Tamarind

{{About|the tropical plant|the South American monkey|Tamarin}} {{Distinguish | text = ''Tamarix'' (tamarisk), a genus of small flowering trees and shrubs}} {{other uses|Tamarind (disambiguation)|Tamarindo (disambiguation)}} {{Short description|Leguminous tree bearing edible fruit}} {{Use American English|date=May 2025}} {{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=3}} {{Use mdy dates|date=July 2014}} {{Speciesbox | name = Tamarind | image = Tamarindus indica pods.JPG | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=Rivers, M.C. |author2=Mark, J. |date=2017 |title=''Tamarindus indica'' |volume=2017 |article-number=e.T62020997A62020999 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T62020997A62020999.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref> | display_parents = 3 | genus = Tamarindus | parent_authority = L. | species = indica | authority = L. 1753 | synonyms = * ''Cavaraea'' Speg. 1916 * ''Cavaraea elegans'' Speg. 1916<ref>Speg. ''Anales Soc. Ci. Argent''. 82: 223 1916</ref> * ''Tamarindus erythraeus'' Mattei 1908  * ''Tamarindus occidentalis'' Gaertn. 1791 * ''Tamarindus officinalis'' Hook. 1851 * ''Tamarindus somalensis'' Matteqi 1908 * ''Tamarindus umbrosa'' Salisb. 1796 | synonyms_ref = <ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/ild-1720 |title=''Tamarindus indica'' L. |date=2013 |website=The Plant List |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew and the Missouri Botanical Garden |access-date=28 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Quattrocchi U. |date=2012 |title=CRC World Dictionary of Medicinal and Poisonous Plants: Common Names, Scientific Names, Eponyms, Synonyms, and Etymology |url=https://www.crcpress.com/CRC-World-Dictionary-of-Medicinal-and-Poisonous-Plants-Common-Names-Scientific/Quattrocchi/p/book/9781482250640 |location=Boca Raton, Louisiana |publisher=CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group |pages=3667–3668 |isbn=978-1-4200-8044-5 |access-date=February 28, 2017 |archive-date=November 1, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191101163251/https://www.crcpress.com/CRC-World-Dictionary-of-Medicinal-and-Poisonous-Plants-Common-Names-Scientific/Quattrocchi/p/book/9781482250640 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomygenus.aspx?id=24637 |title=''Cavaraea'' Speg. |author=USDA |author-link=USDA |author2=ARS |author2-link=Agricultural Research Service |author3=National Genetic Resources Program |date=10 February 2005 |website=Germplasm Resources Information Network—(GRIN) [Online Database] |publisher=National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland |access-date=28 February 2017}}</ref> }}

'''Tamarind''' ('''''Tamarindus indica''''') is a leguminous tree bearing edible fruit that is indigenous to tropical Africa and naturalized in Asia.<ref name="Morton">{{cite book | author = Morton, Julia F. | author-link = Julia Morton | title = Tamarind; In: Fruits of Warm Climates | pages = 115–121 | url = https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/tamarind.html | publisher = New Crop Resource Online Program, Center for New Crops & Plant Products, Purdue University| year = 1987 | isbn = 978-0-9653360-7-9}}</ref><ref name="El-Siddig">{{cite book |author1-last=El-Siddig |author1-first=K. |author2-last=Gunasena |author2-first= H.P.M. |author3-last=Prasad |author3-first= B.A. |author4-last=Pushpakumara |author4-first= D.K.N.G. |author5-last=Ramana |author5-first= K.V.R. |author6-last=Vijayanand |author6-first= P. |author7-last=Williams |author7-first= J.T.|editor1= J.T. Williams|display-editors=et al. |date=2006 |title=''Fruits for the Future 1 - Tamarind:'' Tamarindus Indica L. |url=https://www.southampton.ac.uk/assets/imported/transforms/content-block/UsefulDownloads_Download/2A8DB4548C2146D7B5FEBD39B49B9727/Tamarindus%20indica.zip|location=Southampton, UK|publisher=International Centre for Underutilised Crops, University of Southampton |isbn=0-85432-859-9|access-date=2025-07-07 |edition=Revised}} *{{cite journal | title=''Fruits for the Future. 1. Revised edition. Tamarind'' . (Tamarindus indica L.) by K. El-Siddeg, H. P. M. Gunesana, B. A. Prasad, D. K. N. G. Pushpukumara, K. V. R. Ramana, P. Vijayananand and J. T. Williams. Southampton, UK: Southampton Centre for Underutilized Crops (2006), pp. 188, available free on request to national scientists of developing countries. ISBN 854328599 | journal=Experimental Agriculture | date=2007 | volume=43 | issue=3 | page=407 | doi=10.1017/S0014479707005170 | vauthors = Martin I }}</ref> The genus ''Tamarindus'' is monotypic, meaning that it contains only this species. It belongs to the family Fabaceae.

The tamarind tree produces brown, pod-like fruits that contain a sweet, tangy pulp, which is used in cuisines around the world.<ref name=Morton/> The pulp is also used in traditional medicine and as a dye.<ref name=Morton/> The wood can be used for woodworking, and tamarind seed oil can be extracted from the seeds. Its young leaves are used in Indian and Filipino cuisine.<ref name=Morton/><ref>{{Cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/life-and-style/food/heres-what-you-can-cook-with-tender-tamarind-leaves/article23695502.ece | title=Here's what you can cook with tender tamarind leaves| newspaper=The Hindu| date=2018-04-27| last1=Borah| first1=Prabalika M.}}</ref> Because tamarind has multiple uses, it is cultivated worldwide in tropical and subtropical zones.<ref name=Morton/>

== Description == The tamarind is a long-living, medium-growth tree, which attains a maximum crown height of {{convert|25-30|m|ft|abbr=off}}.<ref name=Morton/> The crown has an irregular, vase-shaped outline of dense foliage up to {{cvt|12|m|ft}} wide.<ref name=Morton/> A tamarind trunk may grow to a circumference of {{cvt|7.5|m|ft}}.<ref name=Morton/> The tree grows well in full sun. It prefers clay, loam, sandy, and acidic soil types, with a high resistance to drought and wind-borne salt as found in coastal areas.<ref name=Morton/>

The evergreen leaves are alternately arranged and paripinnately compound. The leaflets are bright green, elliptic-ovular, pinnately veined, and less than {{convert|15|cm|in|0|abbr=off}} in length.<ref name=Morton/> The branches droop from a single, central trunk as the tree matures, and are often pruned in agriculture to optimize tree density and ease of fruit harvest.<ref name=Morton/>

As a tropical species, it is frost-sensitive. The pinnate leaves with opposite leaflets give a billowing effect in the wind. Tamarind timber consists of hard, dark red heartwood and softer, yellowish sapwood.<ref name=Morton/><ref>{{Cite news |date=2007-07-09 |title=Tamarind: a multipurpose tree |work=Dawn |url=https://www.dawn.com/news/255407 |access-date=2017-06-04}}</ref>

The tamarind flowers bloom (although inconspicuously), with red and yellow elongated flowers. Flowers are 2.5 cm (1 in) wide, five-petalled, borne in small racemes, and yellow with orange or red streaks.<ref name=Morton/> Buds are pink as the four sepals are pink and are lost when the flower blooms.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tamarind |url=http://plantlexica.com/category/stomach-intestinal-2-2-3/8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918082939/https://plantlexica.com/category/stomach-intestinal-2-2-3/8 |archive-date=September 18, 2020 |access-date=2017-06-04 |work=Plant Lexica}}</ref>

<gallery mode="nolines"> File:TamarindSeedling.jpg|Seedling File:Tamarind flower vijayanrajapuram 02.jpg|Flower File:Tamarindus indica-flowers.jpg|Flowers File:Tamarindus indica, leaves, pod.jpg|Leaves and fruit pod File:Tamarind clara.jpg|Tamarind tree on the site of the founding of Santa Clara, Cuba </gallery>

=== Fruit === thumbnail|Philippine sampalok thumb|Tamarind tree trunk The fruit is an indehiscent pod, {{cvt|12|to|15|cm|in|frac=2}} in length, with a hard, brown shell.<ref name=Morton/><ref name="Doughari">{{cite journal |last=Doughari |first=J. H. |date=December 2006 |title=Antimicrobial Activity of ''Tamarindus indica'' |journal=Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=597–603 |doi=10.4314/tjpr.v5i2.14637 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="UF_FactSheet">{{cite web |title=Fact Sheet: ''Tamarindus indica'' |url=http://hort.ufl.edu/database/documents/pdf/tree_fact_sheets/taminda.pdf |access-date=July 22, 2012 |publisher=University of Florida}}</ref><ref name="FloriData">{{cite web |last=Christman |first=S. |title=''Tamarindus indica'' |url=http://www.floridata.com/ref/t/tama_ind.cfm |access-date=January 11, 2010 |publisher=FloriData}}</ref>

The fruit has a fleshy, acidic pulp, becoming mature when the flesh is colored brown or reddish brown.<ref name=Morton/> The tamarinds of Asia have longer pods (containing six to 12 seeds), whereas African and West Indian varieties have shorter pods (containing one to six seeds). The seeds are somewhat flattened, and a glossy brown. The fruit is sweet and sour in taste.<ref name=Morton/> A mature tree may produce up to {{cvt|225|kg|lb}} of fruit each year.<ref name=Morton/>

==Genomics== A gap-free telomere-to-telomere genome assembly of ''Tamarindus indica'' was published in 2025. The genome size is approximately 809.5 Mb, assembled across 12 pseudochromosomes. The assembly has a BUSCO completeness of 98.8%, and 30,753 protein-coding genes were predicted.<ref name=Li2026>{{cite journal | last1 = Li | first1 = Zhidong | last2 = Wang | first2 = Shenghao | last3 = Wang | first3 = Shuling | last4 = Wang | first4 = Chong | last5 = Zhang | first5 = Hongbin | last6 = Chen | first6 = Fei | last7 = Wang | first7 = Wenquan | title = ''Tamarindus indica'' telomere-to-telomere genome reveals tartaric acid accumulation in fruit | journal = Plant Diversity | volume = 48 | issue = 2 | pages = 429–432 | date = 2025-12-22 | doi = 10.1016/j.pld.2025.12.011 | pmid = 41982297 | pmc = 13071445 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

==Etymology== The name derives from {{langx|ar|تمر هندي}}, romanized ''tamr hindi'', "Indian date".<ref>{{cite dictionary |entry=tamarind |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology |editor1=T. F. Hoad |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2003 |doi=10.1093/acref/9780192830982.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-19-172715-3}}</ref> Several early medieval herbalists and physicians wrote ''tamar indi'', medieval Latin use was ''tamarindus'', and Marco Polo wrote of ''tamarandi''.{{cn|date=January 2026}}

===Common names=== In countries of Southeast Asia, it is called ''asam jawa'' (Javanese sour fruit) or simply ''asam'',<ref name="Heyne">{{cite book |last1=Heyne |first1=Karel |url= |title=De nuttige planten van Nederlandsch-Indië, tevens synthetische catalogus der verzamelingen van het Museum voor Technischeen Handelsbotanie te Buitenzorg |date=1913 |publisher=Museum vor Economische Botanie & Ruygrok |location=Butienzorg |pages=232–5 |language=nl |entry=Tamarindua indica L. |author-link=Karel Heyne |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/denuttigeplanten02heyn/page/232/mode/2up?view=theater}}</ref> and ''sukaer'' in Timor.<ref>{{cite web |author= |date= |title=Asam Tree |url=https://www.nparks.gov.sg/gardens-parks-and-nature/heritage-trees/ht-2001-28 |access-date=14 January 2021 |website=nparks.gov.sg |publisher=National Parks of Singapore |archive-date=June 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210612143834/https://www.nparks.gov.sg/gardens-parks-and-nature/heritage-trees/ht-2001-28 }}</ref> In the Philippines, it is called ''sampalok'' or ''sampaloc'' in Filipino, and ''sambag'' in Cebuano.<ref name="Polistico">{{cite book |last1=Polistico |first1=Edgie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=STSWDwAAQBAJ |title=Philippine Food, Cooking, & Dining Dictionary |date=2017 |publisher=Anvil Publishing, Inc. |isbn=978-621-420-087-0}}</ref>

== Distribution == ''Tamarindus indica'' is indigenous to tropical Africa,<ref name=Morton/> where botanical studies place its native domestication within the dry savannas of the Sudanian belt, extending from Sudan, especially Kordofan, westward across sub-Sahelian Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Martin |first=Ian |date=July 2007 |title=Fruits for the Future. 1. Revised edition. Tamarind. (Tamarindus indica L.) By K. El-Siddeg, H. P. M. Gunesana, B. A. Prasad, D. K. N. G. Pushpukumara, K. V. R. Ramana, P. Vijayananand and J. T. Williams. Southampton, UK: Southampton Centre for Underutilized Crops (2006), pp. 188, available free on request to national scientists of developing countries. ISBN 854328599 |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/s0014479707005170 |journal=Experimental Agriculture |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=407 |doi=10.1017/s0014479707005170 |issn=0014-4797|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bowe |first1=C. |last2=Haq |first2=N. |date=October 2010 |title=Quantifying the global environmental niche of an underutilised tropical fruit tree (Tamarindus indica) using herbarium records |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2010.06.016 |journal=Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment |volume=139 |issue=1–2 |pages=51–58 |doi=10.1016/j.agee.2010.06.016 |bibcode=2010AgEE..139...51B |issn=0167-8809|url-access=subscription }}</ref> It has been cultivated for so long on the Indian subcontinent that it is sometimes reported to be indigenous there.<ref name="Morton" /> It grows wild in Africa. In Arabia, it is found growing wild in Oman, especially Dhofar, where it grows on the sea-facing slopes of mountains. It reached South Asia likely through human transportation and cultivation several thousand years ago.<ref name=Morton/><ref name="Popenoe">{{cite book|last=Popenoe|first=W.|title=Manual of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits|publisher=Hafner Press|year=1974|pages=[https://archive.org/details/manualoftropical00poperich/page/432 432]–436|url=https://archive.org/details/manualoftropical00poperich}}</ref> It is widely distributed throughout the tropics,<ref name="Morton" /> from Africa to South Asia and Australia. In Madagascar, its fruit and leaves are a well-known favorite of the ring-tailed lemur, providing as much as 50 percent of their food resources during the year if available.<ref name="WPRC">{{cite web |title=Ring-Tailed Lemur |url=http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/ring-tailed_lemur |access-date=November 14, 2016 |publisher=Wisconsin Primate Research Center}}</ref>

In the 16th century, it was introduced to Mexico and Central America, and to a lesser degree to South America, by Spanish and Portuguese colonists, to the degree that it became a staple ingredient in the region's cuisine.<ref name="Tamale">{{cite book | last1=Tamale| first1=E.| last2=Jones| first2=N.| last3=Pswarayi-Riddihough| first3=I.| publisher=World Bank Publications| date=August 1995| title=Technologies Related to Participatory Forestry in Tropical and Subtropical Countries| isbn=978-0-8213-3399-0}}</ref>

== Uses == {{nutritional value | name = Tamarinds, raw | image = Tamarind fruits (Tamarindus indica 'Si Thong').jpg | kJ = 1000 | water = 31.40 g | protein = 2.8 g | fat = 0.6 g | satfat = 0.272 g | monofat = 0.181 g | polyfat = 0.059 g | carbs = 62.5 g | fiber = 5.1 g | sugars = 57.4 | calcium_mg = 74 | copper_mg = 0.086 | iron_mg = 2.8 | magnesium_mg = 92 | manganese_mg = | phosphorus_mg = 113 | potassium_mg = 628 | selenium_ug = 1.3 | sodium_mg = 28 | zinc_mg = 0.1 | vitA_ug = 2 | vitA_iu = 30 | vitC_mg = 3.5 | thiamin_mg = 0.428 | riboflavin_mg = 0.152 | niacin_mg = 1.938 | pantothenic_mg = 0.143 | vitB6_mg = 0.066 | folate_ug = 14 | choline_mg = 8.6 | vitE_mg = 0.1 | vitK_ug = 2.8 | note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/167763/nutrients Full entry in FoodData Central database] }} Most parts of the tamarind tree (including the wood, bark, flowers, leaves, pulp and seeds) have various environmental, commercial, and culinary uses.<ref name=Morton/> Tamarind trees are used as shade trees and ornamental trees (common along highways and in parks).<ref name=Morton/>

===Nutrition=== Raw tamarind fruit is 63% carbohydrates, 31% water, 3% protein, and 1% fat (table). In a reference amount of {{cvt|100|g}}, raw tamarind supplies {{convert|1000|kJ|kcal|abbr=off}} of food energy, and is a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of thiamine (36% DV) and dietary minerals, including magnesium and potassium at 22% and 21% DV, respectively (table).

=== Culinary === thumb|Tamarind paste thumb|Tamarind balls The fruit is harvested by pulling the pod from its stalk.<ref name=Morton/> The hard green pulp of a young fruit is used in savory dishes, as a pickling agent or as a means of making certain poisonous yams in Ghana safe for human consumption.<ref name="El-Siddig" /> As the fruit matures, it becomes sweeter and less sour (acidic). The sourness varies between cultivars and some sweet varieties have almost no acidity when ripe.{{cn|date=July 2025}}

Tamarind pulp is the most common part of the tamarind plant used in chutneys, curries, and sauces, such as Worcestershire sauce,<ref name="BBCrecipes">{{cite web | title=BBC Food:Ingredients—Tamarind recipes| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/tamarind|work=BBC| access-date=February 23, 2015}}</ref> HP Sauce, some brands of barbecue sauce,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Original Sweet & Thick BBQ Sauce - Products - Heinz |url=https://www.heinz.com/products/00013000007122-original-sweet-thick-bbq-sauce |access-date=2024-03-29 |website=www.heinz.com |language=en-US |archive-date=March 29, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329024442/https://www.heinz.com/products/00013000007122-original-sweet-thick-bbq-sauce }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=MasterFoods Barbecue Sauce 500mL Ingredients |url=https://www.masterfoods.com.au/products/masterfoods-squeezy-barbecue-sauce-500ml}}</ref> and the traditional sharbat syrup drink.<ref>{{Cite book| publisher = Academic Press| isbn = 978-0-12-803138-4| pages = 403–412|editor1= Sueli Rodrigues |editor2=Ebenezer de Oliveira Silva |editor3=Edy Sousa de Brito | last = Azad| first = Salim| title = Exotic Fruits| chapter = Tamarindo—Tamarindus indica| date = 2018| doi = 10.1016/B978-0-12-803138-4.00055-1}}</ref> Tamarind sweet chutney is common in India and Pakistan as a dressing for many snacks and often served with samosa.<ref>{{cite book | title=The Complete Asian Cookbook| page=88| publisher=Tuttle Publishing| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mdfacqx2UaQC&q=%22tamarind%22+pakistan| isbn=978-0-8048-3757-6| date=2006}}</ref>

Across the Middle East, from the Levant to Iran, tamarind is used in savory dishes, notably meat-based stews, and often combined with dried fruits to achieve a sweet-sour tang.<ref>[https://theworld.org/stories/2014/07/02/poopa "Tamarind is the 'sour secret of Syrian cooking'"]. PRI. July 2014</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Georgian Chicken in Pomegranate and Tamarind Sauce Recipe | author1= Phyllis Glazer | author2= Miriyam Glazer | author3= Joan Nathan | url-access= subscription |url=https://cooking.nytimes.com/recipes/11849-georgian-chicken-in-pomegranate-and-tamarind-sauce|access-date=2023-02-07|website=NYT Cooking|language=en-US}}</ref> During Ramadan, tamarind is used to prepare a traditional beverage known as "tamr-hindi," which is particularly popular in the Levant region. The drink is made by boiling tamarind paste in water, sweetening it with sugar, and then straining the mixture. In some variations, rosewater and lemon juice are added to enhance its flavor. Street vendors play a significant role in distributing this beverage, carrying large copper pots filled with the juice on their backs. They typically arrange numerous cups around their waist to conveniently serve the drink to passersby in the streets.<ref>[https://www.middleeasteye.net/discover/ramadan-five-drinks-thirst-quenching-middle-east Ramadan: Five thirst-quenching drinks from across the Middle East], Nur Ayoubi, 4 April 2022, Middle East Eye</ref>

Tamarind has been integrated into kosher and Jewish cuisine across several diasporas, beginning with its introduction to the Middle East via Jewish merchants on the Silk Road in the 7th century. Syrian Jews prepare tamarind syrup, known as ou or ouc, by soaking, straining, and boiling the fruit pulp with sugar and lemon, using it in dishes such as yebra (stuffed grape leaves), bazargan (bulgur salad), keftes (sweet-sour meatballs), and laham b'ajeen (meat flatbread). In India, Baghdadi, Cochin, and Bene Israel Jews use tamarind in regional recipes like bamia khutta, mahmoora, tamarind rice, and lamb with red chilies. Syrian Jewish communities in Mexico have adapted tamarind-based dishes with local ingredients, exemplified by chicken with tamarind, apricots, and chipotle. In contemporary Israel, tamarind juice has gained popularity beyond traditional communities, aided by commercial offerings like Prigat's seasonal releases during Ramadan.<ref>{{cite news |last=Gavin |first=Paola |title=The Joys of Tamarind |url=https://www.tabletmag.com/sections/food/articles/joys-of-tamarind |work=Tablet Magazine |date=December 1, 2021 |access-date=July 9, 2025}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=July 2025}}<ref>{{cite web |last=Myerson |first=Rachel |title=Tracing the Jewish History of Tamarind, From India to Syria and Beyond |url=https://www.myjewishlearning.com/the-nosher/tracing-the-jewish-history-of-tamarind-from-india-to-syria-and-beyond/ |website=The Nosher |date=February 2, 2023 |access-date=July 9, 2025}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=July 2025}}

In the Philippines, the whole fruit is used as one of the souring agents of the sour soup ''sinigang'' (which can also use other sour fruits), as well as another type of soup called ''sinampalukan'' (which uses tamarind leaves).<ref name="Fernandez">{{cite book |last1=Fernandez |first1=Doreen G. |title=Tikim: Essays on Philippine Food and Culture |date=2019 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-41479-2 |page=33}}</ref> The fruit pulp is cooked in sugar and salt to make ''champóy na sampalok'' (or simply "sampalok candy"), a traditional tamarind candy.<ref name="tl">{{cite web |title=Tsampoy |url=https://www.tagaloglang.com/tsampoy/ |website=Tagalog Lang |access-date=November 1, 2021}}</ref> Indonesia also has a similarly sour, tamarind-based soup dish called sayur asem.{{cn|date=July 2025}}

In Sri Lanka, tamarind pulp has been used as a lime alternative, and in Senegal, the pulp is mixed with sugar to produce sweet meats known as 'bengal'.<ref name="El-Siddig" /> In India, tamarind pulp is made into a juice used in the preservation of fish, and in many countries of East Africa, the pulp is used in the making of a dish called ''ugali'' (a type of maize flour porridge).<ref name=":441" />

Tamarind seeds need to be soaked and boiled in water before they are edible.<ref name=":413">{{Cite journal|last1=De Caluwé|first1=Emmy|last2=Halamová|first2=Kateřina|last3=Van Damme|first3=Patrick|date=2010-02-08|title=''Tamarindus indica'' L. – A review of traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology|journal=Afrika Focus|volume=23|issue=1|doi=10.21825/af.v23i1.5039|doi-access=free|hdl=1854/LU-990834|hdl-access=free}}</ref> The seeds are commonly used in jellies, marmalades and jams because they contain pectin, which gives them jelly-forming properties, and have been used as a stabilizer to make cheese, ice cream, and mayonnaise.<ref name="El-Siddig" /><ref name=Morton/> In Indonesia, after the seeds have been roasted, they are consumed as a snack accompanied with salt and grated coconut, and in Thailand, tamarind seeds are used as a coffee alternative.<ref name=Morton/>

The leaves and bark are also edible, and the seeds can be cooked to make them safe for consumption.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing |author=United States Department of the Army |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60239-692-0 |location=New York |page=101 |language=en-US |oclc=277203364}}</ref> Blanched, tender tamarind leaves are used in a Burmese salad called ''magyi ywet thoke'' ({{Lit|tamarind leaf salad}}), a salad from Upper Myanmar that features tender blanched tamarind leaves, garlic, onions, roasted peanuts, and pounded dried shrimp.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Richmond |first1=Simon |last2=Eimer |first2=David |last3=Karlin |first3=Adam |last4=Louis |first4=Regis St |last5=Ray |first5=Nick |date=2017 |title=Myanmar (Burma) |publisher=Lonely Planet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=za9kvgAACAAJ |isbn=978-1-78657-546-3 |language=en}}</ref> Tamarind seeds contain high levels of protein (26.9 grams per 100 grams) and oil (10.9 grams per 100 grams) and in some countries, tamarind seeds are used as an emergency food because of their high protein levels.<ref name="El-Siddig" /><ref name=":441">{{Citation|last1=Paull|first1=R. E.|chapter=Other African fruit: tamarind, marula and ackee|pages=223–254|publisher=CABI|last2=Duarte|first2=O.|title=Tropical fruits, Volume 2|year=2012|doi=10.1079/9781845937898.0223|isbn=978-1-84593-789-8}}</ref> The leaves of the tamarind plant are high in calcium and protein and have been consumed by domestic animals and wild animals, including elephants, as a fodder.<ref name="El-Siddig" />

=== Seed oil and kernel powder === Tamarind seed oil is made from the kernel of tamarind seeds.<ref>[http://www.agriculturalproductsindia.com/seeds/seeds-tamarind-seeds.html Tamarind Seeds] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202233508/http://www.agriculturalproductsindia.com/seeds/seeds-tamarind-seeds.html |date=February 2, 2021 }}. agriculturalproductsindia.com</ref> The kernel is difficult to isolate from its thin but tough shell (or ''testa''). It has a similar consistency to linseed oil, and can be used to make paint or varnish.<ref>{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20200812195213/http://proseanet.org/prosea/e-prosea_detail.php?frt=&id=1550 PROSEA]}}</ref>

Tamarind kernel powder is used as sizing material for textile and jute processing, and in the manufacture of industrial gums and adhesives.<ref name=Morton/>

Tamarind seeds are used in the production of tamarind kernel powder which is used as a sizing agent in the textile industry because of its ability to absorb water and swell up, in India, tamarind kernel powder has also been used as a sizing agent in the production of cotton.<ref name=":413" /> In Bengal, tamarind seeds are used in the production of an oil used in varnishes.<ref name="El-Siddig" /> leaves and flowers are used as a setting agent for dyes.<ref name=Morton/><ref name="El-Siddig" /> {| class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin-right:1em;" |+ {{nowrap|Composition of tamarind seed kernel}} |- !Composition||Original||De-oiled |- |Oil||7.6%||0.6% |- |Protein||7.6%||19.0% |- |Polysaccharide||51.0%||55.0% |- |Crude fiber||1.2%||1.1% |- |Total ash||3.9%||3.4% |- |Acid insoluble ash||0.4%||0.3% |- |Moisture||7.1%|| |- | colspan="3" style="font-size:80%" |The fatty acid composition of the oil is linoleic 46.5%, oleic 27.2%, and saturated fatty acids 26.4%. The oil is usually bleached after refining. |} {| class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin-right:1em;" |+ {{nowrap|Fatty acid composition of tamarind kernel oil}} |- !Fatty acid||(%) Range reported |- |Lauric acid (C12:0)||tr-0.3 |- |Myristic acid (C14:0)||tr-0.4 |- |Palmitic acid (C16:0)||8.7–14.8 |- |Stearic acid (C18:0)||4.4–6.6 |- |Arachidic acid (C20:0)||3.7–12.2 |- |Lignoceric acid (C24:0)||4.0–22.3 |- |Oleic acid (C18:1)||19.6–27.0 |- |Linoleic acid (18:2)||7.5–55.4 |- |Linolenic acid (C18:3)||2.8–5.6 |} {{clear}}

=== Folk medicine === In Southeast Asia, tamarind fruit is used as a poultice applied to the foreheads of people with fevers.<ref name="Doughari" /> The fruit exhibits laxative effects for relief of constipation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Havinga |first1=Reinout M. |last2=Hartl |first2=Anna |last3=Putscher |first3=Johanna |last4=Prehsler |first4=Sarah |last5=Buchmann |first5=Christine |last6=Vogl |first6=Christian R. |date=February 2010 |title=''Tamarindus indica'' L. (Fabaceae): Patterns of Use in Traditional African Medicine |journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology |volume=127 |issue=3 |pages=573–588 |doi=10.1016/j.jep.2009.11.028 |pmid=19963055}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Panthong |first1=A |last2=Khonsung |first2=P |last3=Kunanusorn |first3=P |last4=Wongcome |first4=T |last5=Pongsamart |first5=S |date=July 2008 |title=The laxative effect of fresh pulp aqueous extracts of Thai Tamarind cultivars |journal=Planta Medica |volume=74 |issue=9 |doi=10.1055/s-0028-1084885|bibcode=2008PlMed..7484885P }}</ref><ref name=":440">{{Citation|last=Lim|first=T. K.|title=Edible Medicinal and Non-Medicinal Plants|chapter=''Tamarindus indica''|date=2011-11-06|pages=879–905|publisher=Springer Netherlands|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-1764-0_95|isbn=978-94-007-1763-3}}</ref> Extracts of steamed and sun-dried old tamarind pulp (''asem kawa'') in Java are used to treat skin problems, like rashes and irritation; one traditional practice indicated tamarind could be ingested after dilution for use as an abortifacient.<ref name=Heyne/>

Different parts of the tamarind plant have been used globally for other purposes in folk medicine.<ref name="El-Siddig" /> In the northern parts of Nigeria, the roots of the tamarind plant are thought to be useful for treating leprosy, and in America, tamarind pulp is considered in folk medicine to be a laxative and used for alleviating sunstroke and sore throats.<ref name=":441" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Ojo|first1=James Adebayo|last2=Omoloye|first2=Adebayo Amos|date=2015|title=Life History of the Tamarind Weevil, Sitophilus linearis (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), on Tamarind Seed|journal=Journal of Insects|language=en|volume=2015|pages=1–5|doi=10.1155/2015/429579|issn=2356-7465|doi-access=free}}</ref> In Thailand, the pulp has been transformed into a tablet in the belief it can reduce excess weight, and in Brazil, the pulp is used for its supposed hydrating effects.<ref name="El-Siddig" /> Tamarind seeds have been used in powdered form to possibly aid dysentery in India and Cambodia, and in Ethiopia, softened tamarind seeds are used as a possible treatment for parasitic worms.<ref name="El-Siddig" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Havinga|first1=Reinout M.|last2=Hartl|first2=Anna|last3=Putscher|first3=Johanna|last4=Prehsler|first4=Sarah|last5=Buchmann|first5=Christine|last6=Vogl|first6=Christian R.|date=2010-02-17|title=Tamarindus indica L. (Fabaceae): Patterns of use in traditional African medicine|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=127|issue=3|pages=573–588|doi=10.1016/j.jep.2009.11.028|pmid=19963055|issn=0378-8741}}</ref>

=== Woodworking === Tamarind wood is used to make furniture, boats (as per Rumphius) carvings, turned objects such as mortars and pestles, chopping blocks, and other small specialty wood items like krises.<ref name=Heyne/> Tamarind heartwood is reddish brown, sometimes with a purplish hue. The heartwood in tamarind tends to be narrow and is usually only present in older and larger trees. The pale yellow sapwood is sharply demarcated from the heartwood. Heartwood is said to be durable to very durable in decay resistance, and is also resistant to insects. Its sapwood is not durable and is prone to attack by insects and fungi as well as spalting. Due to its density and interlocked grain, tamarind is considered difficult to work. Heartwood has a pronounced blunting effect on cutting edges. Tamarind turns, glues, and finishes well. The heartwood is able to take a high natural polish.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tamarind |url=http://www.wood-database.com/tamarind/ |access-date=22 December 2016 |website=The Wood Database}}</ref>

=== Metal polish === In homes and temples, especially in Buddhist Asian countries including Myanmar, the fruit pulp is used to polish brass shrine statues and lamps, and copper, brass, and bronze utensils.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McGee |first=Joah |title=The Golden Path |publisher=Pariyatti Publishing |year=2015 |isbn=978-1-68172-013-5 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Green Ways === Widely used for urban landscaping during the Dutch colonial period, tamarind trees are a common roadside feature in Indonesia today, serving as a living heritage of early 20th-century Dutch spatial planning.{{citation needed|date=January 2026}}

=== Research === Lupeol, catechins, epicatechin, quercetin, and isorhamnetin are present in the leaf extract.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Two triterpenes lupanone and lupeol isolated and identified from Tamarindus indica linn. |journal=Pakistan Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences|volume=20|issue=2|pages=125–7|pmid=17416567|year=2007|last1=Imam|first1=S.|last2=Azhar|first2=I.|last3=Hasan|first3=M. M.|last4=Ali|first4=M. S.|last5=Ahmed|first5=S. W.}}</ref> Ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography analyses revealed that tamarind seeds contained catechins, procyanidin B2, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, chloramphenicol, myricetin, morin, quercetin, apigenin and kaempferol.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi=10.1186/s12906-015-0963-2|pmid=26683054|pmc=4683930|year=2015|last1=Razali|first1=N.|title=Polyphenols from the extract and fraction of ''T. indica'' seeds protected HepG2 cells against oxidative stress|journal=BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine|volume=15|article-number=438|last2=Mat Junit|first2=S.|last3=Ariffin|first3=A.|last4=Ramli|first4=N. S.|last5=Abdul Aziz|first5=A. |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Cultivation== Seeds can be scarified or briefly boiled to enhance germination. They retain their germination capability for several months if kept dry.<ref name=Morton/>

Tamarind is a traditional food plant in Africa. Although not grown on a large-scale commercial basis,<ref name="El-Siddig" /> it has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development, and support sustainable land care.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/11879/lost-crops-of-africa-volume-iii-fruits |title=Lost Crops of Africa |date=January 25, 2008 |publisher=National Academies Press |isbn=978-0-309-10596-5 |volume=III: Fruits |chapter=Tamarind |doi=10.17226/11879 |access-date=July 17, 2008 |chapter-url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=11879&page=149|author=National Research Council|author-link=National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine#Program units |location=Washington, DC |pages=149–164}}</ref>

The tree is widely cultivated across India, especially in Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu. Extensive tamarind orchards in India produced {{convert|250000|t|abbr=off}} annually in the late 20th century.<ref name=Morton/> It has long been naturalized in Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, the Philippines, the Caribbean, and Pacific Islands.<ref name=Morton/> Thailand has the largest plantations of the ASEAN nations, followed by Indonesia, Myanmar, and the Philippines. In parts of Southeast Asia, tamarind is called ''asam''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Asam or Tamarind tree (Tamarindus indica) on the Shores of Singapore |url=http://www.wildsingapore.com/wildfacts/plants/coastal/tamarindus/indica.htm |access-date=14 April 2018 |website=www.wildsingapore.com}}</ref>

In the United States, it is a large-scale crop introduced for commercial use (second in net production quantity only to India), mainly in southern states, notably south Florida, and as a shade tree, along roadsides, in dooryards and in parks.<ref name="UN_FAO">{{cite web |title=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |url=http://www.fao.org/teca}}</ref>

===Horticulture=== Throughout South Asia and the tropical world, tamarind trees are used as ornamental and garden plantings. Commonly used as a bonsai species in many Asian countries, it is also grown as an indoor bonsai in temperate parts of the world.<ref name="Ma-Ke_Tamarindus indica">{{cite web |last=D'Cruz |first=Mark |title=''Tamarindus indica'': Tamarind - Indian tamarind - kily tree - Imli |url=http://makebonsai.com/guide/bonsailink.asp?quicklink=5064&name=Tamarindus_indica |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514031402/http://www.makebonsai.com/guide/bonsailink.asp?quicklink=5064&name=Tamarindus_indica |archive-date=May 14, 2012 |access-date=August 19, 2011 |website=myBonsaiCareGuide |location=Hounslow, UK |publisher=Mǎ-kè Bonsai}}</ref>

==In dogs== Tamarind is toxic to dogs, with potential for causing acute kidney injury. The symptoms—which may include vomiting or diarrhea within 6–12 hours of ingestion, lethargy, or dehydration—and proposed mechanism (via tartaric acid) are the same as in grape toxicity in dogs.<ref>{{cite web |title=Grape, Raisin, and Tamarind (''Vitis'' spp, ''Tamarindus'' spp) Toxicosis in Dogs |url=https://www.merckvetmanual.com/toxicology/food-hazards/grape-raisin-and-tamarind-vitis-spp-tamarindus-spp-toxicosis-in-dogs |website=Merck Veterinary Manual|date=September 2024 |last=Hayes |first=Cristine |location=Rahway, NJ |publisher=Merck & Co. |url-status=deviated |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250624045530/https://www.merckvetmanual.com/toxicology/food-hazards/grape-raisin-and-tamarind-vitis-spp-tamarindus-spp-toxicosis-in-dogs |archive-date=2025-06-24 |access-date=2025-07-06}}</ref>

==References== {{Reflist}}

==External links== * {{Commons category-inline|Tamarindus indica}} * SEA Hand Book-2009: Published by The Solvent Extractors' Association of India * [http://www.westafricanplants.senckenberg.de/root/index.php?page_id=14&id=1535 ''Tamarindus indica''] in Brunken, U., Schmidt, M., Dressler, S., Janssen, T., Thiombiano, A. & Zizka, G. 2008. West African plants – A Photo Guide. * {{Cite EB1911|short=x|wstitle=Tamarind}} * {{Cite NSRW|short=x|wstitle=Tamarind}}

Category:Detarioideae Category:Fruits originating in Africa Category:Edible legumes Category:Medicinal plants Category:Sour fruits Category:Tropical fruit Category:Spices Category:Indian spices Category:Trees of Africa Category:Non-timber forest products Category:Plants described in 1753 Category:Plants with compound leaves