Chili pepper

{{Short description|Varieties of pepper of the genus ''Capsicum''}} {{hatnote group| {{redirect|Red Chillies|the film|Red Chillies (film){{!}}''Red Chillies'' (film)}}{{redirect|Hot pepper}}{{about||the dish often called simply "chili"|Chili con carne|the band|Red Hot Chili Peppers}} }} {{good article}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}} [[File:Madame Jeanette and other chillies.jpg|thumb|Chili peppers of varied colours and sizes: green bird's eye, yellow Madame Jeanette, red cayenne ]]

'''Chili peppers''', also spelled '''chile''' or '''chilli''' ({{etymology|nci|{{wikt-lang|nci|chīlli}}|}} {{IPA|nah|ˈt͡ʃiːlːi||Chilli.ogg}}), are varieties of berry-fruit plants from the genus ''Capsicum'', which are members of the nightshade family Solanaceae, cultivated for their pungency (spicy heat). They are used as a spice to add pungency in many cuisines. Capsaicin and the related capsaicinoids give chili peppers their intensity when ingested or applied topically. Chili peppers exhibit a range of heat and flavors. This diversity is the reason behind the availability of different types of chili powder, each offering its own taste and heat level.

Chili peppers originated in Central or South America and were first cultivated in Mexico. European explorers brought chili peppers back to the Old World in the late 16th century as part of the Columbian exchange, which led to the cultivation of multiple varieties across the world for food and traditional medicine. Five ''Capsicum'' species have been widely cultivated: ''annuum'', ''baccatum'', ''chinense'', ''frutescens'', and ''pubescens''.

== History ==

=== Origins ===

''Capsicum'' plants originated in modern-day Peru and Bolivia, and have been a part of human diets since about 7,500 BC.<ref name="Pickersgill">{{cite journal | author=B Pickersgill | title=Relationships Between Weedy and Cultivated Forms in Some Species of Chili Peppers (Genus Capsicum) | journal=Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution | volume=25 | issue=4 | pages=683–691 | date=December 1971 | pmid=28564789 | doi=10.1111/j.1558-5646.1971.tb01926.x | s2cid=205772121 | doi-access=free | bibcode=1971Evolu..25..683P }}</ref><ref name="bosland">{{cite book | chapter-url=https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1996/V3-479.html| author=PW Bosland | date=1998 | chapter=Capsicums: Innovative uses of an ancient crop | pages=479–487 | veditors=Janick J | title=Progress in New Crops | publisher=ASHS Press | location=Arlington, Virginia | access-date=23 December 2010 | archive-date=7 November 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107063036/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1996/V3-479.html | url-status=live }}</ref> They are one of the oldest cultivated crops in the Americas.<ref name="bosland"/> Chili peppers were cultivated in east-central Mexico some 6,000 years ago,<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.ucdavis.edu/news/birthplace-domesticated-chili-pepper-identified-mexico |title= Birthplace of the domesticated chili pepper identified in Mexico |author= Pat Bailey |date= April 17, 2014 |publisher= UC Davis |access-date=January 12, 2026 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20260112093324/https://www.ucdavis.edu/news/birthplace-domesticated-chili-pepper-identified-mexico |archive-date=January 12, 2026 }}</ref><ref name="Kraft_2014">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kraft KH, Brown CH, Nabhan GP, Luedeling E, Luna Ruiz J, d'Eeckenbrugge GC, Hijmans RJ, Gepts P |title=Multiple lines of evidence for the origin of domesticated chili pepper, Capsicum annuum, in Mexico |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=111 |issue=17 |pages=6165–6170 |date=April 2014 |pmid=24753581 |pmc=4035960 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1308933111 | doi-access=free |bibcode=2014PNAS..111.6165K}}</ref> and independently across different locations in the Americas including highland Peru and Bolivia, central Mexico, and the Amazon.<ref name="Chiou">{{cite journal |vauthors=Chiou KL, Hastorf CA |title=A Systematic Approach to Species-Level Identification of Chile Pepper (Capsicum spp.) Seeds: Establishing the Groundwork for Tracking the Domestication and Movement of Chile Peppers through the Americas and Beyond |journal=Economic Botany |date=16 December 2014 |volume=68 |issue=3 |publisher=New York Botanical Garden Press |pages=316–336 |doi=10.1007/s12231-014-9279-2 |jstor=43305668 |bibcode=2014EcBot..68..316C |s2cid=36556206 }}</ref> They were among the first self-pollinating crops cultivated in those areas.<ref>{{Cite journal |vauthors=Carrizo García C, Barfuss MH, Sehr EM, Barboza GE, Samuel R, Moscone EA, Ehrendorfer F |date=July 2016 |title=Phylogenetic relationships, diversification and expansion of chili peppers ( Capsicum, Solanaceae) |journal=Annals of Botany |volume=118 |issue=1 |pages=35–51 |doi=10.1093/aob/mcw079 |issn=0305-7364 |pmc=4934398 |pmid=27245634 }}</ref><ref name=bosland/>

Peru has the highest diversity of cultivated ''Capsicum''; it is a center of diversification where varieties of all five domesticates were introduced, grown, and consumed in pre-Columbian times.<ref name="van">{{cite journal |author1=Maarten van Zonneveld |author2=Marleni Ramirez |author3=David E. Williams |author4=Michael Petz |author5=Sven Meckelmann |author6=Teresa Avila |author7=Carlos Bejarano |author8=Llermé Ríos |author9=Karla Peña |author10=Matthias Jäger |author11=Dimary Libreros |author12=Karen Amaya |author13=Xavier Scheldeman | title=Screening Genetic Resources of Capsicum Peppers in Their Primary Center of Diversity in Bolivia and Peru | journal=PLOS ONE | volume=10 | issue=9 | article-number=e0134663 | year=2015 | pmid=26402618 | pmc=4581705 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0134663 | doi-access=free | bibcode=2015PLoSO..1034663V }}</ref> The largest diversity of wild ''Capsicum'' peppers is consumed in Bolivia. Bolivian consumers distinguish two basic forms: ''ulupicas'', species with small round fruits including ''C. eximium'', ''C. cardenasii'', ''C. eshbaughii'', and ''C. caballeroi'' landraces; and ''arivivis'' with small elongated fruits including ''C. baccatum'' var. ''baccatum'' and ''C. chacoense'' varieties.<ref name=van/>

[[File:Leiden University Library - Seikei Zusetsu vol. 25, page 019 - 蕃椒 - Capsicum annuum L., 1804 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Illustration from the Japanese agricultural encyclopedia ''Seikei Zusetsu'', 1804]]

=== Etymology ===

The English word is {{etymology|nci|{{wikt-lang|nci|chīlli}}|}} with the same meaning.<ref>{{cite web |title=chili (n.) |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/chili |publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=11 October 2024 |archive-date=3 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240703075611/https://www.etymonline.com/word/chili |url-status=live }}</ref> The name of the plant is unrelated to that of the country Chile.<ref name="OED1933_chilli"/> While ''pepper'' originally meant the genus ''Piper'', not ''Capsicum'', the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' and Merriam-Webster record both usages.<ref name="OED1913_pepper">{{Cite dictionary |title=Pepper |dictionary=Oxford English Dictionary |year=1913 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.99996/page/n949/mode/1up |access-date=2021-07-19 |location=Oxford, UK |publisher=Clarendon Press |edition=1 Corrected re-issue |volume=7 N–Poy |page=663}} (sense 2b of ''pepper'')</ref><ref name="MW_pepper">{{cite Merriam-Webster |pepper |access-date=2021-07-21}}</ref> The three primary spellings are ''chili'' (common in North America<ref name="MW_chili">{{Cite Merriam-Webster|Chili|access-date=2021-07-21}}</ref><ref>''The Canadian Oxford Dictionary'' lists ''chili'' as the main entry.</ref>), ''chile'' (Central America and parts of the US<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Heiser C |title=Seed To Civilization: The Story of Food |publisher=Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |date=August 1990 |isbn=978-0-674-79681-2 }}</ref><ref name="MW_chile">{{Cite Merriam-Webster|chile|access-date=2021-07-21}}</ref>) and ''chilli'' (United Kingdom and former British colonies<ref name="OED1933_chilli">{{Cite dictionary |title=Chilli, chilly |dictionary=Oxford English Dictionary |year=1933 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.271839/page/n349/mode/1up |access-date=2021-07-19 |location=Oxford, UK |publisher=Clarendon Press |edition=1 Corrected re-issue |volume=2 C |page=346 }}</ref><ref>Usage example: {{cite news |url=http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/industry-and-economy/agri-biz/article2872144.ece |title=Fall in exports crushes chilli prices in Guntur |publisher=Thehindubusinessline.com |access-date=21 April 2012 |archive-date=10 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120210070948/http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/industry-and-economy/agri-biz/article2872144.ece |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Usage example: {{cite web |url=http://sundaytimes.lk/100314/Magazine/sundaytimesmagazine_06.html |title=Chilli, Capsicum and Pepper are spicy plants grown for the pod. Green chilli is a culinary requirement in any Sri Lankan household |work=The Sunday Times |access-date=21 April 2012 |archive-date=14 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114053413/http://sundaytimes.lk/100314/Magazine/sundaytimesmagazine_06.html |url-status=live }}</ref>). The specific dish name "chili con carne" is normally written with one "l" in both American and British English.<ref name="walsh">{{Cite book |last=Walsh |first=Robb |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bZPaCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 |title=The Chili Cookbook: From Three-Bean to Four-Alarm, Con Carne to Vegetarian, Cookoff-Worthy Recipes for the One-Pot Classic (origin in Mexico: p 15-16) |date=2015 |isbn=978-1-60774-795-6 |publisher=Ten Speed Press |location=Berkeley |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Naylor |first=Tony |date=20 January 2015 |title=How to eat: chilli con carne |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2015/jan/20/how-to-eat-chilli-con-carne |access-date=8 May 2020 |archive-date=29 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129150242/https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/wordofmouth/2015/jan/20/how-to-eat-chilli-con-carne |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Distribution to Europe ===

When Christopher Columbus and his crew reached the Caribbean, they were the first Europeans to encounter ''Capsicum'' fruits. They called them "peppers" because, like black pepper (''Piper nigrum''), which had long been known in Europe, they have a hot spicy taste unlike other foods.<ref name="cabi_2000">{{cite book |vauthors=Bosland PW, Votava E |title=Peppers: Vegetable and Spice Capsicums |date=2000 |publisher=CABI |location=New York City |isbn=978-0-85199-335-5 |page=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ESCNZMvMAYAC |access-date=29 November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://cpi.nmsu.edu/chile-info/for-kids-pages/the-story-of-chile-peppers.html |title=The Story of Chile Peppers |website=New Mexico State University Chile Pepper Institute |access-date=7 August 2024}}</ref> Chilies were first brought back to Europe by the Spanish, who financed Columbus's voyages, at the start of the large-scale interchange of plants and culture between the New World and the Old World called the Columbian exchange. Chilies appear in Spanish records by 1493. Unlike ''Piper'' vines, which grow naturally only in the tropics, chilies could be grown in temperate climates. By the mid-1500s, they had become a common garden plant in Spain and were incorporated into numerous dishes. By 1526, they had appeared in Italy, in 1543 in Germany, and by 1569 in the Balkans, where they came to be processed into paprika.<ref name="Sauer">{{cite book |vauthors=Sauer JD |title=Historical Geography of Crop Plants A Select Roster |date=2017 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-351-44062-2 |page=161}}</ref><ref name=Raghavan>{{cite book |author=S Raghavan |title=Handbook of Spices, Seasonings, and Flavorings |date=2006 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4200-0436-6 |page=8}}</ref>

=== Distribution to the rest of the world ===

The rapid introduction of chilies to Africa and Asia was likely through Portuguese and Spanish traders in the 16th century, though the details are unrecorded. The Portuguese introduced them first to Africa and Arabia, and then to their colonies and trading posts in Asia, including Goa, Sri Lanka, and Malacca. From there, chilies spread to neighboring regions in South Asia and western Southeast Asia via local trade and natural dispersal. Around the same time, the Spanish also introduced chilies to the Philippines, where they spread to Melanesia, Micronesia, and other Pacific Islands via their monopoly of the Manila galleons. Their spread to East Asia in the late 16th century is less clear, but was likely also through local trade or through Portuguese and Spanish trading ports in Canton, China, and Nagasaki, Japan.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://archive-yaleglobal.yale.edu/chili-small-fruit-sets-global-palettes-fire |title= Chili: Small Fruit Sets Global Palettes on Fire |author= Nils-Bertil Wallin |date= June 11, 2004 |publisher= Yale University |access-date=November 17, 2025 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251117161724/https://archive-yaleglobal.yale.edu/chili-small-fruit-sets-global-palettes-fire |archive-date=November 17, 2025 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |vauthors=DeWitt D |title=Chile Peppers A Global History |date=2020 |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |isbn=978-0-8263-6180-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Collingham E |author-link=Lizzie Collingham | title=Curry |url=https://archive.org/details/currytaleofcooks00coll| url-access=registration |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=February 2006 |isbn=978-0-09-943786-4 }}</ref><ref name="E.V.Nybe2007">{{cite book |vauthors=Raj NM, Peter KV, Nybe EV |title=Spices |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HHs6ANrJ-MEC&pg=PA107|date=1 January 2007 |publisher=New India Publishing |isbn=978-81-89422-44-8 |pages=107–}}</ref> The earliest known mention of the chili pepper in Chinese writing dates to 1591, though the pepper is thought to have entered the country in the 1570s.<ref>{{cite book |author=Brian R. Dott |year=2020 |title=The Chile Pepper in China |page=21 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55130-4 |quote=The earliest known record for chiles in a Chinese source is from Hangzhou, Zhejiang, in 1591}}</ref>

== Producing chili peppers ==

=== Cultivation ===

Chili peppers are the shiny, brightly coloured fruits of species of ''Capsicum''.<ref name="RHS howto"/><ref>{{cite web |title=HORT410. Peppers – Notes |publisher=Purdue University Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture |url=https://hort.purdue.edu/rhodcv/hort410/pepper/pe00001.htm |access-date=20 October 2009 |archive-date=26 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226060452/https://hort.purdue.edu/rhodcv/hort410/pepper/pe00001.htm%0A%20 |quote=Common name: pepper. Latin name: Capsicum annuum L. ... Harvested organ: fruit. Fruit varies substantially in shape, pericarp thickness, color and pungency.}}</ref> Botanically they are berries. The plants are small, {{convert|20|to|60|cm|in}} depending on variety, making them suitable for growing in pots, greenhouses, or commercially in polytunnels. The plants are perennial, provided they are protected from cold. The fruits can be green, orange, red, or purple, and vary in shape from round and knobbly to smooth and elongated. If the fruits are picked green and unripe, more flowers develop, yielding more fruit; fruits left on the plant can become hotter in taste, and acquire their ripe coloration, at the price of a reduced harvest.<ref name="RHS howto"/>

Ideal growing conditions for peppers include a sunny position with warm, loamy soil, ideally {{convert|21|to|29|°C|°F}}, that is moist but not waterlogged.<ref>{{cite web |title=Growing Peppers: The Important Facts |url=http://www.gardenersgardening.com/growingpeppers.html |publisher=GardenersGardening.com |access-date=10 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127080844/http://www.gardenersgardening.com/growingpeppers.html |archive-date=27 January 2013}}</ref> The seeds germinate only when warm, close to {{convert|21|C|F}}.<ref name="RHS howto"/> The plants prefer warm conditions, but can tolerate temperatures down to {{convert|12|C|F}}; and are sensitive to cold.<ref name="RHS howto">{{cite web |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/grow-your-own/vegetables/chilli-pepper |title=How to grow chilli pepper / RHS Gardening |date=3 December 2025 |access-date=12 October 2024 |archive-date=22 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170622091504/https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/grow-your-own/vegetables/chilli-pepper |url-status=live }}</ref> The flowers can self-pollinate. However, at extremely high temperatures, {{convert|30|to|38|°C|°F}}, pollen loses viability, and its flowers are much less likely to result in fruit.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Effect of Extreme Temperatures on the Tomato and Pepper Crop |date=5 July 2022 |url=https://www.ontario.ca/page/effect-extreme-temperatures-tomato-and-pepper-crop |publisher=King's Printer for Ontario, 2012–24, Canada}}</ref> For flowering, ''Capsicum'' is a non-photoperiod-sensitive crop.<ref>{{Cite book |editor=Hui YH |title=Handbook of Food Science, Technology, and Engineering |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-4665-0787-6 |pages=20–13}}</ref>

Chilies are vulnerable to pests including aphids, glasshouse red spider mite, and glasshouse whitefly, all of which feed on plant sap.<ref name="RHS howto"/> Common diseases include grey mould caused by ''Botrytis cinerea''; this rots the tissues and produces a brownish-grey mould on the surface.<ref name="RHS howto"/>

<gallery mode=packed caption="Cultivation"> File:Achill.jpg|Young plants File:Buds and flowers of chili plants.jpg|Buds and flowers File:Chili pepper.jpg|Immature chilies in the field File:Shan Hills, Myanmar, Red chili pepper plant.jpg|Ripe chilies in the field, Myanmar File:Capsicum leaf deformated after aphids.jpg|Leaf damaged by aphids File:Chilli paper bd.jpg|Ripe chili pepper with seeds </gallery>

=== Preparation ===

Harvested chilies may be used fresh, or dried, typically on the ground in hot countries, to make a variety of products. Drying enables chilies grown in temperate regions to be used in winter. For home use, chilies can be dried by threading them with cotton and hanging them up in a warm dry place to dry.<ref name="BBC Gardeners' World">{{cite web |title=How to dry chillies |url=https://www.gardenersworld.com/how-to/grow-plants/how-to-store-chillies/ |website=BBC Gardeners' World Magazine |access-date=12 October 2024 |date=4 September 2019}}</ref>

<gallery mode=packed caption="Drying chilies"> File:Chillies drying in Kathmandu.jpg|Chili peppers drying in Kathmandu, Nepal File:Andhra Chillies.jpg|Guntur chilli drying in the sun, Andhra Pradesh, India File:Red chili peppers Mesilla NM.jpg|New Mexico chiles dried on the plant in Mesilla, New Mexico </gallery> <gallery mode="packed" heights="160"> File:Sundried chilli.jpg|Sundried chili at Imogiri, Yogyakarta, Indonesia File:Ristras Drying.jpg|alt=Chili peppers drying in hanging ristras|Ristras of chili peppers drying in Arizona File:Mujer chiles 3.JPG|Removing seeds and pith from dried chilies in San Pedro Atocpan, Mexico File:Chipotlestipicos.jpg|Smoke-dried chipotle </gallery>

Products include whole dried chilies, chili flakes, and chili powder,<ref name="Farrell 1998">{{cite book |vauthors=Farrell KT |title=Spices, Condiments and Seasonings |publisher=Chapman & Hall |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8342-1337-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ehAFUhWV4QMC&pg=PA215 |pages=215–217}}</ref> Fresh or dried chilies are used to make hot sauce, a liquid condiment—usually bottled for commercial use—that adds spice to other dishes.<ref>{{cite book |vauthors=Thompson JT |title=Hot Sauce! |publisher=Storey Publishers |location=North Adams, Massachusetts |isbn=978-1-60342-813-2 |page=15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Wtp8EDOKaEC&q=%22hot%20sauce%22%201807&pg=PA15 |date=2012-04-24}}</ref> Dried chilies are used to make chili oil, cooking oil infused with chili.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is chili crisp? This spicy condiment belongs on everything — even dessert |url=https://www.today.com/food/what-chili-crisp-spicy-condiment-belongs-everything-t220671 |access-date=28 April 2022 |website=Today.com |date=3 June 2021 |archive-date=3 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603170426/https://www.today.com/food/what-chili-crisp-spicy-condiment-belongs-everything-t220671 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<gallery mode=packed heights=160 caption="Products"> File:Inle Lake, Dried red chili (chilli) pepper, Capsicum annuum, Myanmar.jpg|Dried chili pepper flakes, Myanmar File:India - Kolkata 2 - 24 - New Market spice shops (3504585620).jpg|Chili powder, India Hot Sauce Selection At La Whole Food Store (84224397).jpeg|Brands of hot sauce, California File:Homemade Chili Oil (28909017356).jpg|Chili oil </gallery>

===Production=== {| class="wikitable floatright" style="width:12em; text-align:center;" |+ Green chili peppers {{small|2024, millions of tonnes}} |- | {{CHN}} || 17.3 |- | {{IND}} || 5.3 |- | {{TUR}} || 3.4 |- | {{MEX}} || 3.2 |- | {{IDN}} || 3.0 |- | {{ESP}} || 1.5 |- | {{EGY}} || 1.1 |- | '''World '''|| '''44.8''' |- |colspan=2|{{small|Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations}}<ref name="fao">{{cite web|title=Green chili production in 2024; Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity/Year from pick lists|url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT)|access-date=4 January 2026|date=2026|archive-date=14 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114074500/https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL|url-status=live}}</ref> |}

In 2024, world production of green chillies and peppers (as any ''Capsicum'' or ''Pimenta'' fruits) was 45 million tonnes, with China accounting for 39% of the total and India with 12% (table). Global production of dry chillies and peppers in 2024 was 5.5 million tonnes, led by China, Thailand, and Bangladesh, each accounting for over 300,000 tonnes.<ref>{{cite web|title=Production of dry chillies and peppers in 2024; Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity/Year from pick lists|url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT)|access-date=9 March 2026|date=2026|archive-date=14 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114074500/https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Species and cultivars ===

Species of ''Capsicum'' that produce chili peppers are shown on the simplified phylogenetic tree,<ref name="Shiragaki Yokoi Tezuka 2020">{{cite journal |vauthors=Shiragaki K, Yokoi S, Tezuka T |first3=Takahiro |title=Phylogenetic Analysis and Molecular Diversity of Capsicum Based on rDNA-ITS Region |journal=Horticulturae |volume=6 |issue=4 |date=20 November 2020 |doi=10.3390/horticulturae6040087 |doi-access=free |page=87}}</ref> with examples of cultivars:<ref name="Normah 2013">{{cite book |vauthors=Normah MN, Chin HF, Reed BM |title=Conservation of tropical plant species |date=2013 |publisher=Springer |location=New York |isbn=978-1-4614-3775-8 |page=397 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p9MKNopksAgC |access-date=28 November 2018}}</ref> The World Vegetable Center has one of the largest collection of chili peppers in the world. It has researched climate change resistant cultivars.<ref>{{cite magazine |author-link=Clarissa Wei |last1=Wei |first1=Clarissa |title=The Quest to Save Chili Peppers |url=https://www.newyorker.com/science/elements/the-quest-to-save-chili-peppers |magazine=The New Yorker |date=16 June 2023 |access-date=17 June 2023}}</ref>

{{clade |label1='''''Capsicum''''' |1={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1={{clade |1=''C. annuum'': bell peppers, 19px wax, cayenne, jalapeño, Thai, chiltepin, New Mexico chile 16px |2={{clade |1=''C. frutescens'': tabasco, malagueta, labuyo, piri piri, kambuzi 16px |2=''C. chinense'': hottest peppers, e.g. naga, habanero, datil, Scotch bonnet 16px16px16px }} }} |2=''C. baccatum'': aji 16px }} |2=''C. pubescens'': rocoto, chile de caballo 16px }} |2=''C. eximium''{{efn|''C. eximium'' is used as a spice in Bolivia.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Heiser CB, Smith PG |title=New Species of Capsicum from South America |journal=Brittonia |volume=10 |issue=4 |date=15 October 1958 |pages=194–201 |doi=10.2307/2804950 |jstor=2804950 |bibcode=1958Britt..10..194H }}</ref> }} }} |2=''C. lycianthoides'' }} }}

<gallery mode="packed" caption="Cultivars"> File:A Fat Red Cayenne Pepper.jpg|Cayenne peppers, a cultivar of ''Capsicum annuum'' File:Tabasco peppers.JPG|Tabasco peppers, a cultivar of ''Capsicum frutescens'', fruits pointing upwards File:Habanero chile - fruits (aka).jpg|Habanero peppers, a cultivar of ''Capsicum chinense'' File:Cubanelle Peppers.jpg|Cubanelle peppers, United States File:HotPeppersinMarket.jpg|Scotch bonnets, Caribbean File:Phrik haeng.jpg|Bird's eye chilies, Thailand File:청양고추3.jpg|Cheongyang peppers, South Korea </gallery>

<gallery mode="packed" heights=160> File:Black pearl cultivar.jpg|Black Pearl cultivar of ''C. annuum'' File:Pimientos choriceros.jpg|Choricero, Spain File:Chili peppers cultivated in Myanmar.jpg|Purple chilies, Myanmar </gallery>

== Intensity ==

=== Capsaicin ===

{{multiple image |width = 200 |direction = vertical |image1 = Capsaicin.svg |caption1 = Chemical structure |image2 = Capsaicin-3D-vdW.png |caption2 = Space-filling model |footer = Capsaicin, the principal molecule that gives chili its heat<ref name="Kosuge 1961"/> }}

The substances that give chili peppers their pungency (spicy heat) when ingested or applied topically are capsaicin (8-methyl-''N''-vanillyl-6-nonenamide) and several related chemicals, collectively called ''capsaicinoids''.<ref name="Kosuge 1961">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kosuge S, Inagaki Y, Okumura H |date=1961 |title=Studies on the pungent principles of red pepper. Part VIII. On the chemical constitutions of the pungent principles. |journal=Nippon Nogeikagaku Kaishi |volume=35 |pages=923–927 |doi=10.1271/nogeikagaku1924.35.10_923 |doi-access=free }} Chem. Abstr. 1964, 60, 9827g.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |language=Japanese |vauthors=Kosuge S, Inagaki Y |title=Studies on the pungent principles of red pepper. Part XI. Determination and contents of the two pungent |journal=Journal of the Agricultural Chemical Society of Japan |date=1962 |volume=36 |pages=251–254 }}</ref> Pure capsaicin is a hydrophobic, colorless, odorless, and crystalline-to-waxy solid at room temperature.<ref name="pubchem">{{cite web |url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/1548943 |publisher=PubChem, US National Library of Medicine |title=Capsaicin |date=27 May 2023 |access-date=1 June 2023 |archive-date=13 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513181353/https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/1548943 |url-status=live }}</ref> The quantity of capsaicin varies by variety, and depends on growing conditions. Water-stressed peppers usually produce stronger fruits. When a habanero plant is stressed, for example by shortage of water, the concentration of capsaicin increases in some parts of the fruit.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ruiz-Lau N, Medina-Lara F, Minero-García Y, Zamudio-Moreno E, Guzmán-Antonio A, Echevarría-Machado I, Martínez-Estévez M |title=Water Deficit Affects the Accumulation of Capsaicinoids in Fruits of Capsicum chinense Jacq. |journal=HortScience |date=1 March 2011 |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=487–492 |doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.46.3.487 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

When peppers are consumed by mammals such as humans, capsaicin binds with pain receptors in the mouth and throat, potentially evoking pain via spinal relays to the brainstem and thalamus where heat and discomfort are perceived.<ref name="oneill">{{cite journal |vauthors=O'Neill J, Brock C, Olesen AE, Andresen T, Nilsson M, Dickenson AH |title=Unravelling the mystery of capsaicin: a tool to understand and treat pain |journal=Pharmacological Reviews |volume=64 |issue=4 |pages=939–971 |date=October 2012 |pmid=23023032 |pmc=3462993 |doi=10.1124/pr.112.006163 }}</ref> However, birds are unable to perceive the hotness and so they can eat some of the hottest peppers.<ref name="Tewksbury Nabhan 2001"/> The intensity of the "heat" of chili peppers is commonly reported in Scoville heat units (SHU), invented by American pharmacist Wilbur Scoville in 1912. Historically, it was a measure of the dilution of an amount of chili extract added to sugar syrup before its heat becomes undetectable to a panel of tasters; the more it has to be diluted to be undetectable, the more powerful the variety, and therefore the higher the rating.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tabasco.com/info_booth/faq/scoville_how.cfm |title=History of the Scoville Scale | FAQS |publisher=Tabasco.Com |access-date=23 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100823044606/http://www.tabasco.com/info_booth/faq/scoville_how.cfm |archive-date=23 August 2010 }}</ref> Since the 1980s, spice heat has been assessed quantitatively by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), which measures the concentration of heat-producing capsaicinoids, typically with capsaicin content as the main measure.<ref name="guzman">{{cite journal |vauthors=Guzmán I, Bosland PW |title=Sensory properties of chili pepper heat - and its importance to food quality and cultural preference |journal=Appetite |volume=117 |pmid=28662907 |year=2017 |pages=186–190 |doi=10.1016/j.appet.2017.06.026 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Capsaicin is produced by the plant as a defense against mammalian predators. A study suggests that by protecting against attack by a hemipteran bug, the risk of disease caused by a ''Fusarium'' fungus carried by the insects is reduced.<ref name="pnas">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tewksbury JJ, Reagan KM, Machnicki NJ, Carlo TA, Haak DC, Peñaloza AL, Levey DJ |title=Evolutionary ecology of pungency in wild chilies |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=105 |issue=33 |pages=11808–11811 |date=August 2008 |pmid=18695236 |pmc=2575311 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0802691105 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2008PNAS..10511808T }}</ref> As evidence, the study notes that peppers increased the quantity of capsaicin in proportion to the damage caused by fungi on the plant's seeds.<ref name=pnas/>

=== Intensity range of commonly used cultivars ===

A wide range of intensity is found in commonly used peppers: {| |- | Bell pepper || 0 SHU |- | Fresno, jalapeño || 3,500–10,000 SHU |- | Cayenne || 30,000–50,000 SHU |- | Piri piri, bird's eye || 50,000–100,000 SHU |- | Habanero, Scotch bonnet || 100,000–350,000 SHU<ref>{{cite web |vauthors=Filippone PT |date=11 October 2000 |url=http://homecooking.about.com/library/weekly/blhotchiles.htm |title=Chile Pepper Heat Scoville Scale |publisher=Homecooking.about.com |access-date=14 April 2013 |archive-date=26 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120226211137/http://homecooking.about.com/library/weekly/blhotchiles.htm }}</ref> |- |}

=== Hottest by country ===

The top 9 world's hottest chili peppers (by country) are: {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! Country ! Type ! Heat (SHU) |- | United States || Pepper X || 2.69M<ref>{{cite web |author=Atwal S |title=Pepper X dethrones Carolina Reaper as world's hottest chilli pepper |url=https://guinnessworldrecords.com/news/2023/10/pepper-x-dethrones-carolina-reaper-as-worlds-hottest-chilli-pepper-759706 |website=Guinness World Records |date=16 October 2023 |access-date=October 16, 2023 |archive-date=15 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231115013158/https://guinnessworldrecords.com/news/2023/10/pepper-x-dethrones-carolina-reaper-as-worlds-hottest-chilli-pepper-759706 |url-status=live }}</ref> |- | Wales || Dragon's Breath || 2.48M<ref>{{cite web | vauthors=Morris L | date=22 January 2018 | url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com.au/nature/the-hottest-chilli-in-the-world-was-created-in-wales-accidentally.aspx | title=The Hottest Chilli in the World was Created in Wales Accidentally | access-date=17 February 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180218091449/http://www.nationalgeographic.com.au/nature/the-hottest-chilli-in-the-world-was-created-in-wales-accidentally.aspx | archive-date=18 February 2018 | work=National Geographic }}</ref> |- | United States || Carolina Reaper || 2.2M<ref>{{cite web |vauthors=Lynch K |url=http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/news/2013/11/confirmed-smokin-eds-carolina-reaper-sets-new-record-for-hottest-chilli-53033/ |title=Confirmed: Smokin Ed's Carolina Reaper sets new record for hottest chilli |publisher=Guinness World Records |date=19 November 2013 |access-date=8 November 2014 |archive-date=24 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140924160627/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/news/2013/11/confirmed-smokin-eds-carolina-reaper-sets-new-record-for-hottest-chilli-53033/ |url-status=live }}</ref> |- | Trinidad and Tobago || Trinidad moruga scorpion || 2.0M<ref>{{cite web |vauthors=Bryan SM |date=16 February 2012 |agency= Associated Press |work=Yahoo! News |url=http://news.yahoo.com/trinidad-moruga-scorpion-wins-hottest-pepper-title-015457622.html |title=Trinidad Moruga Scorpion wins hottest pepper title |access-date=11 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120401082127/http://news.yahoo.com/trinidad-moruga-scorpion-wins-hottest-pepper-title-015457622.html |archive-date=1 April 2012 }}</ref> |- | India || Ghost pepper (Bhut jolokia) || 1.58M<ref name="trinidad">{{cite news |url=http://yourlife.usatoday.com/fitness-food/story/2012-03-11/Chile-Pepper-Institute-studies-whats-hot/53490214/1 |title=Chile Pepper Institute studies what's hot |publisher=USA Today |work=Your life | vauthors=Joshi M |date=11 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314210249/http://yourlife.usatoday.com/fitness-food/story/2012-03-11/Chile-Pepper-Institute-studies-whats-hot/53490214/1 |archive-date=14 March 2012 }}</ref> |- | Trinidad and Tobago || Trinidad Scorpion Butch T || 1.46M<ref>{{Cite web | vauthors=Da Silva M | date=12 April 2011 | work=Australian Geographic |url=http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/aussies-grow-worlds-hottest-chilli.htm |title=Aussies grow world's hottest chilli |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028152226/http://www.australiangeographic.com.au/journal/aussies-grow-worlds-hottest-chilli.htm |archive-date=28 October 2011 |access-date=12 April 2011}}</ref> |- | England || Naga Viper || 1.38M<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/title-of-worlds-hottest-chili-pepper-stolen--again-2225925.html|title=Title of world's hottest chili pepper stolen – again|work=The Independent|date=25 February 2011|access-date=27 February 2011|location=London|archive-date=28 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110228023835/http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/title-of-worlds-hottest-chili-pepper-stolen--again-2225925.html|url-status=live}}</ref> |- | England || Armageddon ||1.3M<ref>{{Cite web |title=Armageddon chilli |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/going-out/foodanddrink/armageddon-chilli-resco-a4201426.html |website=The Standard |date=30 July 2019 |access-date=20 July 2025 |archive-date=22 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250722092230/https://www.standard.co.uk/going-out/foodanddrink/armageddon-chilli-resco-a4201426.html |url-status=live }}</ref> |- | England || Infinity chili || 1.07M<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-12505344 |title="Record-breaking" chilli is hot news |work=BBC News |vauthors=Henderson N |date=19 February 2011 |access-date=20 February 2011 |archive-date=18 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518185414/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-12505344 |url-status=live }}</ref> |}

=== Safety ===

The volatile oil in chili peppers may cause skin irritation, requiring hand washing and care when touching the eyes or any sensitive body parts.<ref name="bhg">{{cite web |url=https://www.bhg.com/recipes/how-to/cooking-techniques/handling-hot-peppers/ |title=How to Handle Hot Peppers and Chiles Safely |publisher=Better Homes and Gardens |vauthors=Beck A |work=Better Homes & Gardens |date=8 May 2019 |access-date=23 July 2022 |archive-date=19 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221019085812/https://www.bhg.com/recipes/how-to/cooking-techniques/handling-hot-peppers/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Consuming hot peppers may cause stomach pain, hyperventilation, sweating, vomiting, and symptoms possibly requiring hospitalization.<ref name="Goldfrank 2007">{{Cite book |title=Goldfrank's Toxicologic Emergencies |veditors=Goldfrank LR |page=1167 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |location=New York, New York |isbn=978-0-07-144310-4 |date=23 March 2007 }}</ref>

Unscrupulous traders have illegally added at least eight different synthetic dyes, including Auramine O, Chrysoidine, Sudan stains I to IV, Para red, and Rhodamine B to chili products. All these chemicals are harmful. They can be detected by liquid chromatography used together with mass spectrometry.<ref name="Li Ding Liu 2013">{{cite journal |vauthors=((Li J, Ding X-M, Liu D-D, Guo F, Chen Y, Zhang Y-B, Liu H-M)) |title=Simultaneous determination of eight illegal dyes in chili products by liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry |journal=Journal of Chromatography B |volume=942-943 |year=2013 |doi=10.1016/j.jchromb.2013.10.010 |pages=46–52 |pmid=24212142 }}</ref>

== As food ==

=== Nutritional value ===

{{nutritionalvalue | name=Peppers, hot chili, red, raw | source_usda=1| water=88 g | kJ=166 | protein=1.9 g | fat=0.4 g | carbs=8.8 g | fiber=1.5 g | sugars=5.3 g | vitC_mg=144 | vitA_ug=48 | betacarotene_ug=534 | vitB6_mg=0.51 | potassium_mg=322 | magnesium_mg=23 | iron_mg=1|opt1n=Capsaicin|opt1v=0.01g – 6 g | note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/170106/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]}} Red hot chili peppers are 88% water, 9% carbohydrates, 2% protein, and 0.4% fat (table). In a 100 gram reference amount, chili peppers supply 40 calories, and are a rich source of vitamin C and vitamin B6.<ref>[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/food-details/170106/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]</ref>

=== Pungency ===

Due to their unique pungency (spicy heat), chili peppers constitute a crucial part of many cuisines around the world, particularly in Chinese (especially in Sichuanese food), Mexican, Thai, Indian, Yoruba, New Mexican cuisine and many other South American, Caribbean and East Asian cuisines. In 21st-century Asian cuisine, chili peppers are commonly used across many regions.<ref>{{cite magazine |date=14 June 2007 |title=Chili Peppers: Global Warming |url=https://content.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1628191_1626317_1632291,00.html |access-date=25 May 2019 |magazine=Time |vauthors=Robinson S |archive-date=25 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525152145/http://content.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1628191_1626317_1632291,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="forbes">{{cite web |date=20 February 2015 |title=What's driving the global chili pepper craze? |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/johnmcquaid/2015/02/20/whats-driving-the-global-chili-pepper-craze/#367c71eb7e0d |access-date=25 May 2019 |work=Forbes Media |vauthors=McQuaid J |archive-date=25 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190525152159/https://www.forbes.com/sites/johnmcquaid/2015/02/20/whats-driving-the-global-chili-pepper-craze/#367c71eb7e0d |url-status=live }}</ref> Chili is a key ingredient in many curries, providing the desired amount of heat; mild curries may be flavoured with many other spices, and may omit chili altogether.<ref name="Jaffrey 1982">{{cite book |vauthors=Jaffrey M |author-link=Madhur Jaffrey |title=Madhur Jaffrey's Indian Cookery |date=1982 |publisher=BBC |isbn=978-0-563-16491-3 |pages=7–10}}</ref>

=== Cooking ===

Chilies with a low capsaicin content can be cooked like bell peppers, for example stuffing and roasting them. Hotter varieties need to be handled with care to avoid contact with skin or eyes; washing does not efficiently remove capsaicin from skin. Chilies can be roasted over very hot coals or grilled for a short time, as they break up if overcooked.<ref>{{cite web |vauthors=Pratt J |title=Chili recipes |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/chilli |website=BBC Food |access-date=12 October 2024 |archive-date=6 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006114603/https://www.bbc.co.uk/food/chilli |url-status=live }}</ref>

The leaves of every species of Capsicum are edible, being mildly bitter and nowhere near as hot as the fruits. They are cooked as greens in Filipino cuisine, where they are called ''dahon ng sili'' (literally "chili leaves"). They are used in the chicken soup ''tinola''.<ref>{{Cite web | title=Dahon ng Sili (Chili pepper leaves) |url=https://tribo.org/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312093900/http://www.tribo.org/vegetables/dahongsili.html | work=Tribo ความสุขบนเตียง |archive-date=12 March 2007}}</ref> In Korean cuisine, the leaves may be used in kimchi.<ref>{{cite web | title=Vitamin Rich Chili pepper Leaf Kimchi | work=Ssoft International Corporation | url=http://sfood.info/cuisine/kimchi/k35.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091114231725/http://sfood.info/cuisine/kimchi/k35.htm| archive-date=14 November 2009}}</ref>

=== Regional cuisines ===

Chilies are present in many cuisines, including curries. In Peru, ''Papa a la huancaina'' is a dish of potatoes in a sauce of fresh cheese and aji amarillo chilies.<ref name="Eugenio 2024"/> In Thailand, ''kaeng tai pla'' fish curry is flavoured with a ''tai pla'' sauce made with garlic, shallots, galangal, kaffir lime, turmeric, fish paste, and bird's eye chilies.<ref name="Eugenio 2024"/> In Jamaica, jerk chicken is spiced with powerful habanero chilies and allspice.<ref name="Eugenio 2024"/> Goan vindaloo curry uses the extremely hot ghost pepper or bhut jolokia to create "perhaps [India's] hottest dish".<ref name="Eugenio 2024">{{cite web |vauthors=Eugenio R |title=Some like it hot: searching the seven continents for the best spicy dishes |url=https://www.cathaypacific.com/cx/en_GB/inspiration/dining/spiciest-dishes-in-world.html |publisher=Cathay Pacific |access-date=12 October 2024 |date=18 February 2024 |archive-date=10 February 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260210184049/https://www.cathaypacific.com/cx/en_GB/inspiration/dining/spiciest-dishes-in-world.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In Bhutan, ''ema datshi'', entirely made of chili mixed with local cheese, is the national dish.<ref>{{cite web |vauthors=Subramanian S |date=2023-10-23 |title=This is what it's like hiking the newly reopened Trans-Bhutan Trail |url=https://www.cntraveller.in/story/hiking-the-trans-bhutan-trail-an-ancient-journey-restored-after-60-years/ |access-date=12 October 2024 |website=Condé Nast Traveller India |quote=the stew of green peppers and cheese, fiery as arson, that is the national dish |archive-date=11 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231111200746/https://www.cntraveller.in/story/hiking-the-trans-bhutan-trail-an-ancient-journey-restored-after-60-years/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |vauthors=Ramesh N |title=Ema Datshi |url=https://www.196flavors.com/ema-datshi/ |website=196 Flavors |date=8 May 2023 |access-date=12 October 2024 |archive-date=27 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241127061342/https://www.196flavors.com/ema-datshi/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Many Mexican dishes use chilies of different types, including the jalapeño, poblano, habanero, serrano, chipotle, ancho, pasilla, guajillo, de árbol, cascabel and mulato. These offer a wide range of flavours including citrus, earthy, fruity, and grassy. They are used in many dishes and the spicy ''mole'' sauce and Mexican salsa sauces.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ancho to serrano: a guide to Mexican chillies |url=https://www.greatbritishchefs.com/features/mexican-chilli-guide |website=Great British Chefs |access-date=12 October 2024 |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925103344/https://www.greatbritishchefs.com/features/mexican-chilli-guide |url-status=live }}</ref> In Yoruba cuisine, chillies are well used in many dishes including Ewa Agoyin<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chidi |first=Chef |date=2017-11-19 |title=Ewa Agoyin - Yoruba Pepper Sauce for Beans |url=https://allnigerianfoods.com/ewa-agoyin/ |access-date=2025-03-09 |website=All Nigerian Foods |language=en-US |archive-date=25 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250125013107/https://allnigerianfoods.com/ewa-agoyin/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and Obe ata.

<gallery mode=packed caption="Dishes"> File:Lamb Chops With Guajillo Chili Sauce and Charro Beans (cropped).jpg|Mexican lamb chops with guajillo chili sauce and charro beans File:Taj Mahal - Lamb Curry Madras.jpg|Lamb Madras curry File:Chilli pickle in a plate 2.jpg|Pickled chili in India File:Chili pepper dip Amman.JPG|Chili pepper dip in a traditional restaurant in Amman, Jordan File:Tinolang Manok.jpg|Filipino ''tinola'' chicken soup with ''labuyo'' chili leaves </gallery>

== Other uses ==

=== Ornamental plants ===

thumb|alt=Black Pearl Pepper.|Black pearl pepper, an ornamental variety

The contrast in color and appearance makes chili plants interesting to some as a purely decorative garden plant. * Black pearl pepper: small cherry-shaped fruits and dark brown to black leaves<ref name=USNA>{{cite web |url=http://www.usna.usda.gov/Research/BlackPearl.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701155244/http://www.usna.usda.gov/Research/BlackPearl.html |archive-date=1 July 2007 |title=New Ornamental Pepper Wins Prestigious Award |date=2006 |website=The United States National Arboretum|access-date=11 October 2024}}</ref> * Black Hungarian pepper: green foliage, highlighted by purple veins and purple flowers, jalapeño-shaped fruits<ref name="seedsbydesign">{{cite web |title=Chilies as Ornamental Plants |url=http://www.seedsbydesign.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1478&Itemid=42 |work=Seedsbydesign |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515183915/http://www.seedsbydesign.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1478&Itemid=42 |archive-date=15 May 2013 }}</ref> * Bishop's crown pepper, Christmas bell pepper: named for its distinct three-sided shape resembling a red bishop's crown or a red Christmas bell<ref>{{cite web |last1=Datiles |first1=MJ |last2=Acevedo-Rodriguez |first2=P |title=Capsicum baccatum (pepper) |date=2014 |url=https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/full/10.1079/cabicompendium.120109 |publisher=CABI Digital Library |doi=10.1079/cabicompendium.120109 |access-date=17 October 2024}}</ref>

=== Constrained risk-taking ===

Psychologist Paul Rozin suggests that eating ordinary chilies is an example of a "constrained risk" like riding a roller coaster, in which extreme sensations like pain and fear can be enjoyed because individuals know that these sensations are not actually harmful. This method lets people experience extreme feelings without any significant risk of bodily harm.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Rozin P, Schiller D |s2cid=143848453 |year=1980 |title=The Nature and Acquisition of a Preference for Chili Pepper by Humans |journal=Motivation and Emotion |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=77–101 |doi=10.1007/BF00995932 }}</ref>

=== Topical use and health research ===

Capsaicin, the pungent chemical in chili peppers, is used as an analgesic in topical ointments, nasal sprays, and dermal patches to relieve pain.<ref name="fattori">{{cite journal | vauthors=Fattori V, Hohmann MS, Rossaneis AC, Pinho-Ribeiro FA, Verri WA | title=Capsaicin: Current Understanding of Its Mechanisms and Therapy of Pain and Other Pre-Clinical and Clinical Uses | journal=Molecules | volume=21 | issue=7 | page=844 | date=June 2016 | pmid=27367653 | pmc=6273101 | doi=10.3390/molecules21070844 | doi-access=free }}</ref> A 2022 review of preliminary research indicated that regular consumption of chili peppers was associated with weak evidence for a lower risk of death from cardiovascular diseases and cancer.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors=Kaur M, Verma BR, Zhou L, Lak HM, Kaur S, Sammour YM, Kapadia SR, Grimm RA, Griffin BP, Xu B | display-authors=6 | title=Association of pepper intake with all-cause and specific cause mortality - A systematic review and meta-analysis | journal=American Journal of Preventive Cardiology | volume=9 | article-number=100301 | date=March 2022 | pmid=34977833 | pmc=8688560 | doi=10.1016/j.ajpc.2021.100301 }}</ref>

=== Chemical irritants ===

Capsaicin extracted from chilies is used in pepper sprays and some tear gas formulations as a chemical irritant, for use as less-lethal weapons for control of unruly individuals or crowds.<ref name="haar">{{cite journal | vauthors=Haar RJ, Iacopino V, Ranadive N, Weiser SD, Dandu M | title=Health impacts of chemical irritants used for crowd control: a systematic review of the injuries and deaths caused by tear gas and pepper spray | journal=BMC Public Health | volume=17 | issue=1 | article-number=831 | date=October 2017 | pmid=29052530 | pmc=5649076 | doi=10.1186/s12889-017-4814-6 | doi-access=free }}</ref> Such products have considerable potential for misuse, and may cause injury or death.<ref name=haar/>

In Africa and Asia, elephants nightly destroy crops and endanger people. Chilis are effective at keeping elephants away, as capsaicin irritates their large and sensitive olfactory and nasal system. Farmers can plant a few rows of the fruit around valuable crops; or they may burn chili dung bombs, bricks of dung and chili, creating a noxious smoke.<ref>{{cite magazine | vauthors=Mott M |title=Elephant Crop Raids Foiled by Chili Peppers, Africa Project Finds |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.co.in/news/2006/09/060918-elephants-chili.html |magazine=National Geographic |access-date=23 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029194226/http://news.nationalgeographic.co.in/news/2006/09/060918-elephants-chili.html |archive-date=29 October 2013}}</ref>

Birds do not have the same sensitivity to capsaicin as mammals, as they lack a specific pain receptor. Some species in the chili peppers' natural range eat the fruits, possibly dispersing the seeds.<ref name="Tewksbury Nabhan 2001">{{cite journal |vauthors=Tewksbury JJ, Nabhan GP |title=Seed dispersal. Directed deterrence by capsaicin in chilies |journal=Nature |volume=412 |issue=6845 |pages=403–404 |date=July 2001 |pmid=11473305 |doi=10.1038/35086653 |bibcode=2001Natur.412..403T |s2cid=4389051 }}</ref>

=== Supposed aphrodisiac ===

[[File:Capsicum -Chili - Peperoncino - Il Viagra Calabrese - Calabria - Italy - July 17th 2013 - 02.jpg|thumb|Peperoncino chilies in Italy, advertised as an aphrodisiac{{efn|The sign says in Italian "Calabrian Viagra".}} ]]

The 16th century Spanish missionary and naturalist José de Acosta noted the supposed aphrodisiac power of chilies, but wrote that they were harmful to people's spiritual health.<ref name="Hospodar 2004"/> In the 1970s, the government of Peru forbade prison inmates to consume chilies, their explanation being that these were "not appropriate for men forced to live a limited lifestyle."<ref name="Hospodar 2004">{{cite journal |vauthors=Hospodar M |title=Aphrodisiac Foods: Bringing Heaven to Earth |journal=Gastronomica |date=2004 |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=82–93 |doi=10.1525/gfc.2004.4.4.82 |jstor=10.1525/gfc.2004.4.4.82}}</ref>

=== In space ===

The 2021 Plant Habitat-04 experiment aboard the International Space Station grew four chili plants in 137 days, producing twenty-six peppers across two harvests. Most were eaten by the crew; twelve were returned to Earth for study. The plants were a specially dwarfed variety of the Hatch cultivar. This was the "first generally recognized fruiting crop in space", following harvests of leaf crops such as lettuce and kale from 2014 onwards.<ref name="Costa 2021">{{cite web |last1=Costa |first1=Jason |title=NASA's Second Pepper Harvest Sets Record on Space Station |url=https://www.nasa.gov/missions/station/nasas-second-pepper-harvest-sets-record-on-space-station/ |publisher=NASA |access-date=30 December 2025 |date=30 November 2021 |archive-date=16 February 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260216160057/https://www.nasa.gov/missions/station/nasas-second-pepper-harvest-sets-record-on-space-station/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== See also ==

{{Div col|colwidth=30em}} * Food and drink prohibitions – which in some cultures includes chili peppers * Hatch, New Mexico – known as the "Chile Capital of the World" * History of chocolate – which the Maya drank with ground chili peppers * International Connoisseurs of Green and Red Chile – organization for the promotion of chili peppers * Peppersoup * Salsa (sauce) * Sweet chili sauce – a condiment for adding a sweet, mild heat taste to food {{Div col end}}

== Notes ==

== Further reading ==

* Peppers: A Story of Hot Pursuits. Naj, Amal. Alfred A. Knopf. New York. 1992. ISBN 0394570774, 9780394570778.

== References ==

== External links ==

{{Wiktionary|chili}} {{Cookbook|Chilli Pepper}} {{Commons}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050220140720/http://www.plantcultures.org/plants/chilli_pepper_landing.html Plant Cultures: Chilli pepper botany, history and uses] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20161120165150/http://www.chilepepperinstitute.org/ The Chile Pepper Institute of New Mexico State University] * [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/proceedings1996/V3-479.html Capsicums: Innovative Uses of an Ancient Crop] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121114184110/http://www.ejournal.unam.mx/cns/no69/CNS06908.pdf Chilli: La especia del Nuevo Mundo] (Article from Germán Octavio López Riquelme about biology, nutrition, culture and medical topics. In Spanish) *[http://www.pepperscale.com/hot-pepper-list/ The Hot Pepper List] List of chili pepper varieties ordered by heat rating in Scoville Heat Units (SHU)

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chili Pepper}} Category:Agriculture in Mesoamerica Category:Chili peppers Category:Medicinal plants of Central America Category:Medicinal plants of South America Category:Crops originating from Ecuador Category:Crops originating from Mexico Category:Crops originating from Peru Category:Symbols of New Mexico Category:Leaf vegetables Category:Cuisine of New Mexico Category:Cuisine of the Southwestern United States Category:Crops originating from the Americas Category:Indian spices Category:Crops Category:Sri Lankan spices Category:Mesoamerican cuisine Category:Mexican cuisine Category:Fruits originating in North America