Jasminum sambac

{{Short description|Species of jasmine}} {{Redirect|Sampaguita}} {{Redirect|Mogra}} {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2020}} {{Speciesbox | name = | image = Arabian jasmin, Tunisia 2010.jpg | image2 =Jasmine lifecycle.jpg | image2_caption = Various flower stages | image_caption = A 'Maid of Orleans' cultivar from Tunisia | genus = Jasminum | species = sambac | authority = (L.) Aiton | synonyms_ref = <ref name="GRIN">{{GRIN | name = ''Jasminum sambac'' (L.) Aiton | id = 20676 | access-date =8 March 2011}}</ref><ref name="gonzalez">{{cite book|author=Ginés López González|title =Los árboles y arbustos de la Península Ibérica e Islas Baleares: especies silvestres y las principales cultivadas|publisher =Mundi-Prensa Libros|year =2006|edition=2|language=es|page=1295|isbn =978-84-8476-272-0|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=1cdGlgnm4mwC}}</ref> | synonyms = {{hidden begin|toggle=left|title=Basionym}} *''Nyctanthes sambac'' L. {{hidden end}} {{hidden begin|toggle=left|title=Homotypic}} *''Mogorium sambac'' (L.) Lam. *''Jasminum fragrans'' Salisb. *''Jasminum sambac'' var. ''normale'' Kuntze) {{hidden end}} {{hidden begin|toggle=left|title=Heterotypic}}

*''Jasminum bicorollatum'' Noronha *''Jasminum blancoi'' Hassk. *''Jasminum heyneanum'' Wall. ex G.Don *''Jasminum odoratum'' Noronha *''Jasminum pubescens'' Buch.-Ham. ex Wall. *''Jasminum quadrifolium'' Buch.-Ham. ex Wall. *''Jasminum quinqueflorum'' B.Heyne ex G.Don *''Jasminum quinqueflorum'' var. ''pubescens'' G.Don *''Jasminum sambac'' var. ''duplex'' Voigt *''Jasminum sambac'' var.'' gimea'' (Zuccagni) DC. *''Jasminum sambac'' var. ''goaense'' (Zuccagni) DC. *''Jasminum sambac'' var. ''heyneanum'' Wall. ex G.Don) C.B.Clarke in J.D.Hooker *''Jasminum sambac'' var.'' kerianum'' Kuntze *''Jasminum sambac'' var.'' nemocalyx'' Kuntze *''Jasminum sambac'' var.'' plenum'' Stokes *''Jasminum sambac'' var.'' syringifolium'' Wall. ex Kuntze *''Jasminum sambac'' var. ''trifoliatum'' Vahl *''Jasminum sambac'' var. ''undulatum'' (L.) Kuntze *''Jasminum sambac'' var. ''verum'' DC. *''Jasminum sanjurium'' Buch.-Ham. ex DC. *''Jasminum undulatum'' (L.) Willd. *''Mogorium gimea'' Zuccagni *''Mogorium goaense'' Zuccagni *''Mogorium undulatum'' (L.) Lam. *''Nyctanthes goa'' Steud. *''Nyctanthes grandiflora'' Lour. *''Nyctanthes undulata'' L. {{hidden end}} }}

'''''Jasminum sambac''''' ('''Arabian jasmine''' or '''Sambac jasmine''' or '''Mogra''')<ref name="GRIN"/><ref name="pier">{{cite web|url=http://www.hear.org/Pier/species/jasminum_sambac.htm|title=''Jasminum sambac'' (L.) Aiton, Oleaceae |date=18 October 2006|publisher=Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)|access-date=8 May 2011}}</ref> is a species of jasmine native to Bhutan and India.<ref name=POWO>{{cite POWO |title=''Jasminum sambac'' (L.) Aiton |id=609755-1 |access-date=15 May 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Olveros-Belardo |first1=Luz |last2=Smith |first2=Roger M. |last3=Ocampo |first3=Milagros P. |title=Some Components of the Absolute of the Rowers of ''Jasminum sambac'' (l.) Ait. |journal=Transactions of the National Academy of Science and Technology |date=990 |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=129–140 |url=https://www.nast.dost.gov.ph/images/pdf%20files/Publications/NAST%20Transactions/NAST%201990%20Transactions%20Volume%2012/6.%20Some%20Components%20of%20the%20Absolute%20of%20the%20Flowers%20of%20Jasminum%20sambac%20%20%20Luz%20Oliveros-Belardo%20-%20(MPES).pdf}}</ref> It is cultivated in many places, especially West Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia. It is naturalised in many scattered locales: Mauritius, Madagascar, the Maldives, Christmas Island, Chiapas, Central America, southern Florida, the Bahamas, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, and the Lesser Antilles.<ref name="sanchez"/><ref name=POWO/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://bonap.net/MapGallery/County/Jasminum%20sambac.png|title=Biota of North America Program}}</ref>

''Jasminum sambac'' is a small shrub or vine growing up to {{convert|0.5|to|3|m|ft|abbr=on}} in height. It is widely cultivated for its attractive and sweetly fragrant flowers. The flowers may be used as a fragrant ingredient in perfumes and jasmine tea. It is the national flower of the Philippines, where it is known as '''''sampaguita''''',<ref>{{cite web | last = Pangilinan Jr. | first = Leon | title = In Focus: 9 Facts You May Not Know About Philippine National Symbols | url = http://ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/in-focus/9-facts-you-may-not-know-about-philippine-national-symbols/ | date = 3 October 2014 | access-date = 8 January 2019 | publisher = National Commission for Culture and the Arts | archive-date = 26 November 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161126154959/http://ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/in-focus/9-facts-you-may-not-know-about-philippine-national-symbols/ | url-status = dead }}</ref> as well as being one of the three national flowers of Indonesia, where it is known as '''''melati putih'''''. {{TOC limit|3}}

==Description== ''Jasminum sambac'' is an evergreen vine or shrub reaching up to {{convert|0.5|to|3|m|ft|abbr=on}} tall.<ref name="skaria">{{cite book|author=Baby P. Skaria|title =Aromatic Plants: Vol.01. Horticulture Science Series|publisher =New India Publishing|year =2007|series=The families and genera of vascular plants|volume=1|work=Horticulture science|page=182|isbn=978-81-89422-45-5|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=e68EbGOCayAC}}</ref> The species is highly variable, possibly a result of spontaneous mutation, natural hybridization, and autopolyploidy. Cultivated ''Jasminum sambac'' generally do not bear seeds and the plant is reproduced solely by cuttings, layering, marcotting, and other methods of asexual propagation.<ref name="sanchez"/><ref name="eflora">{{cite web|url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200017788|title=''Jasminum sambac'' (Linnaeus) Aiton, Hort. Kew. 1: 8. 1788. |publisher=Flora of China|access-date=8 May 2011}}</ref><ref name="leonhardt"/>

The leaves are ovate, {{convert|4|to|12.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|2|to|7.5|cm|in|abbr=on}} wide. The phyllotaxy is opposite or in whorls of three, simple (not pinnate, like most other jasmines).<ref name="banerji">{{cite web|author1=B.K. Banerji |author2=A.K. Dwivedi |url=http://www.floriculturetoday.in/fragrant-world-of-jasmine.html |title=Fragrant world of Jasmine |publisher=Floriculture Today, National Botanical Research Institute |access-date=8 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101207112622/http://www.floriculturetoday.in/fragrant-world-of-jasmine.html |archive-date=7 December 2010 }}</ref> They are smooth (glabrous) except for a few hairs at the venation on the base of the leaf.<ref name="eflora"/>

The flowers bloom all throughout the year and are produced in clusters of 3 to 12 together at the ends of branches.<ref name="leonhardt">{{cite journal|author1=Kenneth W. Leonhardt |author2=Glenn I. Teves |year=2002|title=Pikake A Fragrant-Flowered Plant for Landscapes and Lei Production|journal=Ornamentals and Flowers|publisher=College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources (CTAHR), University of Hawai'i at Manoa|url=http://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/of-29.pdf|access-date=8 May 2011 }}</ref> They are strongly scented, with a white corolla {{convert|2|to|3|cm|in|abbr=on}} in diameter with 5 to 9 lobes. The flowers open at night (usually around 6 to 8 in the evening), and close in the morning, a span of 12 to 20 hours.<ref name="sanchez"/> The fruit is a purple to black berry {{convert|1|cm|in|abbr=on}} in diameter.<ref name="eflora"/> 210px|thumbnail|right|Arabian jasmine in soft shade

==Taxonomy and nomenclature== ''Jasminum sambac'' is classified under the genus ''Jasminum'' under the tribe Jasmineae.<ref name="kubitzki">{{cite book|title =The families and genera of vascular plants: Flowering plants, Dicotyledons. Lamiales (except Acanthaceae including Avicenniaceae) |publisher =Springer|year =2004|volume=7|editor1=Klaus Kubitzki |editor2=Joachim W. Kadereit |page=299|isbn=978-3-540-40593-1|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=kcSZriBQGp4C}}</ref> It belongs to the olive family Oleaceae.<ref name="plants">{{cite web|url=https://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=JASA|title=''Jasminum sambac'' (L.) Aiton: Arabian jasmine|publisher=PLANTS profile, Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture|access-date=8 May 2011}}</ref>

Jasminum sambac has acquired its English common name, "Arabian jasmine," from being widely cultivated in the Arabian Peninsula. Early Chinese records of the plant points to it being originated in Southeast Asia. ''Jasminum sambac'' (and nine other species of the genus) were spread into Arabia and Persia by man, where they were cultivated in gardens. From there, they were introduced to Europe where they were grown as ornamentals and were known under the common name "sambac" in the 18th century.<ref name="shiu-ying">{{cite book|author=胡秀英 (Hu Shiu-Ying)|title=秀苑擷英|script-title=zh:秀苑擷英: 胡秀英敎授論文集|publisher =商務印書館(香港)|year =2003|language=zh, en|pages=263–265|isbn=978-962-07-3152-5|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=hXBYfiAWhZUC}}</ref><ref name="singh2006">{{cite book|author=A.K. Singh|title =Flower Crops: Cultivation and Management|publisher =New India Publishing|year =2006|pages=193–205|isbn =978-81-89422-35-6|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=Bfb1T6QbfaAC&q=Jasminum+genus&pg=PA193}}</ref>

The Medieval Arabic term ''"zanbaq"'' denoted jasmine flower-oil from the flowers of any species of jasmine. This word entered late medieval Latin as ''"sambacus"'' and ''"zambacca"'' with the same meaning as the Arabic, and then in post-medieval Latin plant taxonomy the word was adopted as a label for the ''J. sambac'' species.<ref>''Dictionnaire étymologique des mots français d'origine orientale'', by L. Marcel Devic, year 1876, page 201; [https://archive.org/details/dictionnairety00devi downloadable]. Additional details at [https://archive.org/stream/sinonomabartholo01mirfuoft#page/235/mode/1up zambacca] (Alphita, mid 15th century); [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k58660f/f257.image sambacus](Simon of Genoa, late 13th century); [http://www.baheth.info/ زنبق = دهن الياسمين] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029192325/http://www.baheth.info/ |date=29 October 2013 }}(''zanbaq'' = "jasmine oil" in ''Lisan al-Arab'', late 13th century).</ref> The ''J. sambac'' species is a good source for jasmine flower-oil in terms of the quality of the fragrance and it continues to be cultivated for this purpose for the perfume industry today. The ''Jasminum officinale'' species is also cultivated for the same purpose, and probably to a greater extent.

In 1753, Carl Linnaeus first described the plant as ''Nyctanthes sambac'' in the first edition of his famous book ''Systema Naturae''. In 1789, William Aiton reclassified the plant to the genus ''Jasminum''. He also coined the common English name of "Arabian jasmine".<ref name="aiton1810">{{cite book|author=William Aiton|title =Hortus Kewensis, or A catalogue of the plants cultivated in the Royal botanic garden at Kew|publisher =Longman|edition=2|year =1810|volume=1|page=16|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=uRAPAAAAQAAJ}}</ref>

==Cultivation== thumb|In cultivation The sweet, heady fragrance of ''Jasminum sambac'' is its distinct feature. It is widely grown throughout the tropics from the Arabian Peninsula to Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands as an ornamental plant and for its strongly scented flowers.<ref name="arabnews"/> Numerous cultivars currently exist.<ref name="banerji"/>

Typically, the flowers are harvested as buds during early morning. The flower buds are harvested on basis of color, as firmness and size are variable depending on the weather. The buds have to be white, as green ones may not emit the characteristic fragrance they are known for.<ref name="leonhardt"/> Open flowers are generally not harvested as a larger amount of them is needed to extract oils and they lose their fragrance sooner.<ref name="sanchez"/>

''J. sambac'' does not tolerate being frozen, so in temperate regions must be grown under glass, in an unheated greenhouse or conservatory. It has an intense fragrance which some people may find overpowering. In the UK this plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.<ref name = RHSPF>{{cite web | url= https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/58524/i-Jasminum-sambac-i/Details | title = RHS Plantfinder – ''Jasminum sambac'' | access-date=14 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url= https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/agm-lists/agm-ornamentals.pdf | title = AGM Plants – Ornamental | date = July 2017 | page = 56 | publisher = Royal Horticultural Society | access-date = 14 March 2018}}</ref>

===Cultivars=== {{multiple image | align = right | direction = horizontal | header ='''''Jasminum sambac'' cultivars''' | header_align = center | width = | header_background =lightgreen | background color =

| image1 =Jasminum sambac.jpg | width1 =140 | alt1 = | caption1 ='Maid of Orleans'

| image2 =Jasminum sambac 'Grand Duke of Tuscany'.jpg | width2 =140 | alt2 = | caption2 ='Grand Duke of Tuscany' }}

There are numerous cultivars of ''Jasminum sambac'' which differ from each other by the shape of leaves and the structure of the corolla. The cultivars recognized include:

* ''''Maid of Orleans'''' – possesses flowers with a single layer of five or more oval shaped petals. It is the variety most commonly referred to as '''''sampaguita''''' and '''''pikake'''''.<ref name="sanchez"/><ref name="leonhardt"/> It is also known as 'Mograw', 'Motiya', or 'Bela'.<ref name="hp"/> * ''''Belle of India'''' – possesses flowers with a single or double layer of elongated petals.<ref name="hp"/> * ''''Grand Duke of Tuscany'''' – possesses flowers with a doubled petal count. They resemble small white roses and are less fragrant than the other varieties. It is also known as 'Rose jasmine' and 'Butt Mograw'.<ref name="hp">{{cite web|url=http://swc2.hccs.edu/proberts/gallery/html/sonia_sardesai/html/jasmine.html |title=Jasmine |publisher=House Plants, HCC Southwest College |access-date=8 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110508235448/http://swc2.hccs.edu/proberts/gallery/html/sonia_sardesai/html/jasmine.html |archive-date=8 May 2011 }}</ref> In the Philippines, it is known as '''''kampupot'''''.<ref name="sanchez">{{cite journal |author1=Fernando C. Sanchez Jr. |author2=Dante Santiago |author3=Caroline P. Khe |year=2010 |title=Production Management Practices of Jasmine (''Jasminum sambac'' (L.) Aiton) in the Philippines |journal=Journal of the International Society for Southeast Asian Agricultural Sciences |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=126–136 |url=http://www.issaas.org/journal/v16/02/journal-issaas-v16n2-13-sanchez.pdf |access-date=8 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628020053/http://issaas.org/journal/v16/02/journal-issaas-v16n2-13-sanchez.pdf |archive-date=28 June 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> * ''''Mysore Malli (Mulli)'''' – resembles the 'Belle of India' cultivar but has slightly shorter petals with distinct and immense fragrance.<ref name="hp"/> * ''''Arabian Nights'''' – possesses a double layer of petals but is smaller in size than the 'Grand Duke of Tuscany' cultivar.<ref name="hp"/>

== Chemical composition == ''Jasminum sambac'' contains dotriacontanoic acid, dotriacontanol, oleanolic acid, daucosterol, hesperidin, and [+]-jasminoids A, B, C, D in its roots. Leaves contains flavonoids such as rutin, quercetin and isoquercetin, flavonoids rhamnoglycosides as well as α-amyrin and β-sitosterol. A novel plant cysteine-rich peptide family named jasmintides were isolated from this plant.

Its aroma is caused by a variety of compounds including benzyl alcohol, tetradecamethylcycloheptasiloxane, methyl benzoate, linalool, benzyl acetate, (-)-(''R'')-jasmine lactone, (''E'',''E'')-α-farnesene, (''Z'')-3-hexenyl benzoate, N-acetylmethylanthranilate, dodecamethylcyclohexasiloxane, (''E'')-methyl jasmonate, benzyl benzoate and isophytol.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}

==Importance== ===Southeast Asia=== ====Philippines==== The ''Jasminum sambac'' (Filipino and Philippine Spanish: ''sampaguita'') was adopted by the Philippines as the national flower on 1 February 1934 via Proclamation No. 652 issued by American Governor-General Frank Murphy.<ref name="ncca">{{cite web|url=http://www.ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/culture-profile/phil-fast-facts/culture-profile-sampaguita.php |title=Philippine Fast Facts: National Flower: Sampaguita |publisher=National Commission for Culture and the Arts, Republic of the Philippines |access-date=8 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915034956/http://www.ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/culture-profile/phil-fast-facts/culture-profile-sampaguita.php |archive-date=15 September 2008 }}</ref><ref name="asean">{{cite web|url=http://www.aseansec.org/18203.htm|title=ASEAN National Flowers|publisher=ASEAN secretariat|access-date=8 May 2011|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110109123159/http://www.aseansec.org/18203.htm|archive-date=9 January 2011}}</ref><ref name="whistler"/> [[File:3156San Roque Santa Marta de Pateros Catholic School Metro Manila 14.jpg|thumb|upright|Sampaguita garland vendors outside a Catholic school in Pateros, Manila]] Its most widespread modern common name "sampaguita" is derived from the Philippine Spanish ''sampaguita''; from Tagalog ''sampaga'' ("jasmine", a direct loanword from the Sanskrit word {{lang|sa|चम्पक}} ''campaka'', originally referring to the champac tree), and the Spanish diminutive suffix ''-ita''.<ref name=ew2>Jean-Paul G. POTET (2013). [https://books.google.com/books?id=1i-bBQAAQBAJ&dq=sampaguita+originally+from+sanskrit&pg=PA250 Arabian and Persian loanwords in Tagalog], p. 250.</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=sampaguita |url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/sampaguita_n?tl=true&tab=meaning_and_use |website=Oxford English Dictionary |access-date=13 October 2023}}</ref> It is also by native common names, including ''kampupot'' in Tagalog; ''kulatai'', ''pongso'', or ''kampupot'' in Kapampangan; ''manul'' in the Visayan languages; ''lumabi'' or ''malul'' in Maguindanao; and ''hubar'' or ''malur'' in Tausug.<ref name="Lim">{{cite book |last1=Lim |first1=T.K. |title=Edible Medicinal and Non Medicinal Plants |date=2014 |publisher=Springer |volume=8, Flowers |isbn=9789401787482 |page=530 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-nvGBAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1}}</ref>

Filipinos string the flowers into leis, corsages, and sometimes crowns.<ref name="faophil">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/ac452e/ac452e07.htm#bm07|title=Cut Flower Production in the Philippines|author=Teresita L. Rosario|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|access-date=8 May 2011}}</ref><ref name="nickles">{{cite book|author=Greg Nickles|title =Philippines: the people|publisher =Crabtree Publishing Company|year =2002|page=27|series=The lands, peoples, and cultures|isbn=978-0-7787-9353-3|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=oGUt7-7sGRIC}}</ref> These garlands are available as loose strings of blossoms or as tight clusters of buds, and are commonly sold by vendors outside churches and near street intersections.<ref name="boyer">{{cite book|author=Robert H. Boyer|title =Sundays in Manila|publisher =UP Press|year =2010|page=230|isbn=978-971-542-630-5|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=LkTwlWpX8MEC}}</ref>

Sampaguita garlands are used as a form of bestowing honour, veneration, or accolade. These are primarily used to adorn religious images, religious processions and photographs of the dead on altars. These are placed around the necks of living persons such as dignitaries, visitors, and occasionally to graduating students. Buds strung into ropes several metres long are often used to decorate formal events such state occasions at Malacañang Palace, weddings, and are sometimes used as the ribbon in ribbon cutting ceremonies. Though edible, the flower is rarely used in cuisine, with an unusual example being flavouring for ice cream.

''Jasminum sambac'' is the subject of the danza song ''La Flor de Manila'', composed by Dolores Paterno in 1879. The song was popular during the Commonwealth and is now regarded as a romantic classic.<ref name="himig">{{cite web|url=http://himig.com.ph/features/38-dolores-paterno|title=Dolores Paterno|author=Himig: The Filipino Music Collection of FHL|publisher=Filipinas Heritage Library and the Ayala Foundation|access-date=26 September 2011}}</ref> The flower is also the namesake of the song ''El Collar de Sampaguita''. The design of the ceremonial torch for the 2019 Southeast Asian Games, designed by Filipino sculptor Daniel Dela Cruz, was inspired by the sampaguita.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Garcia |first1=Maria Angelica |title=SEA Games torch inspired by the sampaguita |url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/lifestyle/artandculture/712925/sea-games-torch-inspired-by-the-sampaguita/story/ |access-date=30 November 2019 |work=GMA News |date=24 October 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Aglibot |first1=Joanna Rose |title=Sampaguita-inspired torch ready for 30th SEA Games |url=https://sports.inquirer.net/362737/sampaguita-inspired-torch-ready-for-30th-sea-games |access-date=30 November 2019 |newspaper=Philippine Daily Inquirer |date=23 August 2019}}</ref><gallery> File:Sampaguita Flower Necklace.png|A sampaguita flower necklace purchased in the Philippines </gallery>

==== Indonesia ==== [[File:Javanese Surakarta Bride.jpg|thumb|upright|Javanese Surakarta bride adorned with intricate ''roncen melati'' (jasmine garland)]] thumb|1957 Indonesian stamp of ''Jasminum sambac'' ''Jasminum sambac'' ({{langx|id|melati putih|4=white melati}}) is one of the three national flowers in Indonesia, the other two being the moon orchid and the giant padma.<ref name="asean" /> Although the official adoption was announced only as recent as 1990 during World Environment Day and enforced by law through Presidential Decree No. 4 in 1993,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.proxsis.com/perundangan/LH/doc/uu/F00-1993-00004.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402234237/http://www.proxsis.com/perundangan/LH/doc/uu/F00-1993-00004.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Keputusan Presiden No. 4 Tahun 1993|archive-date=2 April 2012}}</ref> the importance of ''Jasminum sambac'' in Indonesian culture long predates its official adoption. Since the formation of Indonesian republic during the reign of Sukarno, ''melati putih'' is always unofficially recognized as the national flower of Indonesia. The reverence and its elevated status is mostly due to the importance of this flower in Indonesian tradition since ancient times.

It has long been considered a sacred flower in Indonesian tradition, as it symbolizes purity, sacredness, and sincerity. It also represents the beauty of modesty; a small and simple white flower that can produce such sweet fragrance. It is also the most prevalent flower in wedding ceremonies for ethnic Indonesians, especially in the island of Java.<ref name="fao">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/ac452e/ac452e05.htm|title=Cut Flower Production in Indonesia|author1=Toto Sutater |author2=Kusumah Effendie |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|access-date=8 May 2011}}</ref> Jasmine flower buds that have not fully opened are usually picked to create strings of jasmine garlands ({{langx|jv-Latn|roncen melati}}). On wedding days, a traditional Javanese or Sundanese bride's hair is adorned with strings of jasmine garlands arranged as a hairnet to cover the ''konde'' (hair bun). The intricately intertwined strings of jasmine garlands are left to hang loose from the bride's head. The groom's kris is also adorned with five jasmine garlands called ''roncen usus-usus'' (intestine garlands) to refer its intestine-like form and also linked to the legend of Arya Penangsang. In Makassar and Bugis brides, the hair is also adorned with buds of jasmine that resemble pearls. Jasmine is also used as floral offerings for hyangs, spirits and deities especially among Balinese Hindu, and also often present during funerals. In South Sumatran traditional costume, the ''bungo melati'' pattern in Palembang songket fabrics depicts the jasmine to represent beauty and femininity.

The jasmine symbolizes a wide variety of things in Indonesian traditions; it is the flower of life, beauty and festive wedding, yet it is also often associated with spirits and death; the sudden scent of jasmine is often an ominous sign for the superstitious, as it may herald the presence of a ghost or jinn. In Indonesian patriotic songs and poems, the fallen ''melati'' is often the representation of fallen heroes that sacrificed their lives and died for the country, a very similar concept to fallen ''sakura'' that represents fallen heroes in Japanese tradition. Ismail Marzuki's patriotic song ''"Melati di Tapal Batas"'' (jasmine on the border) (1947) and Guruh Sukarnoputra's ''"Melati Suci"''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AdOqm6RK6OA|title=Melati Suci Tika Bisono Guruh S P|via=www.youtube.com}}</ref> (sacred jasmine) (1974) clearly refer jasmine as the representation of fallen heroes, the eternally fragrant flower that adorned Ibu Pertiwi (Indonesian national personification). Iwan Abdurachman's ''"Melati Dari Jayagiri"'' (jasmine from Jayagiri mountain) refers to jasmine as the representation of the pure unspoiled beauty of a girl and also a long-lost love.{{clarification|date=November 2023}}

In Indonesia, essential oils are extracted from jasmine flowers and buds by using the steam distillation process. Jasmine essential oil is one of the most expensive commodities in the aromatherapy and perfume industry.{{citation needed|date=November 2019}}

==== Cambodia ==== In Cambodia, the flower is used as an offering to the Buddha. During flowering season which begins in June, Cambodians thread the flower buds onto a wooden needle to be presented to the Buddha.<ref name="wandersee">{{cite web|url=http://www.humanflowerproject.com/index.php/weblog/comments/divinity_in_bud/|title=Divinity in Bud|author1=James H. Wandersee|author2=Renee M. Clary|publisher=Human Flower Project|access-date=8 May 2011|archive-date=1 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001070406/http://www.humanflowerproject.com/index.php/weblog/comments/divinity_in_bud/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

====Thailand==== In Thailand, this flower is often strung into a garland for offerings to Buddha.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nectec.or.th/schoolnet/library/create-web/10000/generality/10000-10744.html|work=Nectec|access-date=2023-06-13|language=thai|date=2003-09-10|title=ดอกมะลิ}}</ref> Its name is called in Thai as ''"mali la"'' ({{langx|th|มะลิลา}}) or ''"mali son"'' ({{langx|th|มะลิซ้อน}}). Their names are referenced in central folk songs, until it is widely known and popular. It has been adapted into a sports song.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.silpa-mag.com/featured/article_54463|date=2021-03-03|language=thai|title=ลามะลิลา เพลงพื้นบ้านคู่กับคนไทย เป็นทั้งแบบเรียน เพลงลูกทุ่ง เพลงเชียร์กีฬา|work=Art & Culture|access-date=2023-06-13}}</ref> In addition, the flower is also used as a symbol on Mother's Day in Thailand as well which falls on August 12, birthday of Queen Sirikit.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.centrepoint.com/blog/jasmine-a-symbol-of-mothers-day#:~:text=The%20flower%20associated%20with%20Mother's,represent%20a%20mother's%20unconditional%20love.|title=Jasmine - a Symbol of Mother's Day|date=2019-08-08|access-date=2023-06-13|work=Centre Point}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|language=thai|url=https://www.bangkokbiznews.com/lifestyle/893058|work=Bangkokbiznews|date=2020-08-10|access-date=2023-06-13|title='ดอกมะลิ' สื่อรัก 'วันแม่' และความหมายที่ซ่อนอยู่}}</ref>

===East Asia=== ==== China ==== In China, the flower ({{zh|c=茉莉花|p=Mòlì huā}}) is processed and used as the main flavoring ingredient in jasmine tea (茉莉花茶).<ref name="shiu-ying"/> It is also the subject of a popular folk song ''Mo Li Hua.''

=== Hawaii === In Hawaii, the flower is known as ''pīkake'', and is used to make fragrant leis.<ref name="leonhardt"/> The name 'pīkake' is derived from the Hawaiian word for "peacock", because the Hawaiian Princess Kaʻiulani was fond of both the flowers and the bird.<ref name="leonhardt"/><ref name="whistler">{{cite book|author=W. Arthur Whistler|author-link=Arthur Whistler|title =Tropical ornamentals: a guide|publisher =Timber Press|year =2000|pages=[https://archive.org/details/tropicalornament00wart/page/284 284]–285|isbn=978-0-88192-475-6|url =https://archive.org/details/tropicalornament00wart|url-access=registration}}</ref>

=== Middle East === In Oman, ''Jasminum sambac'' features prominently on a child's first birthday.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}} They are used to make thick garlands used as hair adornments. Flowers are sprinkled on the child's head by other children while chanting "hol hol". The fragrant flowers are also sold packed in between large leaves of the Indian almond (''Terminalia catappa'') and sewn together with strips of date palm leaves.<ref name="arabnews">{{cite journal|author=Tony Walsh|year=2004|title=Jasmine Scents of Arabia|journal=Arab News Review|pages=1–3|publisher=Saudi Research & Publishing Company (SRPC)|issn=0254-833X|url=http://www.omanholiday.co.uk/Scents-of-Arabia-by-Tony-Walsh-for-Arab-News.pdf|access-date=8 May 2011|archive-date=18 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218122056/http://www.omanholiday.co.uk/Scents-of-Arabia-by-Tony-Walsh-for-Arab-News.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> In Bahrain The flower is made into a pin along with the leaf of a palm tree to commemorate the martyrs of the country, similar to the White Poppy flower.{{citation needed|date=September 2020}} Egyptians sometimes make it into garlands and necklaces.<ref>Mehrez, Shahira. Costumes of Egypt: The Lost Legacies. pp. 93–133.</ref>

===South Asia=== ====India====

Jasmine is considered to be a sacred flower in Hinduism. It is one of the most commonly grown ornamentals in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan, where it is native.<ref name="skaria"/><ref name="whistler"/> At Indian weddings, the bride often adorns her hair with garlands made of mogra, either around a bun or wrapped across a braid. However, their usage is not limited to important events. Many women in South India pin fresh strings of Jasmine to their hair every day.

====Sri Lanka==== In Sri Lanka it is widely known as ''pichcha'' or ''gaeta pichcha''. The name ''sithapushpa'' and ''katarolu'' are also used in older texts. The flowers are used in Buddhist temples and in ceremonial garlands.{{Citation needed|date=May 2018}}

==Toxicity== The LD50 of jasmine extract is greater than 5 mg/kg by weight.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1210527 |title=Pharmacological and Therapeutic Effects of Jasminum Sambac- A Review |year=2018 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.1210527 |last1=Al-Snafi |first1=Ali Esmail |journal=Indo American Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences |volume=05 |issue=3 |pages=1766–1778 }}</ref>

==See also== *List of Jasminum species *Jasmine *''Jasminum multiflorum'' – the Indian jasmine *''Jasminum officinale'' – the common jasmine *''Cananga odorata'', the ylang-ylang, another plant widely used in perfumes

==References== {{Reflist}}

==External links== *{{Commons category-inline|Jasminum sambac|''Jasminum sambac''}} *{{Wikispecies-inline|Jasminum sambac|''Jasminum sambac''}}

sambac Category:Flora of tropical Asia Category:National symbols of Indonesia Category:National symbols of the Philippines Category:Plants described in 1753 Category:Botanical taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Category:Taxa named by William Aiton Category:Garden plants of Asia