Prairie warbler

{{short description|Species of bird}} {{Speciesbox | image = Prairie Warbler FL Male JG.jpg | image_caption = Male, Florida | image2 = Prairie Warbler FL Female JG.jpg | image2_caption = Female, Florida | status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name="iucn">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2021 |title=''Setophaga discolor'' |volume=2021 |article-number=e.T22721725A137240441 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22721725A137240441.en |access-date=2 November 2025}}</ref> | genus = Setophaga | species = discolor | authority = (Vieillot, 1809) | range_map = Dendroica discolor map.svg | range_map_caption = Range of ''S. discolor'' {{leftlegend|#FFFF00|outline=gray|Breeding range}}{{leftlegend|#0000FF|outline=gray|Winter range}} | synonyms = * ''Sylvia discolor'' * ''Dendroica discolor'' }}

The '''prairie warbler''' ('''''Setophaga discolor''''') is a small songbird of the New World warbler family.

== Taxonomy == The prairie warbler belongs to the genus ''Setophaga''. The species was described by the French ornithologist Louis Pierre Vieillot in a work published in 1807 documenting North American birds, where he called the bird ''Sylvia discolor'', although the genus designation ''Sylvia'' was not later retained.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Vieillot |first=Louis Pierre |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/100831 |title=Histoire naturelle des oiseaux de l'Amérique Septentrionale: contenant un grand nombre d'espèces décrites ou figurées pour la première fois |publisher=Desray |year=1807 |volume=2 |location=Paris |pages=37–38 |language=fr |trans-title=Natural History of the Birds of North America: Containing a Large Number of Species Described or Illustrated for the First Time |doi=10.5962/bhl.title.100831}}</ref> It was also previously assigned to the genus ''Dendroica''{{When|date=November 2025}} before that genus was merged into ''Setophaga''.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Chesser R. T. |display-authors=etal |year=2011 |title=Fifty-Second Supplement to the American Ornithologists' Union Check-list of North American Birds |url=http://www.aou.org/auk/content/128/3/0600-0613.pdf |journal=Auk |volume=128 |issue=3 |pages=600–613 |bibcode=2011Auk...128..600C |doi=10.1525/auk.2011.128.3.600 |s2cid=13691956}}</ref>

The vernacular name "prairie warbler" is attributed to the Scottish-American naturalist Alexander Wilson who saw the species in 1810 in prairie country in southwestern Kentucky.<ref name=":3" /> This name is arguably misleading, since the bird generally prefers shrubbery and small trees rather than true open prairie habitats.<ref name=":0" />

There are two recognized subspecies, ''S. d. discolor'' and ''S. d.'' ''paludicola''. The first, ''S. d. discolor'', is the migratory form which breeds throughout the full range and spends winters in Florida and the West Indies. The second, ''S. d.'' ''paludicola'', is the sedentary form which permanently inhabits the coasts of Florida.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Nolan Jr. |first=Val |date=1978 |title=The Ecology and Behavior of the Prairie Warbler Dendroica discolor |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40166732 |journal=Ornithological Monographs |issue=26 |pages=iii–595 |doi=10.2307/40166732 |jstor=40166732 |issn=0078-6594 |via=JSTOR|url-access=subscription }}</ref> American zoologist Arthur H. Howell is credited with describing ''S. d.'' ''paludicola'' in a paper published in 1930. H. H. Bailey had also previously described the subspecies sometime from 1926 to 1930 (date uncertain), but he did not publish it publicly.<ref name=":3" />

==Description== These birds have yellow underparts with dark streaks on the flanks. In males, the back is olive green with chestnut or rufuos streaks.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last1=Stephenson |first1=Tom |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt2jc8rf |title=The Warbler Guide |last2=Whittle |first2=Scott |last3=Hamilton |first3=Catherine |date=2013 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-15482-4 |pages=410–413 |jstor=j.ctt2jc8rf }}</ref> A black stripe runs through the eye, and another black stripe runs from the beak down the throat.<ref name=":0" /> This semicircular stripe gives them a distinctive "tired" look.<ref name=":2" /> They have two faint wing bars.<ref name=":0" /> Their tails have large white areas, and they have dark legs. Coloring is duller in females and immature birds, and streaks are fainter or absent.<ref name="BOC" /> The subspecies ''S. d.'' ''paludicola'' is also duller overall.<ref name=":2" />

===Measurements=== The prairie warbler typically measures from {{convert|11|to|13|cm|abbr=on|in}} in length. The typical adult wingspan measures from {{convert|5.4|to|5.8|cm|abbr=on|in}} for males or {{convert|5.1|to|5.7|cm|abbr=on|in}} for females.<ref name=BOC>{{cite book |last=Godfrey |first=W. Earl |date=1966 |title=The Birds of Canada |location=Ottawa |publisher=National Museum of Canada |page=339}}</ref> The bird weighs about {{Convert|7.7|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name=Sibley>{{cite book |last=Sibley |first=David Allen |author-link=David Allen Sibley |date=2000 |title=The Sibley Guide to Birds |location=New York |publisher=Knopf |page=[https://archive.org/details/sibleyguidetobir00sibl_0/page/440 440] |isbn=0-679-45122-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/sibleyguidetobir00sibl_0/page/440 }}</ref>

The tail of an adult male measures from {{convert|4.7|to|5.1|cm|abbr=on|in}}, the exposed culmen measures from {{convert|9|to|10|mm|abbr=on|in}}, and the tarsus measures from {{convert|17|to|19|mm|abbr=on|in}}.<ref name="BOC" />

===Vocalizations=== Prairie warblers have two categories of songs, referred to as Type A and Type B. Type A songs are typically a series of ascending buzzy notes. The B songs are an ascending series of whistled notes that often contain some buzzy notes. Compared to A songs, the B songs are lower in pitch and have fewer, longer notes. The total song length is longer as well in Type B songs. The use of these two song categories is associated with certain contexts. A songs are sung throughout the day when males first arrive on their breeding grounds. Once males are paired they begin to sing B songs during the dawn chorus and then will intersperse A songs in their singing during the rest of the day. During this later period of singing A songs are typically used near females, near the nest, and in the center of their territories. In contrast B songs are used when interacting or fighting with other males and near the borders of their territories.

Part of their call note repertoire is a ''tsip'' call. During dawn, chorus B songs are interspersed with rapid loud "check" calls.<ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Houlihan |first=Peter William |title=The singing behavior of prairie warblers (Dendroica discolor) |date=February 2000 |access-date=November 1, 2025 |degree=PhD |publisher=University of Massachusetts Amherst |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/304605191 |id={{ProQuest|304605191}} }}</ref>

==Distribution== The full breeding range of the subspecies ''S. d. discolor'' includes much of the eastern United States, with the highest population density in the southeast. Isolated populations have been observed as far west as Kansas, Iowa, and Michigan.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Wells |first=Jeffrey V. |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt7s12c |title=Birder's Conservation Handbook: 100 North American Birds at Risk |date=2007 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-12323-3 |chapter=Prairie Warbler (Dendroica discolor) |doi=10.2307/j.ctt7s12c.93 |jstor=j.ctt7s12c |chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt7s12c.93}}</ref> Their reach extends as far north as Ontario and New Brunswick in Canada.<ref name="BOC" />

The winter range of ''S. d. discolor'' includes the southern portion of Florida, the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles, and the eastern coast of Mexico and further along the coast of Central America as far south as Honduras. The subspecies ''S. d.'' ''paludicola'' inhabits the coasts of Florida year-round.<ref name=":1" />

==Behaviour and ecology== ===Breeding=== Their breeding habitats are brushy areas and forest edges in eastern North America. The prairie warbler's nests are open cups, which are usually placed in a low area of a tree or shrub. Incubation period is 12 to 13 days.<ref name=BOC/> Female warblers usually lay three to five eggs. The eggs are white with speckles which have been described as "chestnut," "auburn," or "russet."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bent |first=Arthur Cleveland |date=1953 |title=Life Histories of North American Wood Warblers |url=http://hdl.handle.net/10088/10009 |journal=Bulletin of the United States National Museum |language=en |issue=203 |pages=432 |hdl=10088/10009 |issn=0362-9236 |via=Smithsonian Library & Archives}}</ref>

Prairie warblers are victims of nest parasitism by the brown-headed cowbird, which causes them to raise young cowbirds instead of their own chicks or sometimes to abandon affected nests all together.<ref name=":0" />

===Feeding=== Prairie warblers forage for insects. The majority of their foraging behavior comprises gleaning from twigs, leaves, and infrequently trunks and branches. Less common tactics include fly-catching, hovering, and chasing. Rarely, they have been observed pecking the ground, feeding on nectar, and web-picking.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Post |first=William |date=June 1978 |title=Social and Foraging Behavior of Warblers Wintering in Puerto Rican Coastal Scrub |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4161051 |journal=The Wilson Bulletin |volume=90 |issue=2 |pages=210 |jstor=4161051 |issn=0043-5643 |via=JSTOR}}</ref>

===Behaviour=== Prairie warblers wag, or pump, their tails frequently, which is a behavior they have in common with Palm warblers and Kirtland's warblers.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Matt |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/jj.10595445 |title=Endangered and Disappearing Birds of Appalachia and the Southeast |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |year=2024 |isbn=978-0-8131-9896-5 |pages=211–212 |language=en |doi=10.2307/jj.10595445.51}}</ref>

==Status== Although the species is not considered to be in danger of extinction,<ref name="iucn" /> its population size likely peaked in the 1940s or 1950s and has been declining since then. Across the Appalachians and Southeastern United States, this decline generally ranges from 50 to 70 percent.<ref name=":0" />

==Gallery== <gallery> Image:Warbler_prairie_02.JPG|In Everglades National Park. Image:Prairie-Warbler-02-07-2003.jpg Image:Warbler_prairie_03.JPG|At Castellow Hammock, Miami, FL. </gallery>

==References==  {{Reflist}} ==External links== {{Commons category|Setophaga discolor}} {{Wikispecies|Setophaga discolor}} * [https://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/id/framlst/i6730id.html Prairie warbler - ''Dendroica discolor''] - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter * [https://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/BirdGuide/Prairie_Warbler.html Prairie warbler species account] - Cornell Lab of Ornithology * {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20001028152523/http://www.bird-stamps.org/cspecies/19903200.htm Prairie warbler Stamps]}} from Barbados, British Virgin Islands, Grenada, St. Kitts at {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/19990428065259/http://www.bird-stamps.org/ bird-stamps.org]}} * {{InternetBirdCollection|prairie-warbler-dendroica-discolor|Prairie warbler}} * {{VIREO|prairie+warbler}} * [http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/index.php/download_file/view/1340/724/ Prairie warbler bird sound] at Florida Museum of Natural History * {{BirdLife|22721725|Dendroica discolor}} * {{IUCN_Map|22721725|Dendroica discolor}} * {{Xeno-canto species|Setophaga|discolor|Prairie warbler}}

<!-- ==Further reading== ===Books===

* Nolan, V., Jr., E. D. Ketterson, and C. A. Buerkle. 1999. ''Prairie Warbler (Dendroica discolor)''. In ''The Birds of North America'', No. 455 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Birds of North America, Inc., Philadelphia, PA.

===Thesis===

* Baltz ME. Ph.D. (2000). ''The nonbreeding season ecology of neotropical migratory birds in the dry zone of Puerto Rico''. University of Missouri - Columbia, United States – Missouri. * Brito-Aguilar R. M.S. (2005). ''Effects of even-aged forest management on early successional bird species in Missouri Ozark forest''. University of Missouri - Columbia, United States – Missouri. * Brooks RA. M.S. (1987). ''Avifaunal populations of regenerating clearcut areas in eastern Texas, with emphasis on the Bachman's Sparrow and Prairie Warbler''. Stephen F. Austin State University, United States – Texas. * Buerkle CA. Ph.D. (1997). ''Evolutionary history of migratory and nonmigratory populations of prairie warblers (Dendroica discolor)''. Indiana University, United States – Indiana. * Eliason BC. Ph.D. (1986). ''MATING SYSTEM, PARENTAL CARE, AND REPRODUCTIVE SUCCESS IN THE BLACKPOLL WARBLER (DENDROICA STRIATA) (POLYGYNY, KENT ISLAND, NEW BRUNSWICK, CANADA, BREEDING BIOLOGY)''. University of Minnesota, United States – Minnesota. * Fink ADD. Ph.D. (2003). ''Habitat use, demography, and population viability of disturbance-dependent shrubland birds in the Missouri Ozarks''. University of Missouri - Columbia, United States – Missouri. * Houlihan PW. Ph.D. (2000). ''The singing behavior of prairie warblers (Dendroica discolor)''. University of Massachusetts Amherst, United States – Massachusetts. (http://scholarworks.umass.edu/dissertations/AAI9960759/) * Lanham JD. Ph.D. (1997). ''Attributes of avian communities in early-successional, clearcut habitats in the mountains and upper piedmont of South Carolina''. Clemson University, United States – South Carolina. * Latta SC. Ph.D. (2000). ''Ecology and population regulation of neotropical migratory birds in the Sierra de Bahoruco, Dominican Republic''. University of Missouri - Columbia, United States – Missouri. * Morimoto DC. Ph.D. (1989). ''Avian community structure and habitat relationships in the southeastern Massachusetts pine barrens''. Boston University, United States – Massachusetts.

===Articles===

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Texas Journal of Science. vol '''49''', no 3 SUPPL. p. 123-138. * Conner RN, Dickson JG, Williamson JH & Ortego BN. (2004). ''Width of forest streamside zones and breeding bird abundance in eastern Texas''. Southeastern Naturalist. vol '''3''', no 4. p. 669-682. * Crawford HS, Hooper RG & Titterington RW. (1981). ''Song Bird Population Response to Silvicultural Practices in Central Appalachian USA Hardwoods''. Journal of Wildlife Management. vol '''45''', no 3. p. 680-692. * Dinsmore JJ. (1998). ''Iowa's avifauna: Recent changes and prospects for the future''. Journal of the Iowa Academy of Science. vol '''105''', no 3. p. 115-122. * Douglass JF. (1977). ''Prairie Warbler Feeds from Spider Web''. Wilson Bulletin. vol '''89''', no 1. p. 158-159. * Fink AD, Thompson FR, III & Tudor AA. (2006). ''Songbird use of regenerating forest, glade, and edge habitat types''. Journal of Wildlife Management. vol '''70''', no 1. p. 180-188. * Gram WK, Porneluzi PA, Clawson RL, Faaborg J & Richter SC. (2003). ''Effects of experimental forest management on density and nesting success of bird species in Missouri Ozark Forests''. Conservation Biology. vol '''17''', no 5. p. 1324-1337. * Greenberg CH & Lanham JD. (2001). ''Breeding bird assemblages of hurricane-created gaps and adjacent closed canopy forest in the southern Appalachians''. For Ecol Manage. vol '''154''', no 1-2. p. 251-260. * Grzybowski JA & Pease CM. (2005). ''Renesting determines seasonal fecundity in songbirds: What do we know? What should we assume?''. Auk. vol '''122''', no 1. p. 280-292. * Hines M. (1999). ''Managing red-cockaded woodpeckers (Picoides borealis) affects breeding-bird communities of pine-oak forests in southeastern Kentucky''. Journal of the Kentucky Academy of Sciences. vol '''60''', no 2. p. 78-86. * Howard WI. (1968). ''The Prairie Warbler in Chemung County New-York USA Dendroica Discolor Record''. Kingbird. vol '''18''', no 4. p. 197-198. * Jackson WM, Rohwer S & Nolan VJ. (1989). ''Within-Season Breeding Dispersal in Prairie Warblers and Other Passerines''. Condor. vol '''91''', no 2. p. 233-241. * Johnson MD, Ruthrauff DR, Jones JG, Tietz JR & Robinson JK. (2002). ''Short-term effects of tartar emetic on re-sighting rates of migratory songbirds in the non-breeding season''. Journal of Field Ornithology. vol '''73''', no 2. p. 191-196. * Kerlinger P & Doremus C. (1981). ''Habitat Disturbance and the Decline of Dominant Avian Species in Pine Barrens of the Northeastern USA''. American Birds. vol '''35''', no 1. p. 16-20. * Kilgo JC & Moorman CE. (2003). ''Patterns of cowbird parasitism in the southern Atlantic coastal plain and piedmont''. Wilson Bulletin. vol '''115''', no 3. p. 277-284. * Kroodsma RL. (1982). ''Bird Community Ecology on Power Line Corridors in East Tennessee USA''. Biological Conservation. vol '''23''', no 2. p. 79-94. * Kroodsma RL. (1984). ''Ecological Factors Associated with Degree of Edge Effect in Breeding Birds''. Journal of Wildlife Management. vol '''48''', no 2. p. 418-425. * Latta SC. (2003). ''Effects of scaley-leg mite infestations on body condition and site fidelity of migratory Warblers in the Dominican Republic''. Auk. vol '''120''', no 3. p. 730-743. * Latta SC & Faaborg J. (2001). ''Winter site fidelity of Prairie Warblers in the Dominican Republic''. Condor. vol '''103''', no 3. p. 455-468. * Latta SC & O'Connor BM. (2001). ''Patterns of Knemidokoptes jamaicensis (Acari: Knemidokoptidae) infestations among eight new avian hosts in the Dominican Republic''. Journal of Medical Entomology. vol '''38''', no 3. p. 437-440. * Markland HM & Lovette IJ. (2005). ''Phylogenetic affinities and inter-island differentiation in the Vitelline Warbler Dendroica vitellina, a West Indian endemic''. Ibis. vol '''147''', no 4. p. 764-771. * Martin PR, Fotheringham JR & Robertson RJ. (1995). ''A prairie warbler with a conspecific and heterospecific song repertoire''. Auk. vol '''112''', no 3. p. 770-774. * Moore MC. (1980). ''Habitat Structure in Relation to Population Density and Timing of Breeding in Prairie Warblers Dendroica-Discolor''. Wilson Bulletin. vol '''92''', no 2. p. 177-187. * Morimoto DC & Wasserman FE. (1991). ''Dispersion Patterns and Habitat Associations of Rufous-Sided Towhees Common Yellowthroats and Prairie Warblers in the Southeastern Massachusetts USA Pine Barrens''. Auk. vol '''108''', no 2. p. 264-276. * Morimoto DC & Wasserman FE. (1991). ''Intersexual and Interspecific Differences in the Foraging Behavior of Rufous-Sided Towhees Common Yellowthroats and Prairie Warblers in the Pine Barrens of Southeastern Massachusetts''. Journal of Field Ornithology. vol '''62''', no 4. p. 436-449. * Murray BGJ. (1991). ''Measuring Annual Reproductive Success with Comments on the Evolution of Reproductive Behavior''. Auk. vol '''108''', no 4. p. 942-952. * Murray BGJ & Nolan VJ. (1989). ''The Evolution of Clutch Size I. an Equation for Predicting Clutch Size''. Evolution. vol '''43''', no 8. p. 1699-1705. * Nelson DA. (1989). ''The Importance of Invariant and Distinctive Features in Species Recognition of Bird Song''. Condor. vol '''91''', no 1. p. 120-130. * Niskanen JM. (1997). ''Unusual nesting habitat and song of the Prairie Warbler on Georgian Bay''. Ontario Birds. vol '''15''', no 1. p. 21-26. * Nolan V, Jr., Ketterson ED & Buerkle CA. (1999). ''Prairie warbler: Dendroica discolor''. Birds of North America. vol '''455''', p. 1-27. * Nolan VJ, Mueller HC & Ketterson ED. (1977). ''Male Prairie Warbler Dies During Courtship''. Auk. vol '''94''', no 2. p. 393-393. * Oberle MW. (1986). ''Winter Prairie Warbler in the Piedmont Georgia USA''. Oriole. vol '''51''', no 4. * Pease CM & Grzybowski JA. (1995). ''Assessing the consequences of brood parasitism and nest predation on seasonal fecundity in passerine birds''. Auk. vol '''112''', no 2. p. 343-363. * Prather JW & Cruz A. (1995). ''Breeding biology of Florida prairie warblers and Cuban yellow warblers''. Wilson Bulletin. vol '''107''', no 3. p. 475-484. * Prather JW & Cruz A. (1996). ''Resource use and population densities of Prairie and Yellow Warblers in an area of recent contact-the Florida Keys''. Caribbean Journal of Science. vol '''32''', no 4. p. 399-405. * Price RD. (1977). ''The Menacanthus Mallophaga Menoponidae of the Passeriformes Aves''. Journal of Medical Entomology. vol '''14''', no 2. p. 207-220. * Robinson WD & Robinson SK. (1999). ''Effects of selective logging on forest bird populations in a fragmented landscape''. Conservation Biology. vol '''13''', no 1. p. 58-66. * Rodewald AD & Vitz AC. (2005). ''Edge- and area-sensitivity of shrubland birds''. Journal of Wildlife Management. vol '''69''', no 2. p. 681-688. * Rodgers JA, Jr., Kale HWI & Smith HT. (1996). ''Rare and Endangered Biota of Florida, Vol. V. Birds''. In ''Rodgers, J A, Jr [Editor], Kale, H W, II [Editor], Smith, H T [Editor] Rare and Endangered Biota of Florida, Vol V Birds xlvii+688p, 1996''. University Press of Florida {a}, Gainesville, Florida. * Shifley SR, Thompson FR, III, Dijak WD, Larson MA & Millspaugh JJ. (2006). ''Simulated effects of forest management alternatives on landscape structure and habitat suitability in the Midwestern United States''. Forest Ecology & Management. vol '''229''', no 1-3. p. 361-377. * Staicer CA. (1992). ''Social Behavior of the Northern Parula Cape May Warbler and Prairie Warbler Wintering in Second-Growth Forest in Southwestern Puerto Rico''. In ''Hagan, J M Iii and D W Johnston (Ed) Ecology and Conservation of Neotropical Migrant Landbirds; Symposium, Woods Hole, Massachusetts, USA, December 6-9, 1989 Xiii+609p Smithsonian Institution Press: Washington, DC, USA; London, England, Uk Illus Maps 308-320, 1992''. * Svingen D & Martin RE. (2005). 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prairie warbler Category:Native birds of the Plains-Midwest (United States) Category:Native birds of the Eastern United States Category:Meso-American wintering birds prairie warbler prairie warbler Category:Birds of the United States