{{Short description|Meat from mammals such as beef, pork, and lamb}} {{About|"red meat" as a nutritional category|cooking gradations of meat|Doneness}}{{Other uses}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2025}} [[File:Christmas_ham.jpg|thumb|Pork is a type of red meat even though it can appear white or pink.]] [[File:Roastbeef.jpg|thumb|Roast beef is a darker brown color.]]
In the context of nutrition, '''red meat''' is defined as meat obtained from mammals, including beef, pork, lamb/mutton, veal, and venison.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":43"/> Red meat does not necessarily appear red in color.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Is Pork Red Meat? And Is It Healthy? |url=https://health.clevelandclinic.org/is-pork-considered-a-red-or-white-meat |access-date=24 September 2025 |website=Cleveland Clinic |language=en}}</ref> In culinary contexts, the term ''red meat'' is used more loosely to refer to meat that is red when raw.<ref name="white">{{cite web|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/white+meat |title=White Meat |publisher=thefreedictionary.com}}</ref>
From a nutritional perspective, red meat can be a good source of protein, iron, zinc, and vitamins B1, B2, B6, and B12.<ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last1=Meinilä |first1=Jelena |last2=Virtanen |first2=Jyrki K. |date=21 February 2024 |title=Meat and meat products – a scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023 |url=https://foodandnutritionresearch.net/index.php/fnr/article/view/10538 |journal=Food & Nutrition Research |volume=68 |language=en |doi=10.29219/fnr.v68.10538 |issn=1654-661X |pmc=10916397 |pmid=38449706}}</ref> However, red meat has been associated with a number of non-nutritional health impacts. According to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), unprocessed red meat probably causes cancer, particularly colorectal cancer.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |date=26 October 2015 |title=Cancer: Carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed meat |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/cancer-carcinogenicity-of-the-consumption-of-red-meat-and-processed-meat |access-date=23 September 2025 |website=World Health Organization |language=en}}</ref> Studies have also linked red meat with higher risks of cardiovascular disease<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last1=Shi |first1=Wenming |last2=Huang |first2=Xin |last3=Schooling |first3=C. Mary |last4=Zhao |first4=Jie V. |date=21 July 2023 |title=Red meat consumption, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=European Heart Journal |volume=44 |issue=28 |pages=2626–2635 |doi=10.1093/eurheartj/ehad336 |issn=1522-9645 |pmid=37264855}}</ref> and type 2 diabetes.<ref name=":12" /><ref name=":32">{{Cite journal |first1=Chunxiao |last1=Li |first2=Tom R. P. |last2=Bishop |first3=Fumiaki |last3=Imamura |first4=Stephen J. |last4=Sharp |first5=Matthew |last5=Pearce |first6=Soren |last6=Brage |display-authors=et al |date=1 September 2024 |title=Meat consumption and incident type 2 diabetes: an individual-participant federated meta-analysis of 1·97 million adults with 100 000 incident cases from 31 cohorts in 20 countries |url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/landia/article/PIIS2213-8587(24)00179-7/fulltext |journal=The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology |language=English |volume=12 |issue=9 |pages=619–630 |doi=10.1016/S2213-8587(24)00179-7 |issn=2213-8587 |pmid=39174161|hdl=10183/289066 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> If meat is processed, such as by salting, curing, or smoking, health risks further increase. Processed meat is known to cause colorectal cancer.<ref name=":02" /> The World Cancer Research Fund recommends minimizing consumption of processed meat and limiting red meat to no more than three portions per week, which is equivalent to about 350–500g (12–18oz) cooked weight.<ref name=":43">{{Cite web |title=Limit consumption of red and processed meat {{!}} Recommendation evidence |url=https://www.wcrf.org/research-policy/evidence-for-our-recommendations/limit-red-processed-meat/ |access-date=24 September 2025 |website=World Cancer Research Fund |language=en-GB}}</ref>
Most red meat comes from farmed animals, such as cattle, sheep and pork, which are produced as part of industrial agriculture. Increased demand for red meat, especially in wealthy and emerging economies, has been a major driver of many of the negative environmental impacts of animal agriculture. Most research on the impact of food on health and environment recommends a significant reduction in meat consumption is essential to mitigate climate change and avoid the worst impacts of the biodiversity loss.<ref name="Carrington-2018">{{cite news |last=Carrington |first=Damian |date=October 10, 2018 |title=Huge reduction in meat-eating 'essential' to avoid climate breakdown |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/oct/10/huge-reduction-in-meat-eating-essential-to-avoid-climate-breakdown |access-date=October 16, 2017 |work=The Guardian}}</ref><ref name="Eisen-2022">{{Cite journal |last1=Eisen |first1=Michael B. |last2=Brown |first2=Patrick O. |date=2022-02-01 |title=Rapid global phaseout of animal agriculture has the potential to stabilize greenhouse gas levels for 30 years and offset 68 percent of {{CO2}} emissions this century |journal=PLOS Climate |language=en |volume=1 |issue=2 |doi=10.1371/journal.pclm.0000010 |issn=2767-3200 |s2cid=246499803 |doi-access=free |article-number=e0000010}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=Meat-eaters may speed worldwide species extinction, study warns |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/meat-eaters-may-speed-worldwide-species-extinction-study-warns |access-date=2026-03-14 |website=www.science.org |language=en}}</ref>
==Definition== {| class="wikitable floatright" |- |+ Concentration of myoglobin by percentage of mass ! scope="col" | Name ! scope="col" | Myoglobin ! scope="col" | USDA category |- | Aged beef || 1.50 – 2.00%<ref name="Iowa State Animal Science"/> || Red meat<ref name="auto">{{cite web |date=16 May 2008 |title=USDA-Safety of Fresh Pork...from Farm to Table |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/food-safety/safe-food-handling-and-preparation/meat-catfish/fresh-pork-farm-table |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130918111427/http://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/food-safety-education/get-answers/food-safety-fact-sheets/meat-preparation/fresh-pork-from-farm-to-table/ct_index |archive-date=18 September 2013 |access-date=16 September 2009 |publisher=Fsis.usda.gov}}</ref> |- | Beef || 0.40 – 1.00%<ref name="Iowa State Animal Science"/> || Red meat<ref name="auto"/> |- | Pork || 0.10 – 0.30%<ref name="Iowa State Animal Science"/> || Red meat<ref name="auto"/> |- | Veal || 0.10 – 0.30%<ref name="Iowa State Animal Science"/> || Red meat<ref name="auto"/> |- | Turkey thigh || 0.25 – 0.30%<ref name="Iowa State Animal Science"/> || Dark meat |- | Chicken thigh || 0.18 – 0.20%<ref name="Iowa State Animal Science"/> || Dark meat |- |Turkey breast |0.008%<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Çelen |first1=Mehmet Fatih |last2=Söğüt |first2=Bünyamin |last3=Zorba |first3=Ömer |last4=Demirulus |first4=Hüsrev |last5=Tekeli |first5=Ahmet |date=August 2016 |title=Comparison of normal and PSE turkey breast meat for chemical composition, pH, color, myoglobin, and drip loss |journal=Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia |language=en |volume=45 |issue=8 |pages=441–444 |doi=10.1590/S1806-92902016000800003 |issn=1516-3598|doi-access=free }}</ref> |White meat |- | Chicken breast || 0.005%<ref name="Iowa State Animal Science">{{cite web | vauthors = Penner KP, Clarke MP | date = September 1990 |url=http://www.anslab.iastate.edu/Class/AnS460-560/Class%20Notes/E-ChemistryofMeatProtein-5.ppt |title = Red Meats: Nutrient Contributions to the Diet | publisher = Iowa State Animal Science |access-date=16 September 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090324234102/http://www.anslab.iastate.edu/Class/AnS460-560/Class%20Notes/E-ChemistryofMeatProtein-5.ppt |archive-date=24 March 2009}}</ref> || White meat<ref name="auto"/> |}
[[File:Duck breast, smoked and panfried.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|Duck can have a red appearance. However, studies on the health effects of red meat do not consider duck or any type of poultry to be red meat.]]
In the context of nutritional science, red meat is defined as meat obtained from mammals, including beef, pork, lamb, mutton, veal, venison, and goat.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=26 October 2015 |title=Cancer: Carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed meat |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/questions-and-answers/item/cancer-carcinogenicity-of-the-consumption-of-red-meat-and-processed-meat |access-date=23 September 2025 |website=World Health Organization |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Micha |first1=Renata |last2=Wallace |first2=Sarah K. |last3=Mozaffarian |first3=Dariush |date=17 May 2010 |title=Red and Processed Meat Consumption and Risk of Incident Coronary Heart Disease, Stroke, and Diabetes Mellitus |journal=Circulation |volume=121 |issue=21 |pages=2271–2283 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.109.924977 |pmid=20479151 |pmc=2885952 }}</ref><ref name=":43"/> Some sources also specify that the meat must be muscle meat, as opposed to organ meat.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{cite book |author=IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans |chapter=1. EXPOSURE DATA |date=2018 |title=Red Meat and Processed Meat |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK507973/ |access-date=23 September 2025 |publisher=International Agency for Research on Cancer |language=en |series=IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans |volume=114 |isbn=978-92-832-0180-9}}</ref> Red meat does not necessarily appear red in color.<ref name=":3" />
In culinary contexts, the term ''red meat'' is used more loosely to refer to meat that is red when raw.<ref name="white" /> The term is used to refer to adult or "gamey" mammals, while that from young mammals (rabbit, veal, lamb) is white. Most poultry is white.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ask.usda.gov/s/article/Are-ratites-red-or-white-meat |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922151406/https://ask.usda.gov/s/article/Are-ratites-red-or-white-meat |archive-date=22 September 2020 |title=Are ratites "red" or "white" meat? |website=AskUSDA |publisher=US Department of Agriculture |date=17 July 2019}}</ref> Game is sometimes put in a separate category altogether ({{Langx|fr|viandes noires}} {{Gloss|dark meats}}).<ref name="ReferenceA">Larousse Gastronomique, first edition</ref> The redness of meat comes from its myoglobin content.<ref>{{Cite web |date=10 October 2014 |title=The color of meat depends on myoglobin: Part 1 |url=https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/the_color_of_meat_depends_on_myoglobin_part_1 |access-date=24 August 2023 |website=MSU Extension |language=en-us}}</ref>
Some cuts of pork are considered white under the gastronomic definition, but all pork is considered red meat in nutritional studies. The National Pork Board has positioned it as "the other white meat", profiting from the ambiguity to suggest that pork has the nutritional properties of white meat, which is considered more healthful.<ref>{{cite web |last=Dougherty |first=Philip H. |name-list-style=vanc |date=15 January 1987 |title=Dressing Pork for Success |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1987/01/15/business/advertising-dressing-pork-for-success.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214230836/http://www.nytimes.com/1987/01/15/business/advertising-dressing-pork-for-success.html |archive-date=14 February 2017 |work=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Hall |first=Trish |name-list-style=vanc |date=13 November 1991 |title=And This Little Piggy Is Now on the Menu |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/11/13/garden/and-this-little-piggy-is-now-on-the-menu.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214225719/http://www.nytimes.com/1991/11/13/garden/and-this-little-piggy-is-now-on-the-menu.html |archive-date=14 February 2017 |work=The New York Times}}</ref>
Ostrich, emu, and rhea meat are sometimes referred to as types of red meat or "alternatives to red meat" .<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Al-Khalifa |first1=H. |last2=Al-Naser |first2=A. |date=1 December 2014 |title=Ostrich meat: Production, quality parameters, and nutritional comparison to other types of meats1 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1056617119303526 |journal=Journal of Applied Poultry Research |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=784–790 |doi=10.3382/japr.2014-00962 |issn=1056-6171|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Horbańczuk |first1=Olaf K. |last2=Wierzbicka |first2=Agnieszka |date=1 September 2016 |title=Technological and nutritional properties of ostrich, emu, and rhea meat quality |journal=Journal of Veterinary Research |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=279–286 |doi=10.1515/jvetres-2016-0043 |issn=2450-8608|doi-access=free }}</ref> However, their nutritional characteristics differ significantly from the characteristics of other types of red meat.<ref name=":1" />
==Nutrition==<!-- This section is linked from Paleolithic diet --> Red meat contains large amounts of iron, creatine, minerals such as zinc and phosphorus, and B-vitamins: (niacin, vitamin B<sub>12</sub>, thiamin and riboflavin).<ref>{{cite web | publisher = Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service | title = Red Meats: Nutrient Contributions to the Diet | date = September 1990 | url = http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/fntr2/mf974.pdf | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060912003940/http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/fntr2/mf974.pdf| archive-date=12 September 2006}}</ref> Red meat is a source of lipoic acid.
Red meat contains small amounts of vitamin D.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Williams PG | date = September 2007 | publisher = University of Wollongong | url = http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1053&context=hbspapers | title = Nutritional composition of red meat | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110310231338/http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1053&context=hbspapers | archive-date=10 March 2011}}</ref> Offal such as liver contains much higher quantities than other parts of the animal.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schmid A, Walther B | title = Natural vitamin D content in animal products | journal = Advances in Nutrition | volume = 4 | issue = 4 | pages = 453–62 | date = July 2013 | pmid = 23858093 | pmc = 3941824 | doi = 10.3945/an.113.003780}}</ref>
==Health effects== {{see also|Beef#Health impact|Meat#Health effects}}Overall, diets high in red and processed meats are associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes (T2D), cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancer (particularly colorectal cancer), and all-cause mortality.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abete |first1=Itziar |last2=Romaguera |first2=Dora |last3=Vieira |first3=Ana Rita |last4=Munain |first4=Adolfo Lopez de |last5=Norat |first5=Teresa |title=Association between total, processed, red and white meat consumption and all-cause, CVD and IHD mortality: a meta-analysis of cohort studies |journal=British Journal of Nutrition |date=September 2014 |volume=112 |issue=5 |pages=762–775 |doi=10.1017/S000711451400124X |pmid=24932617 |s2cid=14401281 |language=en |issn=0007-1145|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Neuenschwander |first1=Manuela |last2=Ballon |first2=Aurélie |last3=Weber |first3=Katharina S. |last4=Norat |first4=Teresa |last5=Aune |first5=Dagfinn |last6=Schwingshackl |first6=Lukas |last7=Schlesinger |first7=Sabrina |title=Role of diet in type 2 diabetes incidence: umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective observational studies |journal=BMJ |date=3 July 2019 |volume=366 |article-number=l2368 |doi=10.1136/bmj.l2368 |pmid=31270064 |pmc=6607211 |url=https://www.bmj.com/content/366/bmj.l2368.long |language=en |issn=0959-8138}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mozaffarian |first1=Dariush |title=Dietary and Policy Priorities for Cardiovascular Disease, Diabetes, and Obesity |journal=Circulation |date=12 January 2016 |volume=133 |issue=2 |pages=187–225 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.018585 |pmid=26746178 |pmc=4814348 }}</ref><ref name="Hu">{{cite journal |last1=Qian |first1=Frank |last2=Riddle |first2=Matthew C. |last3=Wylie-Rosett |first3=Judith |last4=Hu |first4=Frank B. |year=2020 |title=Red and Processed Meats and Health Risks: How Strong is the Evidence? |journal=Diabetes Care |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=265–271 |doi=10.2337/dci19-0063 |pmc=6971786 |pmid=31959642}}</ref> The body of epidemiological data showing their associations with T2D, CVD, and cancer is large and consistent.<ref name="Hu"/>
The associations are strongest for processed meat, which is meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermentation, smoking, or other processes to enhance flavor or improve preservation, such as bacon, ham, salami, pepperoni, hot dogs, and some sausages.<ref name="IARC2015PR">{{cite press release |title=IARC Monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat |date=26 October 2015 |url=https://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2015/pdfs/pr240_E.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151110184724/http://www.iarc.fr/en/media-centre/pr/2015/pdfs/pr240_E.pdf |archive-date=10 November 2015 |type=Press release No. 240 |website=International Agency for Research on Cancer}}</ref>
A 2025 umbrella review found that a high intake of red meat is associated with an increased all-cause mortality risk.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Onni AT, Balakrishna R, Perillo M, Amato M, Javadi Arjmand E, Thomassen LM, Lorenzini A, Fadnes LT |date=2025 |title=Umbrella Review of Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses on Consumption of Different Food Groups and Risk of All-cause Mortality |journal=Advances in Nutrition |volume=16 |issue=4 |article-number=100393 |doi=10.1016/j.advnut.2025.100393 |pmc=11931306 |pmid=39956388}}</ref>
There are no long-term randomized controlled trials that have investigated red meat consumption and disease outcomes, and such trials are unlikely to be conducted due to ethical, financial and practical reasons.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Meinilä J, Virtanen JK |year=2024 |title=Meat and meat products – a scoping review for Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023 |journal=Food Nutr Res |volume=21 |issue= |page=68 |doi=10.29219/fnr.v68.10538 |pmc=10916397 |pmid=38449706}}</ref><ref name="Hu" /> Most of the data on red meat and health effects is from long-term epidemiological studies.<ref name="Hu" /><ref name="WCRF">{{Cite book |date=2018 |title=Meat, fish and dairy products and the risk of cancer |url=https://www.wcrf.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Meat-fish-and-dairy-products.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241227205424/https://www.wcrf.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/10/Meat-fish-and-dairy-products.pdf |archive-date=27 December 2024 |website=World Cancer Research Fund |language=en-GB |isbn=978-1-912259-16-8}}</ref>
===Cancer=== In 2015, the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified unprocessed red meat as "probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A)".<ref name="who2">{{cite web |date=1 October 2015 |title=Q&A on the carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed meat |url=https://www.who.int/features/qa/cancer-red-meat/en/ |access-date=7 August 2019 |publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref> To make this classification, the IARC Working Group assessed over 800 epidemiological studies in addition to other types of studies such as animal bioassays.<ref name="IARCRedMeatWeb">{{cite web |title=Red Meat and Processed Meat |url=https://publications.iarc.who.int/Book-And-Report-Series/Iarc-Monographs-On-The-Identification-Of-Carcinogenic-Hazards-To-Humans/Red-Meat-And-Processed-Meat-2018 |access-date=25 September 2025 |website=IARC Publications |publisher=International Agency for Research on Cancer}}</ref> When assessing whether substances are carcinogenic to humans, it is rare for data from randomized trials to be available.<ref name="IARC2018">{{cite book |url=https://publications.iarc.who.int/Book-And-Report-Series/Iarc-Monographs-On-The-Identification-Of-Carcinogenic-Hazards-To-Humans/Red-Meat-And-Processed-Meat-2018 |title=Red Meat and Processed Meat |publisher=International Agency for Research on Cancer |year=2018 |isbn=978-92-832-0150-2 |series=IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans |volume=114 |location=Lyon, France}}</ref>{{Rp|page=16}}
The Working Group found "limited" epidemiological evidence linking unprocessed red meat to colorectal, pancreatic, and prostate cancer.<ref name="IARC2018" />{{Rp|page=501}} Additionally, it found "strong mechanistic evidence" that unprocessed red meat is carcinogenic.<ref name="IARC2018" />{{Rp|page=499}} Mechanistic evidence is evidence of plausible biological pathways in which a substance could cause cancer.<ref name="IARC2018" />{{Rp|page=|pages=23–24}} For instance, studies had found that participants who had recently eaten red meat had higher levels of carcinogenic N-nitroso compounds in their guts and feces.<ref name="IARC2018" />{{Rp|page=470}}
For processed red meat, evidence of harm is stronger. The IARC classified processed meat as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), based on "sufficient evidence in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer."<ref name="who2" />
The American Institute for Cancer Research, Cancer Research UK and World Cancer Research Fund International have supported these conclusions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 June 2019 |title=Does eating processed and red meat cause cancer? |url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/diet-and-cancer/does-eating-processed-and-red-meat-cause-cancer |access-date=30 December 2022 |website=Cancer Research UK |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Red Meat (Beef, Pork, Lamb): Increases Risk of Colorectal Cancer |url=https://www.aicr.org/cancer-prevention/food-facts/red-meat-beef-pork-lamb/ |access-date=30 December 2022 |website=American Institute for Cancer Research |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Limit red and processed meat |url=https://www.wcrf.org/diet-activity-and-cancer/cancer-prevention-recommendations/limit-red-and-processed-meat/ |access-date=30 December 2022 |website=WCRF International |language=en-US}}</ref> More recent meta-analyses have further supported the finding that high consumption of red meat is associated with increased risk of gastrointestinal cancer.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Poorolajal J, Mohammadi Y, Fattahi-Darghlou M, Almasi-Moghadam F |year=2024 |title=The association between major gastrointestinal cancers and red and processed meat and fish consumption: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the observational studies |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=19 |issue=6 |article-number=e0305994 |bibcode=2024PLoSO..1905994P |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0305994 |pmc=11207151 |pmid=38924054 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Di Y, Ding L, Gao L, Huang H |year=2023 |title=Association of meat consumption with the risk of gastrointestinal cancers: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=BMC Cancer |volume=23 |issue=1 |article-number=782 |doi=10.1186/s12885-023-11218-1 |pmc=10463360 |pmid=37612616 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
==== Increase in cancer risk ==== The IARC concluded that if unprocessed red meat does cause cancer, there is a 17% higher risk of colorectal cancer for every 100 g of unprocessed red meat consumed daily.<ref name="who2" /> It found a 18% higher risk of colorectal cancer for every 50 g of processed red meat consumed daily.<ref name="who2" />
A 2021 umbrella review reported an increase of 11–51% risk of multiple cancer per 100g/d increment of red meat, and an increase of 8–72% risk of multiple cancer per 50g/d increment of processed meat.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Huang Y, Cao D, Chen Z, Chen B, Li J, Guo J, Dong Q, Liu L, Wei Q |date=September 2021 |title=Red and processed meat consumption and cancer outcomes: Umbrella review |journal=Food Chem |type=Review |volume=356 |article-number=129697 |doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129697 |pmid=33838606}}</ref>
A 2022 Burden of Proof study analyzed data from epidemiological evidence (not mechanistic evidence) and found that each 100 g of unprocessed red meat consumed per day would increase colorectal cancer risk by at least 6% and breast cancer by at least 3%.<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=5 |vauthors=Lescinsky H, Afshin A, Ashbaugh C, Bisignano C, Brauer M, Ferrara G, Hay SI, He J, Iannucci V, Marczak LB, McLaughlin SA, Mullany EC, Parent MC, Serfes AL, Sorensen RJ, Aravkin AY, Zheng P, Murray CJ |date=October 2022 |title=Health effects associated with consumption of unprocessed red meat: a Burden of Proof study |journal=Nat Med |type=Systematic review |volume=28 |issue=10 |pages=2075–2082 |doi=10.1038/s41591-022-01968-z |pmc=9556326 |pmid=36216940}}</ref> The Burden of Proof methodology was later criticized for systematically under-estimating levels of risk.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Glenn |first1=Andrea J. |last2=Gu |first2=Xiao |last3=Hu |first3=Frank B. |last4=Wang |first4=Molin |last5=Willett |first5=Walter C. |date=April 2023 |title=Concerns about the Burden of Proof studies |journal=Nature Medicine |language=en |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=823–825 |doi=10.1038/s41591-023-02294-8 |issn=1546-170X |pmc=10129864 |pmid=37059835}}</ref>
====Mechanisms====
Heme iron in red meat has been associated with increased colorectal cancer risk.<ref>{{Cite journal | journal = Cancer Prev. Res. | date = 2011 | volume = 4 | issue = 2 | pages = 177–184 | doi = 10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-10-0113 | title = Heme iron from meat and risk of colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis and a review of the mechanisms involved | last1 = Bastide | first1 = N. M. | last2 = Pierre | first2 = F. H. | last3 = Corpet | first3 = D. E. | pmid = 21209396 | s2cid = 4951579 | url = https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/file/index/docid/543808/filename/Bastide-Corpet-CAPR-2010-0113R1-Authors-V.pdf | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150925071420/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/file/index/docid/543808/filename/Bastide-Corpet-CAPR-2010-0113R1-Authors-V.pdf | archive-date = 25 September 2015 }}</ref> The American Institute for Cancer Research and World Cancer Research Fund have commented that "haem iron, which is present at high levels in red meat, has been shown to promote colorectal tumorigenesis by stimulating the endogenous formation of carcinogenic N-nitroso compound."<ref name="WCRF"/> N-Glycolylneuraminic acid (Neu5Gc) has also been suggested as a mechanism.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Demeyer|first1=D.|last2=Mertens|first2=B.|last3=De Smet|first3=S.|last4=Ulens|first4=M.|year=2016|title=Mechanisms Linking Colorectal Cancer to the Consumption of (Processed) Red Meat: A Review|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|volume=56|issue=16|pages=2747–2766|doi=10.1080/10408398.2013.873886|pmid=25975275|hdl=1854/LU-8518004|url=https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8518004 |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Wang|first1=J.|last2=Shewell|first2=L.K.|last3=Day|first3=C.J.|last4=Jennings|first4=M.P.|year=2023|title=N-glycolylneuraminic acid as a carbohydrate cancer biomarker|journal=Translational Oncology|volume=31|issue=|article-number=101643|doi=10.1016/j.tranon.2023.101643|pmid=36805917|pmc=9971276 |hdl=10072/428860|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Liang|first1=M.|last2=Wu|first2=J.|last3=Li|first3=H.|last4=Zhu|first4=Q.|year=2024|title=N-glycolylneuraminic acid in red meat and processed meat is a health concern: A review on the formation, health risk, and reduction|journal=Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety|volume=32|issue=2|article-number=e13314|doi=10.1111/1541-4337.13314|pmid=38389429}}</ref>
thumb|right|Meat with a dark exterior, common in high temperature cooking A 2017 literature review indicated there are numerous potential carcinogens of colorectal tissue in red meat, particularly those in processed red meat products, such as N-nitroso compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and heterocyclic amines (HCAs).<ref name="jeyakumar">{{cite journal | vauthors = Jeyakumar A, Dissabandara L, Gopalan V | title = A critical overview on the biological and molecular features of red and processed meat in colorectal carcinogenesis | journal = Journal of Gastroenterology | volume = 52 | issue = 4 | pages = 407–418 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 27913919 | doi = 10.1007/s00535-016-1294-x | s2cid = 20865644}}</ref> Cooking meat with "high-temperature methods, such as pan frying or grilling directly over an open flame", also causes formation of PAHs and HCAs.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chemicals in Meat Cooked at High Temperatures and Cancer Risk|url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/cooked-meats|website=National Cancer Institute|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111106080003/http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/cooked-meats|archive-date=6 November 2011|year=2018}}</ref>
==== Cooking methods ==== Meats cooked at high temperatures, especially above {{convert|300|F}} (as in grilling or pan frying), or that are cooked for a long time tend to form more HCAs. Cooking methods that expose meat to smoke contribute to PAH formation.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |date=2 April 2018 |title=Chemicals in Meat Cooked at High Temperatures and Cancer Risk - NCI |url=https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/diet/cooked-meats-fact-sheet |access-date=26 September 2025 |website=National Cancer Institute}}Text was copied from this source, which is in the public domain.</ref> Using a microwave oven to cook meat prior to exposure to high temperatures can substantially reduce HCA formation by reducing the time that meat must be in contact with high heat to finish cooking.<ref name=":7" />
Meat that is cooked longer and at higher temperatures is associated with a 4.62 times greater risk of breast cancer compared with rare or medium-done meat.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zheng |first1=W. |last2=Gustafson |first2=D. R. |last3=Sinha |first3=R. |last4=Cerhan |first4=J. R. |last5=Moore |first5=D. |last6=Hong |first6=C. P. |last7=Anderson |first7=K. E. |last8=Kushi |first8=L. H. |last9=Sellers |first9=T. A. |last10=Folsom |first10=A. R. |date=18 November 1998 |title=Well-done meat intake and the risk of breast cancer |journal=Journal of the National Cancer Institute |volume=90 |issue=22 |pages=1724–1729 |doi=10.1093/jnci/90.22.1724 |issn=0027-8874 |pmid=9827527}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Farvid |first1=Maryam S. |last2=Sidahmed |first2=Elkhansa |last3=Spence |first3=Nicholas D. |last4=Mante Angua |first4=Kingsly |last5=Rosner |first5=Bernard A. |last6=Barnett |first6=Junaidah B. |date=1 September 2021 |title=Consumption of red meat and processed meat and cancer incidence: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10654-021-00741-9 |journal=European Journal of Epidemiology |language=en |volume=36 |issue=9 |pages=937–951 |doi=10.1007/s10654-021-00741-9 |issn=1573-7284 |pmid=34455534 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>
===Cardiovascular disease=== {{See also|Saturated fat and cardiovascular disease}}
Red meat consumption is associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease, high blood pressure and stroke.<ref name="NZ Heart Foundation">[https://web.archive.org/web/20231025225421/https://assets.heartfoundation.org.nz/documents/shop/nutrition/docs/red-meat-and-poultry-position-statement.pdf "Red meat and poultry"]. assets.heartfoundation.org.nz. Retrieved 25 October 2023.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Zhang X, Liang S, Chen X, Yang J, Zhou Y, Du L, Li K |title=Red/processed meat consumption and noncancer-related outcomes in humans: Umbrella review |journal=Br J Nutr |volume= 130|issue= 3|pages=484–494 |date=December 2022 |pmid=36545687 |doi=10.1017/S0007114522003415 |url=|doi-access=free }}</ref> Factors associated with increased stroke risk from consuming red meat include saturated fats that increase levels of blood cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and heme iron, which may precipitate atherogenesis in cerebral arteries, leading to stroke.<ref name=Kim>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kim K, Hyeon J, Lee SA, Kwon SO, Lee H, Keum N, Lee JK, Park SM | display-authors = 6 | title = Role of Total, Red, Processed, and White Meat Consumption in Stroke Incidence and Mortality: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies | journal = Journal of the American Heart Association | volume = 6 | issue = 9 | article-number = e005983 | date = August 2017 | pmid = 28855166 | pmc = 5634267 | doi = 10.1161/jaha.117.005983}}</ref> While it was thought that saturated fat was to blame, more recent research indicates that atherosclerosis is largely mediated by trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO). This is produced by gut bacteria from compounds such as choline and carnitine in the meat.<ref name=Wade>{{cite journal |last1=Grace Wade |title=Beef is making a comeback – does it fit into a healthy diet? |journal=New Scientist |date=Apr 14, 2026 |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2522111-beef-is-making-a-comeback-does-it-fit-into-a-healthy-diet/}}</ref> TMAO is also associated with colorectal cancer.<ref>{{cite journal |display-authors=etal|last1=Biki Saha |title=Trimethylamine N-Oxide (TMAO) and cancer risk: Insights into a possible link |journal=Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy |date=Nov 2025 |doi=10.1016/j.biopha.2025.118592 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0753332225007863|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Wade/>
In 2020, the National Heart Foundation of New Zealand Expert Nutrition Policy (ENP) issued a position statement that concluded that high consumption of red meat increases risk of heart disease and stroke by 16%.<ref name="NZ Heart Foundation" /><ref name=":6">[https://web.archive.org/web/20231025224327/https://www.heartfoundation.org.nz/wellbeing/healthy-eating/nutrition-facts/is-meat-good-for-you "Is meat good for you?"]. heartfoundation.org.nz. Retrieved 25 October 2023.</ref>
===Diabetes===
Processed and unprocessed red meat consumption is a risk factor for developing type 2 diabetes across populations.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Wenming Shi |author2=Xin Huang |author3=C Mary Schooling |author4=Jie V Zhao |year=2023|title=Red meat consumption, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=European Heart Journal|url=https://academic.oup.com/eurheartj/article/44/28/2626/7188739|volume=44|issue=28|pages=2626–2635|doi=10.1093/eurheartj/ehad336|pmid=37264855|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Giosuè A, Calabrese I, Riccardi G, Vaccaro O, Vitale M | title = Consumption of different animal-based foods and risk of type 2 diabetes: An umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective studies | journal = Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice | volume = 191 | article-number = 110071 | date = September 2022 | pmid = 36067917 | doi = 10.1016/j.diabres.2022.110071 | s2cid = 252107061 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Li C, Bishop TR, Imamura F, Sharp SJ, Pearce M, Brage S, Ong KK, Ahsan H, Bes-Rastrollo M, Beulens JW, den Braver N, Byberg L, Canhada S, Chen Z, Chung HF, Cortés-Valencia A, Djousse L, Drouin-Chartier JP, Du H, Du S, Duncan BB, Gaziano JM, Gordon-Larsen P, Goto A, Haghighatdoost F, Härkänen T, Hashemian M, Hu FB, Ittermann T, Järvinen R, Kakkoura MG, Neelakantan N, Knekt P, Lajous M, Li Y, Magliano DJ, Malekzadeh R, Le Marchand L, Marques-Vidal P, Martinez-Gonzalez MA, Maskarinec G, Mishra GD, Mohammadifard N, O'Donoghue G, O'Gorman D, Popkin B, Poustchi H, Sarrafzadegan N, Sawada N, Schmidt MI, Shaw JE, Soedamah-Muthu S, Stern D, Tong L, van Dam RM, Völzke H, Willett WC, Wolk A, Yu C |year=2024|title=Meat consumption and incident type 2 diabetes: an individual-participant federated meta-analysis of 1·97 million adults with 100 000 incident cases from 31 cohorts in 20 countries|journal=The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology|url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/landia/article/PIIS2213-8587(24)00179-7/fulltext|volume=12|issue=9|pages=619–630|doi=10.1016/S2213-8587(24)00179-7|pmid=39174161|hdl=10183/289066|hdl-access=free}}</ref>
A 2017 review found that daily consumption of 85 grams of red meat and 35 grams of processed red meat products by European and American consumers increased their risk of type 2 diabetes by 18–36%, while a diet of abstinence of red meat consuming whole grains, vegetables, fruits, and dairy was associated with an 81% reduced risk of diabetes.<ref name="Schwing">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schwingshackl L, Hoffmann G, Lampousi AM, Knüppel S, Iqbal K, Schwedhelm C, Bechthold A, Schlesinger S, Boeing H | display-authors = 6 | title = Food groups and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies | journal = European Journal of Epidemiology | volume = 32 | issue = 5 | pages = 363–375 | date = May 2017 | pmid = 28397016 | pmc = 5506108 | doi = 10.1007/s10654-017-0246-y}}</ref> One study estimated that "substitutions of one serving of nuts, low-fat dairy, and whole grains per day for one serving of red meat per day were associated with a 16–35% lower risk of type 2 diabetes".<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pan A, Sun Q, Bernstein AM, Schulze MB, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hu FB | title = Red meat consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: 3 cohorts of US adults and an updated meta-analysis | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 94 | issue = 4 | pages = 1088–96 | date = October 2011 | pmid = 21831992 | pmc = 3173026 | doi = 10.3945/ajcn.111.018978}}</ref> A 2022 umbrella review found that consuming an additional 100g of red meat per day was associated with a 17% increased risk of type 2 diabetes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Xingxia |last2=Liang |first2=Shiqi |last3=Chen |first3=Xinrong |last4=Yang |first4=Jie |last5=Zhou |first5=Yong |last6=Du |first6=Liang |last7=Li |first7=Ka |date=n.d. |title=Red/processed meat consumption and noncancer-related outcomes in humans: Umbrella review |journal=British Journal of Nutrition |volume=130 |issue=3 |language=en |pages=484–494 |doi=10.1017/S0007114522003415 |pmid=36545687 |issn=0007-1145|doi-access=free }}</ref> ===Inflammatory bowel disease===
High red and processed meat consumption is associated with an increased risk of inflammatory bowel disease.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Talebi S, Zeraattalab-Motlagh S, Rahimlou M, Naeini F, Ranjbar M, Talebi A, Mohammadi H |year=2023|title=The Association between Total Protein, Animal Protein, and Animal Protein Sources with Risk of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies|journal=Advances in Nutrition|volume=14|issue=4|pages=752–761|doi=10.1016/j.advnut.2023.05.008|pmid=37187455|pmc=10334156 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Christensen C, Knudsen A, Arnesen EK, Hatlebakk JG, Sletten IS, Fadnes LT |year=2024|title=Diet, Food, and Nutritional Exposures and Inflammatory Bowel Disease or Progression of Disease: an Umbrella Review|journal=Advances in Nutrition|volume=15|issue=5|article-number=100219|doi=10.1016/j.advnut.2024.100219|pmid=38599319|pmc=11063602 }}</ref> The American Gastroenterological Association have stated that a diet low in red and processed meat may reduce ulcerative colitis flares.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Hashash JG, Elkins J, Lewis JD, Binion DG |year=2024|title=AGA Clinical Practice Update on Diet and Nutritional Therapies in Patients With Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Expert Review|journal=Gastroenterology|url=https://www.gastrojournal.org/article/S0016-5085(23)05597-X/fulltext|volume=166|issue=3|pages=521–532|doi=10.1053/j.gastro.2023.11.303|pmid=38276922}}</ref>
== Lobbying == {{Further|Meat industry}}
=== Industry research funding === A 2025 review found that nutritional studies on red meat consumption funded by the meat industry reported favorable (20.7%) or neutral (79.3%) cardiovascular outcomes for red meat intake. This was in opposition to independent studies that reported unfavourable (73.3%) or neutral (26.7%) cardiovascular outcomes.<ref name="López-Moreno 2025">{{cite journal |vauthors=López-Moreno M, Fresán U, Marchena-Giráldez C, Bertotti G, Roldán-Ruiz A |date=2025 |title=Industry study sponsorship and conflicts of interest on the effect of unprocessed red meat on cardiovascular disease risk: a systematic review of clinical trials |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0002916525001261 |journal=Am J Clin Nutr |volume= 121|issue= 6|pages=S0002-9165(25)00126-1 |doi=10.1016/j.ajcnut.2025.02.030 |pmc= |pmid=40379522 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The review concluded that "most studies without conflicts of interest with the red meat industry suggested an unfavorable effect of unprocessed red meat consumption on risk factors for cardiovascular disease".<ref name="López-Moreno 2025" />
== Guidelines ==
=== International guidelines === The World Cancer Research Fund recommends limiting red meat to no more than three servings per week.<ref name=":43" />
The European Association for the Study of Diabetes recommends that diabetics minimise the consumption of red meat.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aas |first1=Anne-Marie |last2=Axelsen |first2=Mette |last3=Churuangsuk |first3=Chaitong |last4=Hermansen |first4=Kjeld |last5=Kendall |first5=Cyril W. C. |last6=Kahleova |first6=Hana |last7=Khan |first7=Tauseef |last8=Lean |first8=Michael E. J. |last9=Mann |first9=Jim I. |last10=Pedersen |first10=Eva |last11=Pfeiffer |first11=Andreas |last12=Rahelić |first12=Dario |last13=Reynolds |first13=Andrew N. |last14=Risérus |first14=Ulf |last15=Rivellese |first15=Angela Albarosa |last16=Salas-Salvadó |first16=Jordi |last17=Schwab |first17=Ursula |last18=Sievenpiper |first18=John L. |last19=Thanopoulou |first19=Anastasia |last20=Uusitupa |first20=Emeritus Matti |date=April 2023 |title=Evidence-based European recommendations for the dietary management of diabetes |journal=Diabetologia |volume=66 |issue=6 |pages=965–985 |doi=10.1007/s00125-023-05894-8 |pmid=37069434 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
=== National guidelines === In 2011, the USDA launched MyPlate, which did not distinguish between kinds of meat, but did recommend eating at least {{convert|8|oz|g|abbr=on}} of fish each week.<ref name="HSPHshould">{{cite web |year=2012 |title=Food Pyramids: What Should You Really Eat |url=http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/pyramid-full-story/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416231207/http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/pyramid-full-story/index.html |archive-date=16 April 2009 |publisher=Harvard School of Public Health}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=MyPlate Protein foods |url=http://www.choosemyplate.gov/food-groups/protein-foods.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116120159/http://www.choosemyplate.gov/food-groups/protein-foods.html |archive-date=16 January 2013 |publisher=USDA}}</ref> In 2011, the Harvard School of Public Health launched the Healthy Eating Plate in part because of the perceived inadequacies of the USDA's recommendations.<ref name="HSPHshould" /> The Healthy Eating Plate encourages consumers to avoid processed meat and limit red meat consumption to twice a week because of links to heart disease, diabetes, and colon cancer. To replace these meats it recommends consuming fish, poultry, beans, or nuts.<ref name="HSPHshould" />
The National Heart Foundation of New Zealand recommends that one should aim to reduce consumption of red meat below 350g per week and replace meat with plant sources of protein.<ref name="NZ Heart Foundation" /><ref name=":6" />
=== Environmental guidelines === Acknowledgement of the role of red meat in land use, agricultural pollution, biodiversity loss and climate change has led to multiple guidelines that combine environmental and human health. The planetary health diet based on the EAT-Lancet commission recommends a significant reduction of red meat in favor of vegetarian proteins and more sustainable meats.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rockström |first=Johan |last2=Thilsted |first2=Shakuntala Haraksingh |last3=Willett |first3=Walter C. |last4=Gordon |first4=Line J. |last5=Herrero |first5=Mario |last6=Hicks |first6=Christina C. |last7=Mason-D'Croz |first7=Daniel |last8=Rao |first8=Nitya |last9=Springmann |first9=Marco |last10=Wright |first10=Ellen Cecilie |last11=Agustina |first11=Rina |last12=Bajaj |first12=Sumati |last13=Bunge |first13=Anne Charlotte |last14=Carducci |first14=Bianca |last15=Conti |first15=Costanza |date=2025-10-11 |title=The EAT–Lancet Commission on healthy, sustainable, and just food systems |url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(25)01201-2/abstract |journal=The Lancet |language=English |volume=406 |issue=10512 |pages=1625–1700 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(25)01201-2 |issn=0140-6736 |pmid=41046857}}</ref>
==References == {{reflist}}
==External links== *[https://www.nhs.uk/live-well/eat-well/food-types/meat-nutrition/ Meat in your diet] - NHS {{Sister bar}} {{Meat product navbox}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Red Meat}} Category:IARC Group 2A carcinogens Category:Meat