{{Short description|Meat which is pale before and after cooking}} [[File:Chicken breasts and wing quarters.jpg|thumb|Chicken is a widely consumed white meat.]] In culinary terms, '''white meat''' is meat which is pale in color before and after cooking. In traditional gastronomy, ''white meat'' also includes rabbit, the flesh of milk-fed young mammals (in particular veal and lamb), and sometimes pork.<ref>Evan Goldstein, Joyce Goldstein, ''Perfect Pairings: A Master Sommelier's Practical Advice for Partnering Wine with Food'', {{isbn|0520243773}}, 2006, p. 109: "White meats such as pork and veal are also excellent table companions for Gewürz..."</ref><ref>Pierre Paillon, ''Secrets of Good French Cooking'', {{isbn|0471160628}}, 1996, p. 95: "White meats (veal and pork) and poultry should be cooked "medium"..."</ref><ref>Elisabeth Rozin, ''The Primal Cheeseburger: A Generous Helping of Food History Served On a Bun'', {{isbn|0140178430}} 1994, p. 19: "Beef and lamb are clearly red meats, while veal and rabbit are white meats; the white meat category has been generalized to include the flesh of poultry as well."</ref> In culinary contexts, the term is employed loosely, and not used in perfect contrast to the nutritional category of red meat.
Various factors have resulted in debate centering on the definition of ''white'' and ''red'' meat. ''Dark meat'' is used to describe darker-colored flesh. A common example is the lighter-colored meat of poultry (''white meat''), coming from the breast, as contrasted with darker-colored meat from the legs (''dark meat'').<ref name="explo">{{cite web|url=https://www.exploratorium.edu/cooking/meat/INT-what-meat-color.html |title=Science of Meat: What Gives Meat its Color? | Exploratorium |access-date=2014-08-18 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160312072452/https://www.exploratorium.edu/cooking/meat/INT-what-meat-color.html |archive-date=2016-03-12 }}</ref> Certain types of poultry that are sometimes grouped as ''white meat'' are red when raw, such as duck and goose. Some types of fish, such as tuna, sometimes are red when raw and turn white when cooked.
==Terminology== The terms ''white'', ''red'', ''light'' and ''dark'' applied to meat have varied and inconsistent meanings in different contexts.<ref name=KeetonDikeman>{{Cite journal|last1=Keeton|first1=Jimmy T.|last2=Dikeman|first2=Michael E.|date=2017-10-01|title='Red' and 'white' meats—terms that lead to confusion |journal=Animal Frontiers|language=en|volume=7|issue=4|pages=29–33|doi=10.2527/af.2017.0440|doi-access=free}}</ref> The term ''white meat'' in particular has caused confusion from oversimplification in scientific publications, misuse of the term in the popular press, and evolution of the term over decades. Some writers suggest avoiding the terms "red" and "white" altogether, instead classifying meat by objective characteristics such as myoglobin or heme iron content, lipid profile, fatty acid composition, cholesterol content, etc.<ref name=KeetonDikeman/>
In nutritional studies, ''white meat'' may also include land snails and amphibians like frogs.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Oliveira|first1=Lillian Paranhos Laurindo de|last2=Seixas Filho|first2=José Teixeira de|last3=Pereira|first3=Marcelo Maia|last4=Mello|first4=Silvia Conceição Reis Pereira|date=2017|title=Frog meat in special diets: potential for use as a functional food|journal= Boletim do Instituto de Pesca|volume=43|language=en|pages=99–106|doi=10.20950/1678-2305.2017.99.106|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Lippi|first1=Giuseppe|last2=Mattiuzzi|first2=Camilla|last3=Cervellin|first3=Gianfranco|date=January 2016|title=Meat consumption and cancer risk: a critical review of published meta-analyses|journal=Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology|volume=97|pages=1–14|doi=10.1016/j.critrevonc.2015.11.008|issn=1879-0461|pmid=26633248}}</ref> Mammal flesh ''(eg; beef, pork, goat, lamb, doe, rabbit)'' is excluded and considered to be red meat (although rabbit meat is sometimes considered to be white meat). Periodically some researchers allow lean cuts of rabbit to be an outlier and categorize it into the “white meat” category because it shares certain nutritional similarities with poultry.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kim|first1=Seong Rae|last2=Kim|first2=Kyuwoong|last3=Lee|first3=Sang Ah|last4=Kwon|first4=Sung Ok|last5=Lee|first5=Jong-Koo|last6=Keum|first6=NaNa|last7=Park|first7=Sang Min|date=2019-04-11|title=Effect of Red, Processed, and White Meat Consumption on the Risk of Gastric Cancer: An Overall and Dose–Response Meta-Analysis|journal=Nutrients|volume=11|issue=4|page=826|doi=10.3390/nu11040826|issn=2072-6643|pmc=6520977|pmid=30979076|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Becerra-Tomás|first1=Nerea|last2=Babio|first2=Nancy|last3=Martínez-González|first3=Miguel Ángel|last4=Corella|first4=Dolores|last5=Estruch|first5=Ramon|last6=Ros|first6=Emilio|last7=Fitó|first7=Montserrat|last8=Serra-Majem|first8=Lluís|last9=Salaverria|first9=Itziar|last10=Lamuela-Raventós|first10=Rosa M.|last11=Lapetra|first11=José|date=2016-12-01|title=Replacing red meat and processed red meat for white meat, fish, legumes or eggs is associated with lower risk of incidence of metabolic syndrome|url=https://www.clinicalnutritionjournal.com/article/S0261-5614(16)30005-X/abstract|journal=Clinical Nutrition|language=English|volume=35|issue=6|pages=1442–1449|doi=10.1016/j.clnu.2016.03.017|issn=0261-5614|pmid=27087650|hdl=10230/28278|hdl-access=free}}</ref> Otherwise, nutritional studies and social studies popularly define "red meat" as coming from any mammal, "seafood" as coming from fish and shellfish, and "white meat" coming from birds and other animals.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Touvier|first1=Mathilde|last2=Kesse-Guyot|first2=Emmanuelle|last3=Méjean|first3=Caroline|last4=Estaquio|first4=Carla|last5=Péneau|first5=Sandrine|last6=Hercberg|first6=Serge|last7=Castetbon|first7=Katia|date=2010|title=Variations in Compliance with Recommendations and Types of Meat/Seafood/Eggs according to Sociodemographic and Socioeconomic Categories|url=https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/271469|journal=Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism|language=english|volume=56|issue=1|pages=65–73|doi=10.1159/000271469|issn=0250-6807|pmid=20051683|s2cid=20787103|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Hayley|first1=Alexa|last2=Zinkiewicz|first2=Lucy|last3=Hardiman|first3=Kate|date=2015-01-01|title=Values, attitudes, and frequency of meat consumption. Predicting meat-reduced diet in Australians|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195666314004711|journal=Appetite|language=en|volume=84|pages=98–106|doi=10.1016/j.appet.2014.10.002|pmid=25312749|s2cid=29746970|issn=0195-6663|url-access=subscription}}</ref> Some entomologists have referred to edible insects as "the next white meat".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yates-Doerr|first=Emily|date=2012|title=Meeting the demand for meat?|journal=Anthropology Today|language=en|volume=28|issue=1|pages=11–15|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8322.2012.00849.x|issn=1467-8322|doi-access=free}}</ref>
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) typically classifies red meat, poultry, and seafood as their own separate categories.<ref>{{Cite web|title=USDA ERS - U.S. Per Capita Availability of Red Meat, Poultry, and Seafood on the Rise|url=https://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2019/december/us-per-capita-availability-of-red-meat-poultry-and-seafood-on-the-rise/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191205025523/https://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2019/december/us-per-capita-availability-of-red-meat-poultry-and-seafood-on-the-rise/|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 5, 2019|access-date=2021-03-01|website=www.ers.usda.gov}}</ref> The USDA considers all livestock animals ''(including beef, veal, pork)'' to be "red meat” because their muscles contain enough myoglobin that their fresh meat is deep red in color prior to being cooked. Poultry and seafood are not considered to be red meats because they contain less myoglobin.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Fresh Pork from Farm to Table|url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/food-safety/safe-food-handling-and-preparation/meat-catfish/fresh-pork-farm-table|website=United States Department of Agriculture}}</ref> The term ''white meat'' is used to describe poultry in particular;<ref>{{Cite web|title=The color of meat and poultry|url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/food-safety/safe-food-handling-and-preparation/food-safety-basics/danger-zone-40f-140f}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Food standards and labeling policy book|url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/guidelines/2005-0003}}</ref> while this includes duck and geese, they are considered to be a dark meat.<ref>{{cite web |title=Duck and Goose from Farm to Table |url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/food-safety/safe-food-handling-and-preparation/poultry/duck-and-goose-farm-table |website=fsis.usda.gov |publisher=Food Safety and Inspection Service |access-date=15 March 2023 |archive-date=18 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240718211645/https://www.fsis.usda.gov/food-safety/safe-food-handling-and-preparation/poultry/duck-and-goose-farm-table |url-status=dead }}</ref> Seafood is treated as a distinct product and not included as a type of meat by the USDA's FSIS.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Meat preparation|url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/food-safety-education/get-answers/food-safety-fact-sheets/meat-preparation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623065023/http://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/portal/fsis/topics/food-safety-education/get-answers/food-safety-fact-sheets/meat-preparation|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 23, 2013}}</ref> The World Health Organization (WHO) distinguishes between white meat and seafood.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Healthy diet: Keys to eating well|url=https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/healthy-diet-keys-to-eating-well|access-date=2021-03-01|website=www.who.int|language=en}}</ref>
== Poultry == {{Main article|Poultry}} thumb|Cooked turkey breast Within poultry, there are two types of meats—white and dark. The different colours are based on the different locations and uses of the muscles. White meat can be found within the breast of a chicken or turkey. Dark muscles are fit to develop endurance or long-term use, and contain more myoglobin than white muscles, allowing the muscle to use oxygen more efficiently for aerobic respiration. White meat contains large amounts of protein.
Dark meat contains 2.64 times more saturated fat than white meat, per gram of protein.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.diet-blog.com/07/dark_meat_vs_white_meat_whats_the_difference.php|access-date=2012-02-20|title=Dark Meat Versus White Meat: What's The Difference}}</ref> One commentator wrote that dark meat contains more vitamins,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2011/02/06/133529710/come-to-the-dark-side-of-the-chicken-its-tastier|access-date=2011-02-26|title=Come To The Dark Side Of The Chicken; It's Tastier|website=NPR |date=6 February 2011 }}</ref> while a New York Times columnist has stated the two meats are nearly identical in nutritional value, especially when compared with typical red meat. For ground-based birds like chicken and turkeys, dark meats occur in the legs, which are used to support the weight of the animals while they move. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, {{convert|1|oz|g|order=flip}} of boneless, skinless turkey breast contains about one gram of fat, compared with roughly two grams of fat for {{convert|1|oz|g|order=flip|abbr=on}} of boneless, skinless thigh.<ref>Anahead O'Connor, [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/20/health/nutrition/20real.html "Really? The Claim: White Meat Is Healthier Than Dark Meat"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406003954/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/20/health/nutrition/20real.html |date=April 6, 2016 }} in the ''New York Times,'' 20 Nov 2007.</ref> The numbers go up when the skin is kept in: a chicken thigh, with skin intact, has 13 grams of total fat and 3.5 grams of saturated fat per {{convert|3|oz|g|order=flip|abbr=on}} serving; this is about 20 percent of the recommended maximum daily intake.<ref>{{cite news|title=The Nutrition of Chicken Breasts Vs. Thighs|url=http://healthyeating.sfgate.com/nutrition-chicken-breasts-vs-thighs-1815.html|access-date=22 June 2016|work=healthyeating.sfgate.com}}</ref> Birds which use their chest muscles for sustained flight (such as geese and ducks) have dark meat throughout their bodies.<ref>[http://www.yesmag.bc.ca/Questions/whitedark.html Article on the color of turkey and chicken meat] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070127043142/http://www.yesmag.bc.ca/Questions/whitedark.html |date=January 27, 2007 }}</ref>
== Pork == {{Main article|Pork}} Because of health concerns, meat producers have positioned pork as "white meat", taking advantage of the traditional gastronomic definition. The United States National Pork Board has marketed their product as "Pork. The Other White Meat".
In Israel, where Jewish dietary laws which forbid the consumption of pork are popularly practiced, "white meat" is the accepted euphemism for pork.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.forward.com/articles/105658/ |title=Mexican Flu: The Other White Meat : On Language |date=6 May 2009 |access-date=14 September 2009 |work=The Jewish Daily Forward}}</ref>
==Health effects==
The health effects that correlate with white meat consumption have been studied as compared to red meat.<ref name="Kim 2017"/> Cancer Council Australia have stated that "there is not enough evidence to draw any conclusions on eating chicken, or other white meats and cancer risk".<ref>[https://www.cancer.org.au/cancer-information/causes-and-prevention/diet-and-exercise/meat-and-cancer-risk "Meat and Cancer Risk"]. cancer.org.au. Retrieved 26 January 2024.</ref>
A 2017 review found that white meat consumption is associated with reduced risk of stroke.<ref name="Kim 2017">{{cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=K |last2=Hyeon |first2=J |last3=Lee |first3=SA |last4=Kwon |first4=SO |last5=Lee |first5=H |last6=Keum |first6=N |last7=Lee |first7=JK |last8=Park |first8=SM |title=Role of Total, Red, Processed, and White Meat Consumption in Stroke Incidence and Mortality: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies. |journal=Journal of the American Heart Association |date=30 August 2017 |volume=6 |issue=9 |article-number=e005983 |doi=10.1161/JAHA.117.005983 |pmid=28855166|pmc=5634267}}</ref> A 2022 review found that high poultry intake is associated with an increased risk of pancreatic cancer, though fish intake is unlikely to be associated with cancer risk.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Gao Y, Ma Y, Yu M, Li G, Chen Y, Li X, Chen X, Xie Y, Wang X.|year=2022|title=Poultry and Fish Intake and Pancreatic Cancer Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis|journal=Nutr Cancer|url=|volume=74|issue=1|pages=55–67|doi=10.1080/01635581.2020.1869276|pmid=33432844}}</ref> A 2023 meta-analysis found no association between white meat intake and cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Ramel A, Nwaru BI, Lamberg-Allardt C, Thorisdottir B, Bärebring L, Söderlund F, Arnesen EK, Dierkes J, Åkesson A.|year=2023|title=White meat consumption and risk of cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Food Nutr Res|volume=28|issue=|pages=67|doi=10.29219/fnr.v67.9543|pmid=38187786|pmc=10770644}}</ref> A 2025 review of dietary factors and colorectal cancer risk in Asian populations found that white meat intake was associated with a potential 40% increased risk of rectal cancer.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lee H, Ngoun L, Min S, Fu J, Shin WK, Kang D, Shin S |date=2025 |title=Dietary factors and colorectal cancer risk in Asian populations: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies |journal=Cancer Causes Control |volume=36 |issue=12 |pages=1647–1661 |doi=10.1007/s10552-025-02053-9 |pmc=12630220 |pmid=40866745}}</ref>
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