-iraq-is-very-strong|access-date=2020-07-18|website=Qantara.de – Dialogue with the Islamic World|date=6 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
The parliament of the Iraqi Kurdistan was established in Erbil in 1970 after negotiations between the Iraqi government and the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP) led by Mustafa Barzani, but was effectively controlled by Saddam Hussein until the Kurdish uprising at the end of the 1991 Gulf War. The legislature ceased to function effectively in the mid-1990s when fighting broke out between the two main Kurdish factions, the Kurdistan Democratic Party and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK). The city was captured by the KDP in 1996 with the assistance of the Iraqi government of Saddam Hussein. The PUK then established an alternative Kurdish government in Sulaimaniyah. KDP claimed that in March 1996, PUK asked for Iran's help to fight KDP. Considering this as a foreign attack on Iraq's soil, the KDP asked Saddam Hussein for help.
The Kurdish Parliament in Erbil reconvened after a peace agreement was signed between the Kurdish parties in 1997, but had no real power. The Kurdish government in Erbil had control only in the western and northern parts of the autonomous region. During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, a United States special forces task force was headquartered just outside Erbil. The city was the scene of celebrations on 10 April 2003 after the fall of the Ba'ath regime. thumb|Erbil Clock Tower During the U.S. occupation of Iraq, sporadic attacks hit Erbil. Parallel bomb attacks against Eid celebrations killed 117 people in February 2004.<ref name=arab-2-feb-2004>{{cite news |last1=Al-Nahr|first1=Naseer |title=Twin Bombings Kill 56 in Irbil |url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/243882 |access-date=11 May 2015 |work=Arabnews.com |date=2 February 2004}}</ref> Responsibility was claimed by Ansar al-Sunnah.<ref name="arab-2-feb-2004" /> A suicide bombing in May 2005 killed 60 civilians and injured 150 more outside a police recruiting centre.<ref name=nyt-5-may-2005>{{cite news |last1=Jaff|first1=Warzer |last2=Oppel|first2=Richard A. Jr. |title=60 Kurds Killed by Suicide Bomb in Northern Iraq |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/05/international/middleeast/05iraq.html?pagewanted=all |access-date=11 May 2015 |work=The New York Times|date=5 May 2005}}</ref>
The Erbil International Airport opened in the city in 2005.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.eia.krd/english/about-eia/the-airport | title=The Airport }}</ref>
In September 2013, a quintuple car bombing killed six people.
In 2015, the Assyrian Church of the East moved its seat from Chicago to Erbil.
In February 2021, a series of missiles hit the city killing two and injuring eight people. Further missile attacks took place in March 2022.
==Transportation== Erbil International Airport is one of Iraq's busiest airports. Services include direct flights to many domestic destinations such as Baghdad international airport. There are international flights from Erbil to many countries; such as the Netherlands, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Austria, Turkey, Jordan and elsewhere around the world. There are occasionally seasonal flights from Erbil international airport. Erbil International Airport was briefly closed to international commercial flights in September 2017 by the Iraqi government in retaliation for the Kurdish independence vote but reopened in March 2018.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Blockade by Iraq |title=Iraqi govt enforces international flight ban in Kurdistan region |url=http://www.france24.com/en/20170929-iraq-foreigners-ban-international-flights-airports-kurdistan-independence-referendum-yes-vo |work=France 24 |date=29 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=International Flight Return |title=Erbil International Airport |url=https://erbilairport.com/INFO06/F_INFO06_01_02.aspx?articleId=436&page=1 |website=erbilairport.com}}</ref>
Another important form of transportation between Erbil and the surrounding areas is by bus. Among others, bus services offer connections to Turkey and Iran. A new bus terminal was opened in 2014.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/25042014|title=Erbil's New Bus Terminal a Boon for Travelers|work=Rudaw|language=en|date=4 April 2019|access-date=19 March 2019}}</ref> Erbil has a system of six ring roads encircling the city.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/050220173|title=Erbil's 5th ring road completed – the 120 Meter highway|work=Rudaw|date=2 May 2017|access-date=19 March 2019|language=en}}</ref>
==Climate== Erbil has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification ''Csa''), closely bordering a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen: ''BSh'') with long, extremely hot summers and mild winters. Summers are arid, with little to no precipitation occurring between June and September. Winters are usually wet with occasional flooding, with January being the wettest month.<ref name="Climate-Data.org">{{cite web|title=Climate: Arbil – Climate graph, Temperature graph, Climate table|url=http://en.climate-data.org/location/4976/|publisher=Climate-Data.org|access-date=13 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131110185410/http://en.climate-data.org/location/4976/|archive-date=10 November 2013|url-status = live}}</ref>
A downpour on 17 December 2021 caused flash floods in the area, killing 14 people.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-12 |title=Iraq: Flash Floods - Final Report DREF Operation n° MDRIQ014 - Iraq {{!}} ReliefWeb |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/iraq/iraq-flash-floods-final-report-dref-operation-ndeg-mdriq014 |access-date=2024-02-14 |website=reliefweb.int |language=en}}</ref>{{Weather box | metric first = Yes | single line = Yes | location = Erbil (2012–2023 normals) |Jan high C = 13.2 |Feb high C = 15.4 |Mar high C = 18.9 |Apr high C = 25.5 |May high C = 32.6 |Jun high C = 38.9 |Jul high C = 42.4 |Aug high C = 42.5 |Sep high C = 37.6 |Oct high C = 30.1 |Nov high C = 21.4 |Dec high C = 15.4 | year high C = |Jan mean C = 8.1 |Feb mean C = 9.9 |Mar mean C = 13.3 |Apr mean C = 18.4 |May mean C = 24.9 |Jun mean C = 30.9 |Jul mean C = 34.5 |Aug mean C = 34.2 |Sep mean C = 29.5 |Oct mean C = 23.1 |Nov mean C = 15.5 |Dec mean C = 10.2 | year mean C = |Jan low C = 2.9 |Feb low C = 4.4 |Mar low C = 7.7 |Apr low C = 11.4 |May low C = 17.3 |Jun low C = 22.9 |Jul low C = 26.5 |Aug low C = 25.9 |Sep low C = 21.3 |Oct low C = 16.0 |Nov low C = 9.5 |Dec low C = 5.1 | year low C = |precipitation colour = green |Jan precipitation mm = 73.0 |Feb precipitation mm = 50.5 |Mar precipitation mm = 80.4 |Apr precipitation mm = 43.1 |May precipitation mm = 18.3 |Jun precipitation mm = 0.6 |Jul precipitation mm = 0.0 |Aug precipitation mm = 0.1 |Sep precipitation mm = 0.5 |Oct precipitation mm = 19.5 |Nov precipitation mm = 48.5 |Dec precipitation mm = 85.4 |year precipitation mm = | Jan humidity =72.0 | Feb humidity =65.6 | Mar humidity =63.2 | Apr humidity =53.1 | May humidity =33.9 | Jun humidity =18.0 | Jul humidity =14.7 | Aug humidity =15.5 | Sep humidity =18.9 | Oct humidity =32.8 | Nov humidity =56.8 | Dec humidity =73.7 | Jan precipitation days = 12.1 | Feb precipitation days = 9.1 | Mar precipitation days = 11.8 | Apr precipitation days = 9.1 | May precipitation days = 7.9 | Jun precipitation days = 1.1 | Jul precipitation days = 0.1 | Aug precipitation days = 0.8 | Sep precipitation days = 1.1 | Oct precipitation days = 7.6 | Nov precipitation days = 8.9 | Dec precipitation days = 11.3 |source 1 = IEM<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.mesonet.agron.iastate.edu/sites/monthlysum.php?station=ORER&network=IQ__ASOS |title= [ORER] Erbil [2010-] Monthly Summaries |publisher=The Iowa Environmental Mesonet |access-date=21 December 2024}}</ref> KRSO (precipitation 2012–2021)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://krso.gov.krd/content/upload/1/root/%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%89-%D9%83%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B4-%D9%88-%D9%87%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%88%D8%A7-20-2-2020-%D8%A6%D9%8A%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%891.pdf |title=Weather Statistics in Kurdistan Region Governorates for the years 2012-2021, Station : Erbil |publisher=Kurdistan Region Government Ministry of Planning Kurdistan Region Statistics Office |access-date=21 December 2024}}</ref> | source 2 = ''What's the Weather Like.org'',<ref>{{cite web|title=Erbil climate info|url=http://www.whatstheweatherlike.org/iraq/erbil.htm|publisher=What's the Weather Like.org|access-date=14 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004215222/http://www.whatstheweatherlike.org/iraq/erbil.htm|archive-date=4 October 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> ''Erbilia''<ref>{{cite web|title=Erbil Weather Forecast and Climate Information|url=http://www.erbilia.com/erbil-info/weather/|publisher=Erbilia|access-date=14 July 2013|url-status = usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130709000508/http://www.erbilia.com/erbil-info/weather/|archive-date=9 July 2013}}</ref> }}
== Culture ==
===Citadel of Erbil=== [[File:قه_لا_ى_هه_ولير.jpg| thumb|Citadel of Erbil]]
[[File:One of the halls of the Erbil Civilization Museum displaying Mesopotamian artifacts from the Urartian, Hurrian, and Hatra periods.jpg|thumb|Erbil Civilization Museum contains artifacts from the Assyrian, Urartian, Hurrian, and Hatra periods.]] The Citadel of Erbil is a tell or occupied mound in the historical heart of Erbil, rising between {{convert|25|and|32|m}} from the surrounding plain. The buildings on top of the tell stretch over a roughly oval area of {{convert|430|x|340|m}} occupying {{convert|102000|sqm}}. It has been claimed that the site is the oldest continuously inhabited town in the world.<ref name='UN'>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5479/|title=Erbil Citadel |publisher=UNESCO|access-date=30 August 2010}}</ref> The earliest evidence for occupation of the citadel mound dates to the fifth millennium BC and possibly earlier. It appears for the first time in historical sources during the Ur III period and gained particular importance during the Neo-Assyrian Empire (tenth to seventh centuries BC) period. West of the citadel at Ary Kon quarter, a chamber tomb dating to the Neo-Assyrian Empire period has been excavated.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> During the Sassanian period and the Abbasid Caliphate, Erbil was an important centre for Syriac Christianity and the Assyrians in general. After the Mongols captured the citadel in 1258, Erbil's importance began to decline. The main gate is guarded by an immense statue of a Kurd reading: "the house of the citadel behind him are built into stony ground of the mound and look down on the streets and tarmacked roads that circle them".
During the 20th century, the urban structure was significantly modified, as a result of which a number of houses and public buildings were destroyed. In 2007, the High Commission for Erbil Citadel Revitalization (HCECR) was established to oversee the restoration of the citadel. In the same year, all inhabitants, except one family, were evicted from the citadel as part of a large restoration project. Since then, archaeological research and restoration works have been carried out at and around the tell by various international teams and in co-operation with local specialists, and many areas remain off-limits to visitors due to the danger of unstable walls and infrastructure. The government plans to have 50 families live in the citadel once it is renovated.
The only religious structure that currently survives in the citadel is the Mulla Effendi mosque. When it was fully occupied, the citadel was divided in three districts or ''mahallas'': from east to west the Serai, the Takya and the Topkhana. The Serai was occupied by notable families; the Takya district was named after the homes of dervishes, which are called ''takyas''; and the Topkhana district housed craftsmen and farmers. Other sights to visit in the citadel include the bathing rooms (''hammam'') built in 1775 located near the mosque and the Textile Museum.<ref>'Erbil Citadel' Brochure, High Commission for Erbil Citadel Revitalization (HCECR). www.erbilcitadel.org</ref> Erbil citadel has been inscribed on the World Heritage List on 21 June 2014.
===Other sights=== {{See also|List of archaeological sites in Erbil Governorate}} * The {{convert|36|m|ft|0|adj=mid|abbr=off|-high}} Mudhafaria Minaret, situated in Minaret Park several blocks from the citadel, dates back to the late 12th century AD and the Governor of Erbil, in the reign of Saladin, Muzaffar Al-Din Abu Sa’eed Al-Kawkaboori (Gökböri), who had entered in the obedience of Saladin without war and married his sister. It has an octagonal base decorated with two tiers of niches, which is separated from the main shaft by a small balcony, also decorated. Another historical minaret with turquoise glazed tiles is nearby. * Khalidiya Khanqah Mosque and Tekke, a historic mosque and Sufi lodge founded in 1805 by Mawlana Khalid al-Naqshbandi. * Sami Abdul Rahman Park * The Mound of Qalich Agha lies within the grounds of the Museum of Civilization, {{convert|1|km|mi}} from the citadel. An excavation in 1996 found tools from the Halaf, Ubaid and Uruk periods.<ref name="ReferenceA">'Directorate Antiquities of Erbil's Guide' Brochure produced by General Directorate of Antiquities, KRG, Ministry of Tourism</ref> * Classical School of the Medes
===Sports===
The local major football team is Erbil Soccer Club which plays its football matches at Franso Hariri Stadium (named after the assassinated Assyrian politician, former governor of Erbil city Franso Hariri) which is based in the south part of central Erbil. They won 3 Iraqi nation league titles and reached the AFC Final twice, but lost both times.
== Demographics == The city is predominantly Kurdish and has minorities of local Turkmen, Chaldeans and Assyrians, as well as Arabs.<ref>[http://www.institutkurde.org/en/info/the-kurdish-population-1232551004 The Kurdish Population] by the Kurdish Institute of Paris, 2017 estimate.</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=19 June 2015 |title=Iraqi Turkmen |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/turkmen/ |access-date=17 October 2020 |website=Minority Rights Group International}}</ref><ref>[http://cosit.gov.iq/ar/ Central Statistics Agency – Home Page]. Archived from [https://web.archive.org/web/20170716115359/http://www.cosit.gov.iq/ the original] on 16 July 2017. on the Wayback Machine website.</ref>
=== Turkmens === Although there are no official statistics on the number of Turkmens living in Erbil city, Turkmen community leaders claim that between 100,000 and 400,000 Turkmens reside in the Erbil Governorate.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 July 2024 |title=Will regional competition further divide Iraq's Turkmen minority? |url=https://amwaj.media/en/article/will-regional-competition-further-divide-iraq-s-turkmen-minority |access-date=2025-10-31 |website=Amwaj.media |language=en}}</ref> In the city itself they mainly reside in the neighbourhoods of Taci, Mareke and Three Tak in Erbil's city centre, around the citadel. Until 2006, they were living in the Tophane, Tekke and Saray neighborhoods of the Citadel, which contained almost 700 houses. In 2006, the citadel was emptied, and the Turkmen in the citadel were relocated to other neighbourhoods.<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://orsam.org.tr/en/the-situation-of-turkmens-and-the-turkmen-areas-after-isis/ |title=The Situation of Turkmens and The Turkmen Areas After ISIS |author=Bilgay Duman |date=August 2016 |publisher=Ortadoğu Araştırmaları Merkezi (ORSAM)}} Also available via [https://www.academia.edu/40261120 Academia.edu]</ref>
Iraq's first two Turkmen schools were opened on 17 November 1993, one in Erbil and the other in Kifri.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Iraqi Turkmen are happy as their national days recognized |url=https://kirkuknow.com/en/news/61220 |access-date=2022-06-03 |website=Kirkuknow}}</ref>
Erbil's citadel also contains the Turkmen Culture House.
=== Assyrians === Erbil's Ankawa district is mainly populated by Christian Assyrians. The district houses approximately 40 churches.<ref>{{cite web |date=4 November 2021 |title=What will autonomy mean for Iraq's largest Christian town? |url=https://www.newarab.com/analysis/what-will-autonomy-mean-iraqs-largest-christian-town}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=29 October 2021 |title=Finding Their Voice |url=https://www.chaldeannews.com/features-1/2021/10/29/finding-their-voice |access-date=10 May 2023 |archive-date=8 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240508172435/https://www.chaldeannews.com/features-1/2021/10/29/finding-their-voice |url-status=dead }}</ref>
=== IDPs === In wake of the war against the Islamic State, millions of Iraq's Internally displaced people (IDPs) fled into the KRG to find protection. At one point the city housed 10.7% of the 1.1 million IDPs and 200,000 refugees (mainly from Syria). However after 2016, the number of IDPs began to decline and now hovers around slightly over 230,000.<ref name=":1" />
== Economy == Agriculture has been a significant economic sector in Erbil in the past. Today, through its architectural heritage, ancient sites, traditional bazaars, historical mosques, and modern cultural centers, tourism forms a major part of Erbil’s economy, besides its big oil and gas industry. In recent years, foreign and domestic investments in infrastructure, hotels, and entertainment facilities have further strengthened Erbil’s position as a growing tourist destination in the Kurdistan Region and Iraq.<ref name=":1" />
=== Erbil 2050 Master Plan === Between 2007 and 2009, the General Directorate of Urban Planning (GDUP) in the Ministry of Municipalities and Tourism (MoMT) developed the Erbil Master Plan. Over the years, investments from Turkey and the Gulf countries led to accelerated urban sprawl and an unexpected population increase, which made the original plan unsustainable. To address this, the GDUP partnered with the Japan International Cooperation Agency to develop a new approach with a planning horizon extending to 2050. JICA delivered its final proposal for the updated plan in October 2024.<ref name=":1" />
=== Green Belt Project === The '''Erbil Green Belt Project'''{{Efn|Also known as '''Orbital Green Belt Project''' or '''Green Belt of Erbil'''}} is a large-scale macro-engineering project, launched in October 2025, designed to encircle the city with a protective green zone composed of trees and other vegetation. The project aims to combat deforestation, mitigate climate change and its impacts, improve the urban environment, and enhance residents’ quality of life, while also providing employment opportunities and economic stimulus.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=23 September 2025 |title=Orbital Green Belt Project {{!}} Iraq Business News |url=https://www.iraq-businessnews.com/tag/orbital-green-belt-project/ |access-date=2025-10-30 |language=en-GB}}</ref>
The KRG's initiative comes amid broader regional trends, as many Middle Eastern nations embark on large-scale environmental projects. Saudi Arabia’s ''Middle East Green Initiative'' aims to plant 50 billion trees across the region, while the United Arab Emirates has committed to reaching net-zero carbon emissions by 2050. The KRG's efforts signal an unusually ambitious program within Iraq, as the Federal government in Baghdad has often struggled to advance nationwide afforestation and climate projects.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2025-09-17 |title=Erbil's Green Belt and Runaki Projects: Pioneering Environmental Leadership in Iraq |url=https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/story/864072/slug |access-date=2025-10-30 |website=Kurdistan24 |language=en}}</ref> The project is part of the broader Erbil Master Plan,<ref name=":0" /> which aims to guide the development and reorganization of Erbil city until 2050 in cooperation with the Japan International Cooperation Agency.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Erbil master plan has been approved and will soon enter the implementation phase |url=https://www.hawlergov.org/app/en/node/9412 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250709122452/https://www.hawlergov.org/app/en/node/9412 |archive-date=9 July 2025 |access-date=2025-10-30 |website=Erbil Governorate |language=en |url-status=live }}</ref>
The project was officially inaugurated on 30 October 2025 by KRG Prime Minister Masrour Barzani.<ref>{{Cite web |date=30 October 2025 |title=PM Barzani inaugurates major Erbil Green Belt project |url=https://thenewregion.com/posts/3494 |access-date=2025-10-30 |website=The New Region |language=en}}</ref>
==Sister cities== *{{flagdeco|USA}} Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America<ref>{{cite web |url=https://eu.tennessean.com/story/news/local/2022/12/16/nashville-seeking-sister-city-with-kurdish-capital/69728529007/|title=Kurdish presence in Nashville grows as city hopes to link with Erbil as sister city |publisher=The Tennessean|access-date=July 8, 2023}}</ref>
==See also== {{Commons category|Arbil}}
* List of cities in Kurdistan Region * List of largest cities in Iraq * List of cities of the ancient Near East * Kurdistan * Nanakaly Hospital for Hematology & Oncology (Azady) * Erbil International Airport – capital's airport in Kurdistan * English Village, a luxury compound in Erbil.
== Notes == {{notelist}}
==References== {{reflist}}
==Sources== * Grousset, René, ''The Empire of the Steppes'', (Translated from the French by Naomi Walford), New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press (1970) * {{cite journal |last=Nováček |first=Karel |title=Research of the Arbil Citadel, Iraqi Kurdistan, First Season |journal=Památky archeologické |volume=99 |pages=259–302 |date=2008 |url=https://www.gemaart.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/PAPER_Citadel-Research_Novacek.pdf}} * {{Citation |last1=Sourdel |first1=D. |editor1-first=P. |editor1-last=Bearman |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition |year=2010 |publisher=Brill Online |chapter=Irbil |oclc=624382576}} *{{Citation |last=Villard |first=Pierre |author-link=Pierre Villard |editor1-first=Francis |editor1-last=Joannès |title=Dictionnaire de la civilisation mésopotamienne |series=Bouquins |year=2001 |publisher=Robert Laffont |location=Paris |language=fr |isbn=978-2-221-09207-1 |pages=68–69 |chapter=Arbèles }} *{{Citation|last1=Woods |first1=John E. |year=1977 |title=A note on the Mongol capture of Isfahān |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=49–51 |jstor=544126 |issn=0022-2968 |doi=10.1086/372531|s2cid=161867404 }}
==External links== {{wikivoyage|Erbil}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150401011526/http://hawler.gov.krd/ku/ Hawler Governorate] * [http://www.ierbil.com/ Erbil] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028193449/http://www.ierbil.com/ |date=28 October 2012 }} – Portal for international visitors * [https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/arbela/arbela.html Livius.org: Arbela] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502230506/http://www.livius.org/ap-ark/arbela/arbela.html |date=2 May 2013 }} * {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130212014645/http://www.erbilia.com/ Erbil Information Guide]}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150223182930/http://studentreader.com/hawler-erbil/ Hawler/Erbil visitor's guide] * [http://phototravels.smrkovsky.name/erbil Erbil seen through camera lens]
{{Iraqi Kurdistan}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Erbil Category:Adiabene Category:Cities in Iraqi Kurdistan Category:District capitals of Iraq Category:Erbil Governorate Category:Kurdish settlements in Erbil Governorate Category:Populated places established in the 6th millennium BC Category:Kurdistan Region (Iraq) Category:Kurdish settlements in Iraq Category:Ancient Assyrian cities Category:Assyrian communities in Iraq Category:Turkmen communities in Iraq