{{Short description|Largest species of toothed whale}} {{Redirect|Cachalot}} {{Redirect|Kashalot|the Soviet submarine|Kashalot-class submarine}} {{About||the 2015 film|Sperm Whale (film){{!}}''Sperm Whale'' (film)}} {{pp-semi-indef}} {{pp-move}} {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2021}} {{Speciesbox | fossil_range = {{fossil range|3.6|0|Pliocene – Recent|ref=<ref>{{cite web|url=https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=68698 |title=''Physeter macrocephalus'' Linnaeus 1758 (sperm whale)|website=Fossilworks: Gateway to the Paleobiology Database |access-date=17 December 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gilbert |first1=K. N. |last2=Ivany |first2=L. C. |last3=Uhen |first3=M. D. |title=Living fast and dying young: life history and ecology of a Neogene sperm whale |journal=Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology |date=2017 |volume=38 |issue=2 |article-number=2 |doi=10.1080/02724634.2018.1439038 }}</ref>}} | name = Sperm whale<ref name="msw3">{{MSW3 Cetacea | id=14300131 | page=737}}</ref> | status = VU | status_system = IUCN3.1 | status_ref = <ref name="iucn" /> | status2 = CITES_A1 | status2_system = CITES | status2_ref = <ref name="CITES"/> | image = Mother and baby sperm whale.jpg | image_caption = | image2 = Sperm-Whale-Scale-Chart-SVG-Steveoc86.svg | image2_caption = | genus = Physeter | species = macrocephalus | authority = Linnaeus, 1758 | synonyms = *''Physeter catodon'' {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}} *''Physeter microps'' {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}} *''Physeter tursio'' {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}} *''Physeter australasianus'' {{small|Desmoulins, 1822}} | range_map = Sperm whale distribution (Pacific equirectangular).jpg | range_map_caption= Major sperm whale grounds }}
The '''sperm whale''' or '''cachalot'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|æ|ʃ|ə|l|ɒ|t|,_|ˈ|k|æ|ʃ|ə|l|oʊ}} – {{OED|cachalot}}}} ('''''Physeter macrocephalus''''') is the largest of the toothed whales and the largest toothed predator. It is the only living member of the genus ''Physeter'' and one of three extant species in the sperm whale superfamily Physeteroidea, along with the pygmy sperm whale and dwarf sperm whale of the genus ''Kogia''.
The sperm whale is a pelagic mammal with a worldwide range, and will migrate seasonally for feeding and breeding.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sperm Whale|url=http://acsonline.org/fact-sheets/sperm-whale/|website=acsonline.org |access-date=13 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422154853/http://acsonline.org/fact-sheets/sperm-whale/|archive-date=22 April 2017}}</ref> Females and young males live together in groups, while mature males (bulls) live solitary lives outside of the mating season. The females cooperate to protect and nurse their young. Females give birth every four to twenty years and care for the calves for more than a decade. A mature, healthy sperm whale has no natural predators, although calves and weakened adults are sometimes killed by pods of orcas.
Mature males average {{convert|16|m|ft}} in length, with the head representing up to one-third of the animal's length. Plunging to {{convert|2250|m|ft|-1}}, it is the third deepest diving mammal, exceeded only by the southern elephant seal and Cuvier's beaked whale.<ref name=plosone-2014/><ref name=Elephantseal/><ref name=NatGeoDeepest/> The sperm whale uses echolocation and vocalization with source level as loud as 236 decibels (re 1 μPa m) underwater,<ref name="Møhl, B., Wahlberg, M., Madsen, P.T., Heerfordt, A. & Lund, A. 2003 1143–1154"/><ref name="natgeo">{{cite web| url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/11/1103_031103_tvspermwhale.html | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031106044251/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/11/1103_031103_tvspermwhale.html | archive-date=6 November 2003 |work=National Geographic|author=Trivedi, Bijal P. |date=3 November 2003| title=Sperm Whale "Voices" Used to Gauge Whales' Sizes}}</ref> the loudest of any animal.<ref name="Davies">{{Cite news|url=http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20160331-the-worlds-loudest-animal-might-surprise-you|title=The world's loudest animal might surprise you|last=Davies|first=Ella|publisher=BBC|language=en|access-date=2020-01-13}}</ref> It has the largest brain on Earth, more than five times heavier than a human's. Sperm whales can live 70 years or more.<ref name="princeton">{{cite book|author1=Shirihai, H.|title=Whales, Dolphins, and Other Marine Mammals of the World|author2=Jarrett, B.|publisher=Princeton Univ. Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-691-12757-6|location=Princeton|pages=21–24|name-list-style=amp}}</ref><ref name="audubon" /><ref name="Cetacean Societies">{{cite book|title=Cetacean Societies|chapter=The Sperm Whale|author1=Whitehead, H.|author2=Weilgart, L.|name-list-style=amp|editor=Mann, J.|editor2=Connor, R.|editor3=Tyack, P.|editor4=Whitehead, H.|year=2000|page=[https://archive.org/details/cetaceansocietie0000unse/page/169 169]|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-50341-7|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cetaceansocietie0000unse/page/169}}</ref><ref name=Jefferson/>
Sperm whales' heads are filled with a waxy substance called "spermaceti" (sperm oil), from which the whale derives its name. Spermaceti was a prime target of the whaling industry and was sought after for use in oil lamps, lubricants, and candles. Ambergris, a solid waxy waste product sometimes present in its digestive system, is still highly valued as a fixative in perfumes, among other uses. Beachcombers look out for ambergris as flotsam.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Spitznagel|first1=Eric|title=Ambergris, Treasure of the Deep|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2012-01-12/ambergris-treasure-of-the-deep|access-date=25 May 2017|publisher=Bloomberg L.P.|date=12 January 2012}}</ref> Sperm whaling was a major industry in the 19th century, depicted in the novel ''Moby-Dick''. The species is protected by the International Whaling Commission moratorium, and is listed as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
== Taxonomy and naming ==
=== Etymology === The name "sperm whale" is a clipping of "spermaceti whale". Spermaceti, originally mistakenly identified as the whales' semen, is the semi-liquid, waxy substance found within the whale's head.<ref name="WahlbergEtAl2005">{{cite journal |doi=10.1121/1.2126930 |pmid=16419786 |title=Click production during breathing in a sperm whale (''Physeter macrocephalus'') |journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |volume=118 |issue=6 |pages=3404–7 |year=2005 |last1=Wahlberg |first1=Magnus |last2=Frantzis |first2=Alexandros |last3=Alexiadou |first3=Paraskevi |last4=Madsen |first4=Peter T. |last5=Møhl |first5=Bertel |bibcode=2005ASAJ..118.3404W}}</ref> (''See "Spermaceti organ and melon" below.'')
The sperm whale is also known as the "cachalot", which is thought to derive from the archaic French for 'tooth' or 'big teeth', as preserved for example in the word {{lang|oc|caishau}} in the Gascon dialect (a word of either Romance<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Haupt |first1=Paul |title=Jonah's Whale |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |date=1907 |volume=46 |issue=185 |pages=151–164 |jstor=983449 }}</ref> or Basque<ref>{{cite journal | author=Fеrnandez-Casado, M. | title=El Cachalote (''Physeter macrocephalus'') | year=2000 | journal=Galemys | volume=12 | issue=2 | page=3 | url=http://www.secem.es/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/G-12-2-1-Fernandez-Casado-3-22.pdf | access-date=27 September 2013 | archive-date=7 August 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807134359/http://www.secem.es/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/G-12-2-1-Fernandez-Casado-3-22.pdf }}</ref> origin).
The etymological dictionary of Corominas says the origin is uncertain, but it suggests that it comes from the Vulgar Latin {{lang|la|cappula}} 'sword hilts'.<ref>{{cite book| title=Breve diccionario etimológico de la lengua castellana| last=Corominas| first=Joan| isbn=978-84-249-1332-8| year=1987| publisher=Gredos| location=Madrid| url=https://archive.org/details/brevediccionario00colo}}</ref> The word ''cachalot'' came to English via French from Spanish or Portuguese {{wikt-lang|pt|cachalote}}, perhaps from Galician/Portuguese {{wikt-lang|pt|cachola}} 'big head'.<ref>Encarta Dictionary</ref>
The term is retained in the Russian word for the animal, {{transliteration|ru|kashalot}} ({{wikt-lang|ru|кашалот}}), as well as in many other languages.{{citation needed|date=March 2022}}
The scientific genus name ''Physeter'' comes from the Greek {{transliteration|grc|physētēr}} ({{wikt-lang|grc|φυσητήρ}}), meaning 'blowpipe, blowhole (of a whale)', or – as a ''pars pro toto'' – 'whale'.{{citation needed|date=March 2022}}
The specific name ''macrocephalus'' is Latinized from the Greek {{transliteration|grc|makroképhalos}} ({{wikt-lang|grc|μακροκέφαλος}} 'big-headed'), from {{transliteration|grc|makros}} ({{wikt-lang|grc|μακρός}}) + {{transliteration|grc|kephalē}} ({{wikt-lang|grc|κεφαλή}}).{{citation needed|date=March 2022}}
Its synonymous specific name ''catodon'' means 'down-tooth', from the Greek elements {{wikt-lang|grc-Latn|cata-|cat(a)-}} ('below') and {{wikt-lang|grc-Latn|ὀδών|odṓn}} ('tooth'); so named because it has visible teeth only in its lower jaw.<ref>{{cite book|last=Crabb|first=George|author-link=George Crabb (writer)|title=Universal Technological Dictionary Or Familiar Explanation of the Terms Used in All Arts and Sciences: Containing Definitions Drawn from the Original Writers: in Two Volumes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jlZBAAAAcAAJ&pg=PT333|year=1823|publisher=Baldwin, Cradock & Joy|page=333}}</ref> (''See "Jaws and teeth" below.'')
Another synonym ''australasianus'' ('Australasian') was applied to sperm whales in the Southern Hemisphere.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ridgway|first=Sam H.|title=Handbook of Marine Mammals|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IIQXAQAAIAAJ|year=1989|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-588504-1|page=179|quote= The earliest available species-group name for a Southern Hemisphere sperm whale is ''Physeter australasianus'' Desmoulins, 1822.}}</ref>
=== Taxonomy === The sperm whale belongs to the order Cetartiodactyla,<ref>{{multiref |1={{cite journal |title=The phylogeny of Cetartiodactyla: the importance of dense taxon sampling, missing data, and the remarkable promise of cytochrome b to provide reliable species-level phylogenies. |journal=Mol Phylogenet Evol |year=2008 |last1=Agnarsson |first1=I. |last2=May-Collado |first2=LJ. |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=964–985 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2008.05.046 |pmid=18590827|bibcode=2008MolPE..48..964A }} |2={{cite journal |last1=Price |first1=Samantha A. |last2=Bininda-Emonds |first2=Olaf R. P. |last3=Gittleman |first3=John L. |title=A complete phylogeny of the whales, dolphins and even-toed hoofed mammals (Cetartiodactyla) |journal=Biological Reviews |date=August 2005 |volume=80 |issue=3 |pages=445–473 |doi=10.1017/s1464793105006743 |pmid=16094808 |bibcode=2005BioRv..80..445P }} |3={{cite journal |title=Phylogenetic relationships of artiodactyls and cetaceans as deduced from the comparison of cytochrome b and 12S RNA mitochondrial sequences. |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |year=1997 |last1=Montgelard |first1=C. |last2=Catzeflis |first2=FM. |last3=Douzery |first3=E. |volume=14 |pages=550–559 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025792 |pmid=9159933 |issue=5 |doi-access=free }} |4={{cite journal |title=Relationships of Cetacea (Artiodactyla) Among Mammals: Increased Taxon Sampling Alters Interpretations of Key Fossils and Character Evolution. |journal=PLOS ONE|year=2009 |last1= Spaulding |first1=M. |last2=O'Leary |first2=MA. |last3=Gatesy |first3=J. |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0007062 |pmid=19774069 |pmc=2740860 |volume=4 |issue=9 |article-number=e7062|bibcode=2009PLoSO...4.7062S|doi-access=free}} |5={{cite web|url=http://www.marinemammalscience.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=758&Itemid=340|title=Society for Marine Mammalogy|work=The Insomniac Society}}}}</ref> the order containing all cetaceans and even-toed ungulates. It is a member of the unranked clade Cetacea, with all the whales, dolphins, and porpoises, and further classified into Odontoceti, containing all the toothed whales and dolphins. It is the sole extant species of its genus, ''Physeter'', in the family Physeteridae. Two species of the related extant genus ''Kogia'', the pygmy sperm whale ''Kogia breviceps'' and the dwarf sperm whale ''K. sima'', are placed either in this family or in the family Kogiidae.<ref>{{MSW3 Cetacea|id=14300126}}</ref> In some taxonomic schemes the families Kogiidae and Physeteridae are combined as the superfamily Physeteroidea (see the separate entry on the sperm whale family).<ref name=Acrophyseter/>
Swedish ichthyologist Peter Artedi described it as ''Physeter catodon'' in his 1738 work ''Genera piscium'', from the report of a beached specimen in Orkney in 1693 and two beached in the Netherlands in 1598 and 1601.<ref name="Artedi 1730">{{cite book |last1=Artedi |first1=Peter |title=Genera piscium : in quibus systema totum ichthyologiae proponitur cum classibus, ordinibus, generum characteribus, specierum differentiis, observationibus plurimis : redactis speciebus 242 ad genera 52: Ichthyologiae pars III. |date=1730 |publisher=Grypeswaldiae : Impensis Ant. Ferdin. Röse |pages=[https://archive.org/details/petriartedisueci03arte/page/553 553]–555 |url=https://archive.org/details/petriartedisueci03arte | language=la}}</ref> The 1598 specimen was near Berkhey.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Jefferson |first1=Thomas A. |title=Nomenclature of the Larger Toothed Whales (Odontocetes) A Historical Review |last2=Mead |first2=James G. |last3=Kinze |first3=Carl C. |date=January 25, 2023 |publisher=Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press |location=Washington, D.C., U.S.A |pages=29 |language=English}}</ref>
The sperm whale is one of the species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of ''Systema Naturae''. He recognised four species in the genus ''Physeter''.<ref>{{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=Carolus | author-link=Carl Linnaeus | title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio decima, reformata. | publisher=Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii). | year=1758 | page=824 |language=la}}</ref> Experts soon realised that just one such species exists, although there has been debate about whether this should be named ''P. catodon'' or ''P. macrocephalus'', two of the names used by Linnaeus. Both names are still used, although most recent authors now accept ''macrocephalus'' as the valid name, limiting ''catodon''{{'s}} status to a lesser synonym. Until 1974, the species was generally known as ''P. catodon''. In that year, however, Dutch zoologists Antonius M. Husson and Lipke Holthuis proposed that the correct name should be ''P. macrocephalus'', the second name in the genus ''Physeter'' published by Linnaeus concurrently with ''P. catodon''.
This proposition was based on the grounds that the names were synonyms published simultaneously, and, therefore, the ICZN Principle of the First Reviser should apply. In this instance, it led to the choice of ''P. macrocephalus'' over ''P. catodon'', a view re-stated in Holthuis, 1987.<ref>{{cite journal |author = Holthuis L. B. |year=1987 |title=The scientific name of the sperm whale |journal=Marine Mammal Science |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=87–89 |doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.1987.tb00154.x |bibcode=1987MMamS...3...87H }}</ref> This has been adopted by most subsequent authors, although Schevill (1986<ref>{{cite journal |author=Schevill W.E. |year=1986 |title=The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature and a paradigm – the name ''Physeter catodon'' Linnaeus 1758 |journal=Marine Mammal Science |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=153–157 |doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.1986.tb00036.x |bibcode=1986MMamS...2..153S }}</ref> and 1987<ref>{{cite journal |author=Schevill W.E. |year=1987 |title=Reply to L. B. Holthuis "The scientific name of the sperm whale |journal=Marine Mammal Science |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=89–90 |doi = 10.1111/j.1748-7692.1987.tb00155.x }}</ref>) argued that ''macrocephalus'' was published with an inaccurate description and that therefore only the species ''catodon'' was valid, rendering the principle of "First Reviser" inapplicable. The most recent version of ITIS has altered its usage from ''P. catodon'' to ''P. macrocephalus'',<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=180489|title=ITIS Standard Report Page: ''Physeter catodon''|access-date=19 January 2015}}</ref> following L. B. Holthuis and more recent (2008) discussions with relevant experts.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Husson A.M. |author2=Holthuis L.B. |year=1974 |title=''Physeter macrocephalus'' Linnaeus, 1758, the valid name for the sperm whale |url=http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/record/318605 |journal=Zoologische Mededelingen |volume=48 |pages=205–217 }}</ref>{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=3}} Furthermore, The Taxonomy Committee of the Society for Marine Mammalogy, the largest international association of marine mammal scientists in the world, officially uses ''Physeter macrocephalus'' when publishing their definitive list of marine mammal species.<ref>{{cite web|title=List of Marine Mammal Species and Subspecies|url=https://www.marinemammalscience.org/species-information/list-marine-mammal-species-subspecies/|website=marinemammalscience.org|date=13 November 2016 |access-date=25 May 2017}}</ref>
==Biology==
===External appearance===
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; margin-left:2px; margin:10px" |+ Average sizes<ref name="princeton" /><ref name=Hal2003>{{cite book |doi=10.4159/harvard.9780674419131.c34 |chapter=Society and Culture in the Deep and Open Ocean: The Sperm Whale and Other Cetaceans |title=Animal Social Complexity |date=2003b |last1=Whitehead |first1=Hal |pages=444–464 |isbn=978-0-674-41912-4 }}</ref><ref name="audubon" /> ! !! Length !! Weight |- ! Male | {{convert|16|m|ft}} || {{convert|45|t|short ton}} |- ! Female | {{convert|11|m|ft}} || {{convert|15|t|short ton}} |- ! Newborn | {{convert|4|m|ft}} || {{convert|1|t|short ton}} |} The sperm whale is the largest toothed whale and is among the most sexually dimorphic of all cetaceans.<ref name=McClain>{{cite journal |last1=McClain |first1=Craig R. |last2=Balk |first2=Meghan A. |last3=Benfield |first3=Mark C. |last4=Branch |first4=Trevor A. |last5=Chen |first5=Catherine |last6=Cosgrove |first6=James |last7=Dove |first7=Alistair D.M. |last8=Gaskins |first8=Leo |last9=Helm |first9=Rebecca R. |last10=Hochberg |first10=Frederick G. |last11=Lee |first11=Frank B. |last12=Marshall |first12=Andrea |last13=McMurray |first13=Steven E. |last14=Schanche |first14=Caroline |last15=Stone |first15=Shane N. |last16=Thaler |first16=Andrew D. |title=Sizing ocean giants: patterns of intraspecific size variation in marine megafauna |journal=PeerJ |date=13 January 2015 |volume=3 |article-number=e715 |doi=10.7717/peerj.715 |pmc=4304853 |pmid=25649000 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Both sexes are about the same size at birth,<ref name="princeton" /> but mature males are typically 30% to 50% longer and three times as massive as females.<ref name="Whitehead Sperm Whale"/><ref name="Nowak-2003">{{Cite book |last1=Nowak |first1=R.M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=89ybgDBCYKoC&dq=sperm+whale+Nowak&pg=PR3 |title=Walker's marine mammals of the world |last2=Walker |first2=E.P. |publisher=JHU Press |year=2003|isbn=978-0-8018-7343-0 }}</ref>
Newborn sperm whales are usually between {{convert|3.5|and|4.5|m|ft|sp=us|abbr=}} long.<ref name=Jefferson/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ruelas-Inzunza |first1=J |last2=Páez-Osuna |first2=F |title=Distribution of Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb and Zn in selected tissues of juvenile whales stranded in the SE Gulf of California (Mexico) |journal=Environment International |date=September 2002 |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=325–329 |doi=10.1016/s0160-4120(02)00041-7 |pmid=12220119 |bibcode=2002EnInt..28..325R }}</ref> Female sperm whales are sexually mature at {{convert|8|to|9|m|abbr=|sp=us|ft}} in length, whilst males are sexually mature at {{convert|11|to|12|m|abbr=|sp=us|ft}}.<ref name="Dufault-1999">{{cite journal |last1=Dufault |first1=S. |last2=Whitehead |first2=H. |last3=Dillon |first3=D. |title=An examination of the current knowledge on the stock structure of sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) worldwide |journal=Journal of Cetacean Research and Management |date=1999 |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.47536/jcrm.v1i1.447 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Female sperm whales are physically mature at about {{convert|10.6|to|11|m|ft|sp=us|abbr=}} in length and generally do not achieve lengths greater than {{convert|12|m|ft|abbr=}}.<ref name=McClain/><ref name="Nowak-2003" /><ref name="Dufault-1999" /> The largest female sperm whale measured up to {{convert|12.3|-|12.5|m|ft|sp=us}} long, and an individual of such size would have weighed about {{convert|17|to|24|t|ST}}.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Clarke|first1=R.|last2=Paliza|first2=O.|last3=Van Waerebeek|first3=K.|year=2011|title=Sperm whales of the Southeast Pacific. Part VII. Reproduction and growth in the female|journal=Latin American Journal of Aquatic Mammals|volume=10|issue=1|pages=8–39|doi=10.5597/lajam00172|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Omura|first=H.|year=1950|title=On the Body Weight of Sperm and Sei Whales located in the Adjacent Waters of Japan|journal=Scientific Reports of the Whales Research Institute, Tokyo|volume=4|pages=27–113|url=https://www.icrwhale.org/pdf/SC0041-13.pdf}}</ref><ref name=Jefferson/><ref name="audubon" /> Male sperm whales are physically mature at about {{convert|15|to|16|m|abbr=|sp=us|ft}} in length, and larger males can generally achieve {{convert|18|to|19|m|ft|sp=us}}.<ref name="Dufault-1999" /><ref name="Ellis-2011">{{Cite book|last=Ellis|first=Richard|url=https://archive.org/details/greatspermwhalen0000elli/page/432|title=The Great Sperm Whale: A Natural History of the Ocean's Most Magnificent and Mysterious Creature|publisher=University Press of Kansas|year=2011|isbn=978-0-7006-1772-2|series=Zoology|volume=179|location=USA|page=[https://archive.org/details/greatspermwhalen0000elli/page/432 432]|zbl=0945.14001}}</ref><ref name="McClain" /> A male sperm whale measuring {{convert|18|m|ft|sp=us}} in length is estimated to have weighed {{convert|57|t|ton}}.<ref>{{cite journal | author1=Lockyer, C. | title=Body weights of some species of large whales | journal=J. Cons. Int. Explor. Mer | volume=36 | issue=3 | pages=259–273 | date=1976| doi=10.1093/icesjms/36.3.259 }}</ref><ref name=Hal2003/> By contrast, the second largest toothed whale (Baird's beaked whale) measures up to {{convert|12.8|-|13|m|ft|sp=us}} and weighs up to {{convert|14|t|ST}}.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Shirihai, H. |title=Whales, Dolphins, and Other Marine Mammals of the World |author2=Jarrett, B. |publisher=Princeton Univ. Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-691-12757-6 |location=Princeton |pages=112–115 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Largest beaked whale|url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/449706-largest-beaked-whale|access-date=23 January 2025}}</ref>
There are occasional reports of individual sperm whales achieving even greater lengths, with some historical claims reaching or exceeding {{convert|80|ft|m|abbr=}}. One example is the whale that sank the ''Essex'' (one of the incidents behind ''Moby-Dick''), which was claimed to be {{convert|25.9|m|ft}}. However, there is disagreement as to the accuracy of some of these claims, which are often considered exaggerations or as being measured along the curves of the body.<ref name="Wood">{{cite book |author=Wood, Gerald |url=https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofan00wood/page/256 |title=The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-85112-235-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/guinnessbookofan00wood/page/256 256] |publisher=Guinness Superlatives |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="McClain" /><ref name="Ellis-2011" /><ref name="Whaleship–Essex" /> There are reports of individual females reaching much greater lengths, with a female captured in Trinidad in October 1925 measuring {{convert|17.6|m}}, but this suggests an error in sex determination or length measurement.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Clapham | year = 1997 | title = Catches of Humpback and Other Whales from Shore Stations at Moss Landing and Trinidad, California, 1919-1926 | url = https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1096&context=usdeptcommercepub| journal = Mar. Mammal Sci. | volume = 13 | issue = 3| pages = 368–94 | doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.1997.tb00646.x| bibcode = 1997MMamS..13..368C |display-authors=etal| url-access = subscription }}</ref>
An individual measuring {{convert|20.7|m|ft}} was reported from a Soviet whaling fleet near the Kuril Islands in 1950 and is cited by some authors as the largest accurately measured.<ref name="McClain" /><ref name="Carwardine">{{cite book |last1=Carwardine |first1=Mark |title=The Guinness Book of Animal Records |date=1995 |publisher=Guinness Publishing |isbn=978-0-85112-658-6 |oclc=60244977 }}{{page needed|date=January 2025}}</ref> It has been estimated to weigh {{convert|80|t|ton}}.<ref name="Wood" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Chuang |last2=Peng |first2=Kexin |last3=Liu |first3=Yi |last4=Zhang |first4=Rusong |last5=Zheng |first5=Xiaofeng |last6=Yue |first6=Bisong |last7=Du |first7=Chao |last8=Wu |first8=Yongjie |year=2023 |title=Comparative Analyses Reveal the Genetic Mechanism of Ambergris Production in the Sperm Whale Based on the Chromosome-Level Genome |journal=Animals |volume=13 |issue=3 |page=361 |doi=10.3390/ani13030361 |doi-access=free | pmc=9913093 | pmid=36766250 | s2cid=256215577 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/367343931 }}</ref> In a review of size variation in marine megafauna, McClain and colleagues noted that the International Whaling Commission's data contained eight individuals larger than {{convert|20.7|m|ft|abbr=}}. The authors supported a {{convert|24|m|ft|abbr=|adj=on}} male from the South Pacific in 1933 as the largest recorded. However, sizes like these are rare, with 95% of recorded sperm whales below 15.85 metres (52.0 ft).<ref name="McClain" />
In 1853, one sperm whale was reported at {{convert|62|ft|m}} in length, with a head measuring {{convert|20|ft|m}}.<ref>{{cite book |author=Maury, M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DH8TAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA297 |title=Explanations and Sailing Directions to Accompany the Wind and Current Charts |publisher=C. Alexander |year=1853 |page=297}}</ref> Large lower jawbones are held in the British Natural History Museum and the Oxford University Museum of Natural History, measuring {{convert|5|m|ft|abbr=}} and {{convert|4.7|m|ft|abbr=}}, respectively.<ref name="Wood" /> The blunt, square snout can reach up to {{convert|5|ft|order=flip|sp=us}} at the tip of the lower jaw.<ref name="Eguiguren" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Leatherwood |first1=Stephen |last2=Caldwell |first2=David Keller |last3=Winn |first3=Howard Elliott |title=Whales, Dolphins, and Porpoises of the Western North Atlantic |date=1976 |publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service |id={{DTIC|ADA036662}} |hdl=1834/19294 |page=176 |url=https://spo.nmfs.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/legacy-pdfs/CIRC396.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author1=Leatherwood, S. | author2=Reeves, R. R. | author3=Perrin, W. F. | author4=Evans, W. E. | title=Whales, dolphins, and porpoises of the eastern North Pacific and adjacent Arctic waters: A guide to their identification | journal=NOAA Technical Report NMFS Circular | volume=444 | page=245 | date=1982 | url=https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/5472}}</ref>
The average size of sperm whales has decreased over the years, probably due to pressure from whaling.<ref name="McClain" /> Another view holds that exploitation by overwhaling had virtually no effect on the size of the bull sperm whales, and their size may have actually increased in current times on the basis of density dependent effects.<ref>{{Cite journal| last = Kasuya| first = Toshio| title =Density dependent growth in North Pacific sperm whales | journal = Marine Mammal Science| volume = 7| issue = 3| pages = 230–257| publisher = Wiley| location = USA| date = July 1991| doi = 10.1111/j.1748-7692.1991.tb00100.x| bibcode = 1991MMamS...7..230K}}</ref> Old males taken at Solander Islands were recorded to be extremely large and unusually rich in blubbers.<ref>{{citation |url=https://docs.niwa.co.nz/library/public/NIWAis76.pdf |title=Sperm whaling on the Solanders Grounds and in Fiordland – A maritime historian's perspective |last=Richards |first=Rhys |work=NIWA |series=NIWA Information Series No. 76 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250215194427/https://docs.niwa.co.nz/library/public/NIWAis76.pdf |archive-date=15 February 2025 }}</ref>
[[File:Sperm whale blowhole Vincze.jpg|thumb|right|Unusual among cetaceans, the sperm whale's blowhole is highly skewed to the left side of the head.]] The sperm whale's unique body is unlikely to be confused with any other species. The sperm whale's distinctive shape comes from its very large, block-shaped head, which can be one-quarter to one-third of the animal's length. The S-shaped blowhole is located very close to the front of the head and shifted to the whale's left.<ref name="Whitehead Sperm Whale"/> This gives rise to a distinctive bushy, forward-angled spray.{{citation needed|date=March 2022}}
The sperm whale's flukes (tail lobes) are triangular and very thick. Proportionally, they are larger than that of any other cetacean, and are very flexible.<ref>Gordon, Jonathan (1998). ''Sperm Whales'', Voyageur Press, p. 14, {{ISBN|0-89658-398-8}}</ref> The whale lifts its flukes high out of the water as it begins a feeding dive.<ref name="Whitehead Sperm Whale"/> It has a series of ridges on the back's caudal third instead of a dorsal fin. The largest ridge was called the 'hump' by whalers, and can be mistaken for a dorsal fin because of its shape and size.<ref name="princeton"/>
The male sperm whale, which was stranded in 1997 and is estimated to be {{convert|15.2|m|ft}} long, weighing {{convert|38.5|t|ton}} and at least 42 years old, has a penis that is {{convert|1.56|m|ft|abbr=}} long and tapers to about {{convert|70|cm|in|abbr=}} at the tip.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bland |first1=Keith P. |last2=Kitchener |first2=Andrew C. |title=The anatomy of the penis of a Sperm Whale (Physeter catodon L., 1758) |journal=Mammal Review |date=July 2008 |volume=31 |issue=3–4 |article-number=3-4 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2907.2001.00087.x |url=https://www.academia.edu/65100707 }}</ref> The Icelandic Phallological Museum houses a sperm whale penis specimen measuring {{convert|1.7|m|ft|abbr=}} long and weighing {{convert|154|lb|order=flip|sp=us}}.<ref name="Reuters">{{cite news|title=Icelandic museum offers long and short of male organ|url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/us-iceland-penismuseum-idUKL1461884020080515|last=Strong|first=Bob|work=Reuters|date=15 May 2008|access-date=9 March 2026|archive-date=5 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305204049/http://uk.reuters.com/article/us-iceland-penismuseum-idUKL1461884020080515|url-status=dead}}</ref> This specimen is only the tip; the entire organ, if intact, would have been about {{convert|5|m|ft|abbr=}} long and weighed about {{convert|400|kg|lb}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://nordical.com/reykjaviks-phallus-museum/|title=The Phallological Museum in Reykjavik|date=20 January 2022 |publisher=Nordical Iceland|access-date=9 March 2026}}</ref>
In contrast to the smooth skin of most large whales, its back skin is usually wrinkly and has been likened to a prune by whale-watching enthusiasts.<ref name="prune">{{cite book |last1=Carwardine |first1=Mark |title=On the Trail of the Whale |date=1994 |publisher=Thunder Bay Publishing |isbn=978-1-899074-00-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/ontrailofwhale0000carw }}{{page needed|date=January 2025}}</ref> Albinos have been reported.<ref name="audubon">{{cite book|title=Guide to Marine Mammals of the World|author=Reeves, R.|author2=Stewart, B.|author3=Clapham, P.|author4=Powell, J.|name-list-style=amp|pages=[https://archive.org/details/guidetomarinemam00folk/page/240 240–243]|year=2003|isbn=978-0-375-41141-0|publisher=A.A. Knopf|location=New York|url=https://archive.org/details/guidetomarinemam00folk/page/240}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Offshore Cetacean Species|url=http://www.coreresearch.org/education/offshorespecies.htm|publisher=CORE|access-date=2008-10-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516101558/http://www.coreresearch.org/education/offshorespecies.htm|archive-date=16 May 2008}}</ref>
===Skeleton=== thumb|500px|left|A sperm whale skeleton
The ribs are bound to the spine by flexible cartilage, which allows the ribcage to collapse rather than snap under high pressure.<ref>[http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/pressure.html How does pressure change with ocean depth?]. Oceanservice.noaa.gov (11 January 2013). Retrieved 2013-03-19.</ref> While sperm whales are well adapted to diving, repeated dives to great depths have long-term effects. Bones show the same avascular necrosis that signals decompression sickness in humans. Older skeletons showed the most extensive damage, whereas calves showed no damage. This damage may indicate that sperm whales are susceptible to decompression sickness, and sudden surfacing could be lethal to them.<ref name="bends">{{cite journal |vauthors=Moore MJ, Early GA | title=Cumulative sperm whale bone damage and the bends | journal=Science | volume=306 | issue=5705 | year=2004 | page=2215 | pmid=15618509 | doi=10.1126/science.1105452 | bibcode=2004Sci...306.2215M }}</ref>
thumb|skeleton of a sperm whale, Museum of Nature and Environment, Lübeck Germany
Like that of all cetaceans, the spine of the sperm whale has reduced zygapophysial joints, of which the remnants are modified and are positioned higher on the vertebral dorsal spinous process, hugging it laterally, to prevent extensive lateral bending and facilitate more dorso-ventral bending. These evolutionary modifications make the spine more flexible but weaker than the spines of terrestrial vertebrates.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XbyxI-d5idcC&q=why+is+a+cetacean+backbone+flexible&pg=PA45|title=An Introduction to Marine Mammal Biology and Conservation|isbn=978-0-7637-8344-0|last1=Parsons|first1=Edward C. M.|last2=Parsons|first2=ECM|last3=Bauer|first3=A.|last4=Simmonds|first4=M. P.|last5=Wright|first5=A. J.|last6=McCafferty|first6=D.|year=2013|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Publishers }}</ref>
thumb|Labeled sperm whale skeleton
Like many cetaceans, the sperm whale has a vestigial pelvis that is not connected to the spine. However, recent research suggests that these bones are actually functional and are targeted by sexual selection to control reproductive muscles.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dines |first=James P. |last2=Otárola‐Castillo |first2=Erik |last3=Ralph |first3=Peter |last4=Alas |first4=Jesse |last5=Daley |first5=Timothy |last6=Smith |first6=Andrew D. |last7=Dean |first7=Matthew D. |date=2014 |title=Sexual selection targets cetacean pelvic bones |url=https://academic.oup.com/evolut/article/68/11/3296/6852204 |journal=Evolution |language=en |volume=68 |issue=11 |pages=3296–3306 |doi=10.1111/evo.12516 |issn=0014-3820 |pmc=4213350 |pmid=25186496}}</ref> Like that of other toothed whales, the skull of the sperm whale is asymmetrical so as to aid echolocation. Sound waves that strike the whale from different directions will not be channeled in the same way.<ref>[http://io9.com/5833279/the-science-behind-whales-asymmetrical-skulls The science behind whales' asymmetrical skulls] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018051308/http://io9.com/5833279/the-science-behind-whales-asymmetrical-skulls |date=18 October 2015 }}. Io9.com. Retrieved 2013-03-19.</ref> Within the basin of the cranium, the openings of the bony narial tubes (from which the nasal passages spring) are skewed towards the left side of the skull.{{citation needed|date=March 2022}}
===Jaws and teeth {{anchor|Teeth}} === thumb|Sperm whale tooth thumb|right|The lower jaw is long and narrow. The teeth fit into sockets along the upper jaw. (''lifelike sculpture'') The sperm whale's lower jaw is very narrow and underslung.<ref name="Jefferson">{{cite web |url={{GBurl|sc-cBAAAQBAJ|p=88}} |title=Sperm Whale |pages=88–94 }} In: {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-409542-7.50004-4 |chapter=Cetaceans |title=Marine Mammals of the World |date=2015 |last1=Jefferson |first1=Thomas A. |last2=Webber |first2=Marc A. |last3=Pitman |first3=Robert L. |pages=24–357 |isbn=978-0-12-409542-7 }}</ref> The sperm whale has 18 to 26 teeth on each side of its lower jaw which fit into sockets in the upper jaw.<ref name="Jefferson" /> The teeth are cone-shaped and weigh up to {{convert|1|kg|lb}} each.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://acsonline.org/factpack/spermwhl.htm |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100613015956/http://acsonline.org/factpack/spermwhl.htm |archive-date= 2010-06-13 |title=Sperm Wale ''Physeter macrocephalus'' |work=American Cetacean Society Fact Sheet }}</ref> The teeth are functional, but do not appear to be necessary for capturing or eating squid, as well-fed animals have been found without teeth or even with deformed jaws. One hypothesis is that the teeth are used in aggression between males.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.whale-images.com/sperm_whale_facts.jsp|title=Sperm Whale Facts|work=whale-images.com|access-date=27 December 2007|archive-date=15 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100115172852/http://www.whale-images.com/sperm_whale_facts.jsp}}</ref> Mature males often show scars which seem to be caused by the teeth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=O'Callaghan |first1=Sean A. |last2=Abbar |first2=Fadia Al |last3=Costa |first3=Helena |last4=Prieto |first4=Rui |last5=Gammell |first5=Martin |last6=O'Brien |first6=Joanne |date=2024 |title=Ariel Photo-Identification of Sperm Whales (Physeter macrocephalus) |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/385853900 |journal=Aquatic Mammals |volume=50 |issue=6 |pages=482 |via=Research Gate}}</ref> Rudimentary teeth are also present in the upper jaw, but these rarely emerge into the mouth.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=4}} Analyzing the teeth is the preferred method for determining a whale's age. Like tree rings, the teeth build distinct layers of cementum and dentine as they grow.<ref name="Whitehead Sperm Whale">{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-373553-9.00248-0 |chapter=Sperm Whale |title=Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals |date=2009 |last1=Whitehead |first1=Hal |pages=1091–1097 |isbn=978-0-12-373553-9 }}</ref><ref name="Hooker Toothed Whales, Overview">{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-373553-9.00269-8 |chapter=Toothed Whales, Overview |title=Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals |date=2009 |last1=Hooker |first1=Sascha K. |pages=1173–1179 |isbn=978-0-12-373553-9 }}</ref>
===Brain=== right|thumb|The sperm whale's brain is the largest in the world, five times heavier than a human brain. The sperm whale brain is the largest known of any modern or extinct animal, weighing on average about {{convert|7.08|kg|lb}}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/cetaceans/spermwhale.htm|title=Sperm Whales (''Physeter macrocephalus'')|publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce NOAA Office of Protected Resources|access-date=2008-11-07}}</ref><ref name="brain">{{cite journal |last1=Marino |first1=Lori |title=Cetacean Brain Evolution: Multiplication Generates Complexity |journal=International Journal of Comparative Psychology |date=31 December 2004 |volume=17 |issue=1 |doi=10.46867/IJCP.2004.17.01.06 |doi-access=free }}</ref> (with the smallest known weighing {{convert|6.4|kg|lb}} and the largest known weighing {{convert|9.2|kg|lb}}),<ref name = "Wood"/><ref name=Carwardine/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Raghanti |first1=Mary Ann |last2=Wicinski |first2=Bridget |last3=Meierovich |first3=Rachel |last4=Warda |first4=Tahia |last5=Dickstein |first5=Dara L. |last6=Reidenberg |first6=Joy S. |last7=Tang |first7=Cheuk Y. |last8=George |first8=John C. |last9=Hans Thewissen |first9=J.G.M. |last10=Butti |first10=Camilla |last11=Hof |first11=Patrick R. |title=A Comparison of the Cortical Structure of the Bowhead Whale ( ''Balaena mysticetus'' ), a Basal Mysticete, with Other Cetaceans |journal=The Anatomical Record |date=2019 |volume=302 |issue=5 |pages=745–760 |doi=10.1002/ar.23991 |pmid=30332717 }}</ref> more than five times heavier than a human brain, and has a volume of about 8,000 cm<sup>3</sup>.<ref>Fields, R. Douglas (15 January 2008). [http://www.scientificamerican.com/blog/post.cfm?id=are-whales-smarter-than-we-are Are Whales Smarter Than We Are?] Scientific American.</ref> Although larger brains generally correlate with higher intelligence, it is not the only factor. Elephants and dolphins also have larger brains than humans.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=323}} The sperm whale has a lower encephalization quotient than many other whale and dolphin species, lower than that of non-human anthropoid apes, and much lower than that of humans.<ref name="brain"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dicke |first1=Ursula |last2=Roth |first2=Gerhard |title=Intelligence Evolved |journal=Scientific American Mind |date=August 2008 |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=70–77 |doi=10.1038/scientificamericanmind0808-70 }}</ref>
The sperm whale's cerebrum is the largest in all mammalia, both in absolute and relative terms. The olfactory system is reduced, suggesting that the sperm whale has a poor sense of taste and smell. By contrast, the auditory system is enlarged. The pyramidal tract is poorly developed, reflecting the reduction of its limbs.<ref name="OelschlagerKemp1999">{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/(SICI)1096-9861(19980921)399:2<210::AID-CNE5>3.0.CO;2-3|title=Ontogenesis of the sperm whale brain|year=1998|last1=Oelschläger|first1=Helmut H.A.|last2=Kemp|first2=Birgit|journal=The Journal of Comparative Neurology|volume=399|issue=2|pages=210–28|pmid=9721904 }}</ref>
===Biological systems=== {{See also|Physiology of underwater diving#Marine mammals}} The sperm whale respiratory system has adapted to cope with drastic pressure changes when diving. The flexible ribcage allows lung collapse, reducing nitrogen intake, and metabolism can decrease to conserve oxygen.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kooyman |first1=G. L. |last2=Ponganis |first2=P. J. |title=The Physiological Basis of Diving to Depth: Birds and Mammals |journal=Annual Review of Physiology |date=October 1998 |volume=60 |issue=1 |pages=19–32 |doi=10.1146/annurev.physiol.60.1.19 |pmid=9558452 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tyack |first1=Peter L. |last2=Johnson |first2=Mark |last3=Soto |first3=Natacha Aguilar |last4=Sturlese |first4=Albert |last5=Madsen |first5=Peter T. |title=Extreme diving of beaked whales |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |date=November 2006 |volume=209 |issue=21 |pages=4238–4253 |doi=10.1242/jeb.02505 |pmid=17050839|doi-access=free |bibcode=2006JExpB.209.4238T }}</ref> Between dives, the sperm whale surfaces to breathe for about eight minutes before diving again.<ref name="Whitehead Sperm Whale"/> Odontoceti (toothed whales) breathe air at the surface through a single, S-shaped blowhole, which is extremely skewed to the left. Sperm whales spout (breathe) 3–5 times per minute at rest, increasing to 6–7 times per minute after a dive. The blow is a noisy, single stream that rises up to {{convert|2|m|ft}} or more above the surface and points forward and left at a 45° angle.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Carwardine |first1=Mark |last2=Tricas |first2=Timothy C |title=Sharks and Whales |date=2002 |publisher=Five Mile Press |isbn=978-1-86503-885-8 |page=333 }}</ref> On average, females and juveniles blow every 12.5 seconds before dives, while large males blow every 17.5 seconds before dives.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|pp=156–161}} Sperm whales can swim at speeds of up to {{convert|7.0|m/s|km/h mph|sp=us}}.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aoki |first1=Kagari |last2=Amano |first2=Masao |last3=Kubodera |first3=Tsunemi |last4=Mori |first4=Kyoichi |last5=Okamoto |first5=Ryosuke |last6=Sato |first6=Katsufumi |title=Visual and behavioral evidence indicates active hunting by sperm whales |year=2008 |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |page=233-241 |doi=10.3354/meps11141 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/274079856}}</ref> A sperm whale killed {{convert|160|km|abbr=on|-1}} south of Durban, South Africa, after a 1-hour, 50-minute dive was found with two dogfish (''Scymnodon'' sp.), usually found at the sea floor, in its belly.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ommanney |first1=Francis Downes |title=Lost Leviathan |date=1971 |publisher=Hutchinson |isbn=978-0-09-105990-3 }}{{page needed|date=January 2025}}</ref>
The sperm whale has the longest intestinal system in the world,<ref>Inside Natures Giants: The Sperm Whale. Channel 4</ref> exceeding {{cvt|300|m|ft}} in larger specimens.<ref name="chip.choate.edu"/><ref>Tinker, Spencer Wilkie (1988). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=ASIVAAAAIAAJ Whales of the World].'' Brill Archive, p. 62, {{ISBN|0-935848-47-9}}</ref> The sperm whale has a four-chambered stomach that is similar to ruminants. The first secretes no gastric juices and has very thick muscular walls to crush the food (since whales cannot chew) and resist the claw and sucker attacks of swallowed squid. The second chamber is larger and is where digestion takes place. Undigested squid beaks accumulate in the second chamber – as many as 18,000 have been found in some dissected specimens.<ref name="chip.choate.edu">{{cite web|url=http://chip.choate.edu/bbcswebdav/institution/Science/rgritzer/webpages/BI465/Student%20project/Fran%20final%20project/whale_digestion.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023060152/http://chip.choate.edu/bbcswebdav/institution/Science/rgritzer/webpages/BI465/Student%20project/Fran%20final%20project/whale_digestion.htm |archive-date=2013-10-23 |title=Whale Digestion |publisher=Chip.choate.edu |access-date=2013-07-23}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://nikolaus6.wordpress.com/20000-leagues-under-the-sea-index/20000-leagues-under-the-sea-part2-ch12/ |title=20000 Leagues Under the Sea Part2 Ch12 {{pipe}} Nikolaus6's Weblog |publisher=Nikolaus6.wordpress.com |access-date=2013-07-23|date=18 July 2008 }}</ref><ref name="youtube1">Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/-ChivtjDjh4 Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20131017231648/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ChivtjDjh4 Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ChivtjDjh4|title=Professor Malcolm Clarke – discusses the anatomy of sperm whales|date=25 April 2011|via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Most squid beaks are vomited by the whale, but some occasionally make it to the hindgut. Such beaks precipitate the formation of ambergris.<ref name="youtube1"/>
thumb|The arterial system of a sperm whale foetus In 1959, the heart of a 22 metric-ton (24 short-ton) male taken by whalers was measured to be {{convert|116|kg|lbs}}, about 0.5% of its total mass.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Race | first1 = George J. | last2 = Edwards | first2 = W. L. Jack | last3 = Halden | first3 = E. R. | last4 = Wilson | first4 = Hugh E. | last5 = Luibel | first5 = Francis J. | year = 1959 | title = A Large Whale Heart | journal = Circulation | volume = 19 | issue = 6| pages = 928–932 | doi=10.1161/01.cir.19.6.928| pmid = 13663185 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The circulatory system has a number of specific adaptations for the aquatic environment. The diameter of the aortic arch increases as it leaves the heart. This bulbous expansion acts as a windkessel, ensuring a steady blood flow as the heart rate slows during diving.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Shadwick RE, Gosline JM |title=Arterial Windkessels in marine mammals |journal=Symposia of the Society for Experimental Biology |volume=49 |pages=243–52 |year=1995 |pmid=8571227 }}</ref> The arteries that leave the aortic arch are positioned symmetrically. There is no costocervical artery. There is no direct connection between the internal carotid artery and the vessels of the brain.<ref name=pmid9329202>{{cite journal |author=Melnikov VV |title=The arterial system of the sperm whale (''Physeter macrocephalus'') |journal=Journal of Morphology |volume=234 |issue=1 |pages=37–50 |date=October 1997 |pmid=9329202 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-4687(199710)234:1<37::AID-JMOR4>3.0.CO;2-K }}</ref> Their circulatory system has adapted to dive at great depths, as much as {{convert|2250|m|ft|0}}<ref name=plosone-2014>{{cite journal |last1=Schorr |first1=Gregory S. |last2=Falcone |first2=Erin A. |last3=Moretti |first3=David J. |last4=Andrews |first4=Russel D. |title=First long-term behavioral records from Cuvier's beaked whales (''Ziphius cavirostris'') reveal record-breaking dives |journal=PLOS One |volume=9 |issue=3 |date=26 March 2014 |article-number=e92633 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0092633 |pmid=24670984 |pmc=3966784 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...992633S |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Elephantseal>{{cite web |url= http://www.coml.org/comlfiles/press/CoML_Beyond_Sunlight_11.17.2009_Public.pdf |title= Census of Marine Life – From the Edge of Darkness to the Black Abyss |publisher=Coml.org |access-date=2009-12-15}}</ref><ref name=NatGeoDeepest>{{cite magazine |title=Elusive Whales Set New Record for Depth and Length of Dives Among Mammals |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/03/140326-cuvier-beaked-whale-record-dive-depth-ocean-animal-science/ |author=Lee, Jane J. |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140329065822/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/03/140326-cuvier-beaked-whale-record-dive-depth-ocean-animal-science |date=2014-03-26 |archive-date=2014-03-29 |magazine=National Geographic }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-science-whale-idINBREA2P24S20140326|title=How low can you go? This whale is the champion of deep diving|first=Will|last=Dunham|newspaper=Reuters|date=26 March 2014|via=www.reuters.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/technology/science/meet-cuviers-beaked-whale-the-deep-diving-champion-of-the-mammal-world/article17691691/|title=The Globe and Mail|website=The Globe and Mail|access-date=18 February 2020|archive-date=25 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140625012625/http://www.theglobeandmail.com/technology/science/meet-cuviers-beaked-whale-the-deep-diving-champion-of-the-mammal-world/article17691691/}}</ref>{{Excessive citations inline|date=June 2022}} for up to 120 minutes.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qGdLaAcSS-EC&q=sperm+whale+120+minutes&pg=PA274|title=Seals as divers|journal=New Scientist|first=R. J.|last=Harrison|date=10 May 1962|publisher=Reed Business Information|volume=14|number=286|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220418093051/https://books.google.com/books?id=qGdLaAcSS-EC&q=sperm+whale+120+minutes&pg=PA274#v=snippet&q=sperm%20whale%20120%20minutes&f=false|archive-date=18 April 2022}}</ref> More typical dives are around {{convert|400|m|ft|-1}} and 35 minutes in duration.<ref name="Whitehead Sperm Whale"/> Myoglobin, which stores oxygen in muscle tissue, is much more abundant than in terrestrial animals.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Body size and skeletal muscle myoglobin of cetaceans: adaptations for maximizing dive duration|author1=Noren, S. R. |author2=Williams, T. M. |name-list-style=amp |journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology – Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology|volume=126|issue=2|date=June 2000|pages=181–191|doi=10.1016/S1095-6433(00)00182-3|pmid=10936758 |bibcode=2000CmpBP.126..181N }}</ref> The blood has a high density of red blood cells, which contain oxygen-carrying haemoglobin. The oxygenated blood can be directed towards only the brain and other essential organs when oxygen levels deplete.<ref name="Marshall Feeding Morphology">{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-373553-9.00098-5 |chapter=Feeding Morphology |title=Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals |date=2009 |last1=Marshall |first1=Christopher D. |pages=406–414 |isbn=978-0-12-373553-9 }}</ref><ref name="aquarium">{{cite web|title=Aquarium of the Pacific – Sperm Whale|url=http://www.aquariumofpacific.org/onlinelearningcenter/print/sperm_whale/|publisher=Aquarium of the Pacific|access-date=2008-11-06|archive-date=14 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190314155801/http://www.aquariumofpacific.org/onlinelearningcenter/print/sperm_whale}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Scientists conduct first simultaneous tagging study of deep-diving predator, prey|last=Shwartz|first=Mark|publisher=Stanford Report|date=8 March 2007|url=http://news-service.stanford.edu/news/2007/march14/squid-031407.html|access-date=6 November 2008}}</ref> The spermaceti organ may also play a role by adjusting buoyancy (see below).<ref name="clarke">{{cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=Malcolm R. |title=Structure and Proportions of the Spermaceti Organ in the Sperm Whale |journal=Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom |date=February 1978 |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=1–17 |doi=10.1017/S0025315400024371 |bibcode=1978JMBUK..58....1C |url=http://plymsea.ac.uk/2028/1/Structure_and_proportions_of_the_spermaceti_organ_in_the_sperm_whale.pdf }}</ref> The arterial retia mirabilia are more extensive and larger than those of any other cetacean.<ref name=pmid9329202/>
===Senses===
====Spermaceti organ and melon==== thumb|right|Anatomy of the sperm whale's head. The organs above the jaw are devoted to sound generation.
Atop the whale's skull is positioned a large complex of organs filled with a liquid mixture of fats and waxes called spermaceti. The purpose of this complex is to generate powerful and focused clicking sounds, the existence of which was proven by Valentine Worthington and William Schevill when a recording was produced on a research vessel in May 1959.<ref name="Worthington-1957">{{cite journal |last1=Worthington |first1=L. V. |last2=Schevill |first2=William E. |title=Underwater Sounds heard from Sperm Whales |journal=Nature |date=August 1957 |volume=180 |issue=4580 |page=291 |doi=10.1038/180291a0 |bibcode=1957Natur.180..291W |doi-access=free }}</ref> The sperm whale uses these sounds for echolocation and communication.<ref name="Cranford2000ImpulseSoundSources">{{cite book|author=Cranford, T.W.|year=2000|chapter=In Search of Impulse Sound Sources in Odontocetes|title=Hearing by Whales and Dolphins (Springer Handbook of Auditory Research series)|editor=Au, W.W.L |editor2=Popper, A.N. |editor3=Fay, R.R.|publisher=Springer-Verlag, New York|isbn=978-0-387-94906-2}}</ref><ref name="Norris, K.S. & Harvey, G.W. 1972 397–417">{{cite book|author1=Norris, K.S. |author2=Harvey, G.W. |name-list-style=amp |year=1972|chapter=A theory for the function of the spermaceti organ of the sperm whale|title=Animal orientation and navigation|editor=Galler, S.R |editor2=Schmidt-Koenig, K |editor3=Jacobs, G.J. |editor4=Belleville, R.E.|publisher=NASA, Washington, D.C.|pages=397–417|chapter-url= https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=19720017437 }}</ref><ref name="Cranford, T.W. 1999 1133–1157">{{cite journal| author=Cranford, T.W.| title=The Sperm Whale's Nose: Sexual Selection on a Grand Scale?| journal=Marine Mammal Science | volume=15| issue=4| pages=1133–1157 | year=1999 | doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.1999.tb00882.x| bibcode=1999MMamS..15.1133C}}</ref><ref name="Madsen, P.T., Payne, R., Kristiansen, N.U., Wahlberg, M., Kerr, I. & Møhl, B. 2002 1899–1906">{{cite journal| author=Madsen, P.T.| author2=Payne, R.| author3=Kristiansen, N.U.| author4=Wahlberg, M.| author5=Kerr, I.| author6=Møhl, B.| name-list-style=amp | title=Sperm whale sound production studied with ultrasound time/depth-recording tags | journal=Journal of Experimental Biology | volume=205| pages=1899–1906 | year=2002| pmid=12077166| issue=Pt 13| doi=10.1242/jeb.205.13.1899| bibcode=2002JExpB.205.1899M}}</ref><ref name="Møhl, B., Wahlberg, M., Madsen, P.T., Miller, L.A. & Surlykke, A. 2000 638–648">{{cite journal| author=Møhl, B.| author2=Wahlberg, M.| author3=Madsen, P.T.| author4=Miller, L.A.| author5=Surlykke, A.| name-list-style=amp | title=Sperm whale clicks: directionality and sound levels revisited| journal=Journal of the Acoustical Society of America | volume=107| pages=638–648 | year=2000| doi=10.1121/1.428329| pmid=10641672| issue=1|bibcode = 2000ASAJ..107..638M }}</ref><ref name="Møhl, B., Wahlberg, M., Madsen, P.T., Heerfordt, A. & Lund, A. 2003 1143–1154">{{cite journal| author=Møhl, B.| author2=Wahlberg, M.| author3=Madsen, P.T.| author4=Heerfordt, A.| author5=Lund, A.| name-list-style=amp | title=The monopulsed nature of sperm whale clicks| journal=Journal of the Acoustical Society of America | volume=114| pages=1143–1154 | year=2003| doi=10.1121/1.1586258| pmid=12942991| issue=2|bibcode = 2003ASAJ..114.1143M }}</ref>{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|pp=277–279}}<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Stefan Huggenberger |author2=Michel Andre |author3=Helmut H. A. Oelschlager |name-list-style=amp | title=The nose of the sperm whale – overviews of functional design, structural homologies and evolution| journal=Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom |volume=96 |issue=4 |year=2014 |doi=10.1017/S0025315414001118| pages=1–24 |hdl=2117/97052 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Eguiguren" />{{excessive citations inline|date=September 2021}}
The spermaceti organ is like a large barrel of spermaceti. Its surrounding wall, known as the ''case'', is extremely tough and fibrous. The case can hold within it up to 1,900 litres of spermaceti.<ref>[http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/species-of-the-day/biodiversity/endangered-species/physeter-catodon/taxonomy/index.html Taxonomy | Natural History Museum]. . Retrieved 2013-03-19.</ref> It is proportionately larger in males.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=321}} This oil is a mixture of triglycerides and wax esters. It has been suggested that it is homologous to the dorsal bursa organ found in dolphins.<ref name="n010">{{cite journal |last1=Cranford |first1=Ted W. |last2=Amundin |first2=Mats |last3=Norris |first3=Kenneth S. |date=1996 |title=Functional morphology and homology in the odontocete nasal complex: Implications for sound generation |journal=Journal of Morphology |volume=228 |issue=3 |pages=223–285 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-4687(199606)228:3<223::AID-JMOR1>3.0.CO;2-3 |pmid=8622183 }}</ref> The proportion of wax esters in the spermaceti organ increases with the age of the whale: 38–51% in calves, 58–87% in adult females, and 71–94% in adult males.<ref name="Rice Spermaceti">{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-373553-9.00250-9 |chapter=Spermaceti |title=Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals |date=2009 |last1=Rice |first1=Dale W. |pages=1098–1099 |isbn=978-0-12-373553-9 }}</ref> The spermaceti at the core of the organ has a higher wax content than the outer areas.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Morris, Robert J. |year=1975|title=Further studies into the lipid structure of the spermaceti organ of the sperm whale (''Physeter catodon'')|journal= Deep-Sea Research|volume= 22|pages= 483–489|doi=10.1016/0011-7471(75)90021-2|issue=7 |bibcode=1975DSRA...22..483M|doi-access=free}}</ref> The speed of sound in spermaceti is 2,684 m/s (at 40 kHz, 36 °C), making it nearly twice as fast as in the oil in a dolphin's melon.<ref name=NorrisHarvey1972>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/nasa_techdoc_19720017412/19720017412#page/n419/mode/2up |author1=Norris, Kenneth S. |author2=Harvey, George W. |name-list-style=amp |year=1972|title=Animal orientation and navigation|chapter=A Theory for the Function of the Spermaceti Organ of the Sperm Whale|publisher=NASA}}</ref>
Below the spermaceti organ lies the "junk" which consists of compartments of spermaceti separated by cartilage. It is analogous to the melon found in other toothed whales.<ref name=Carrier>{{cite journal |last1=Carrier |first1=David R. |last2=Deban |first2=Stephen M. |last3=Otterstrom |first3=Jason |title=The face that sank the Essex: potential function of the spermaceti organ in aggression |journal=Journal of Experimental Biology |date=15 June 2002 |volume=205 |issue=12 |pages=1755–1763 |doi=10.1242/jeb.205.12.1755 |pmid=12042334 |bibcode=2002JExpB.205.1755C }}</ref> The structure of the junk redistributes physical stress across the skull and may have evolved to protect the head during ramming.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.popsci.com/science-says-sperm-whales-could-really-wreck-ships|title=Science Says Sperm Whales Could Really Wreck Ships|website=Popular Science|date=8 April 2016|access-date=2016-04-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Panagiotopoulou|first1=Olga|last2=Spyridis|first2=Panagiotis|last3=Abraha|first3=Hyab Mehari|last4=Carrier|first4=David R.|last5=Pataky|first5=Todd C.|title=Architecture of the sperm whale forehead facilitates ramming combat|journal=PeerJ|volume=4|doi=10.7717/peerj.1895|pmc=4824896|pmid=27069822|article-number=e1895|year=2016 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Carrier/>
Running through the head are two air passages. The left passage runs alongside the spermaceti organ and goes directly to the blowhole, whilst the right passage runs underneath the spermaceti organ and passes air through a pair of phonic lips and into the distal sac at the very front of the nose. The distal sac is connected to the blowhole and the terminus of the left passage. When the whale is submerged, it can close the blowhole, and air that passes through the phonic lips can circulate back to the lungs. The sperm whale, unlike other odontocetes, has only one pair of phonic lips, whereas all other toothed whales have two,<ref name="n010"/> and it is located at the front of the nose instead of behind the melon.
At the posterior end of this spermaceti complex is the frontal sac, which covers the concave surface of the cranium. The posterior wall of the frontal sac is covered with fluid-filled knobs, which are about 4–13 mm in diameter and separated by narrow grooves. The anterior wall is smooth. The knobbly surface reflects sound waves that come through the spermaceti organ from the phonic lips. The grooves between the knobs trap a film of air that is consistent whatever the orientation or depth of the whale, making it an excellent sound mirror.<ref name="NorrisHarvey1972"/>
The spermaceti organs may also help adjust the whale's buoyancy. It is hypothesized that before the whale dives, cold water enters the organ, and it is likely that the blood vessels constrict, reducing blood flow, and, hence, temperature. The wax therefore solidifies and reduces in volume.<ref name="clarke"/><ref name="clarke2">{{cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=Malcolm R. |title=Physical Properties of Spermaceti Oil in the Sperm Whale |journal=Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom |date=February 1978 |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=19–26 |doi=10.1017/S0025315400024383 |bibcode=1978JMBUK..58...19C |url=http://plymsea.ac.uk/2029/1/Physical_properties_of_spermaceti_oil_in_the_sperm_whale.pdf }}</ref> The increase in specific density generates a down force of about {{convert|392|N}} and allows the whale to dive with less effort.{{citation needed|date=June 2013}} During the hunt, oxygen consumption, together with blood vessel dilation, produces heat and melts the spermaceti, increasing its buoyancy and enabling easy surfacing.<ref>{{cite journal| author=Clarke, M.R. | title=Function of the Spermaceti Organ of the Sperm Whale | journal=Nature | volume=228 | issue=5274 | pages=873–874 |date = November 1970 | pmid=16058732| doi=10.1038/228873a0|bibcode = 1970Natur.228..873C }}</ref> However, more recent work<ref name="Cranford, T.W. 1999 1133–1157"/> has found many problems with this theory including the lack of anatomical structures for the actual heat exchange.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|pp=317–321}} Another issue is that if the spermaceti does indeed cool and solidify, it would affect the whale's echolocation ability just when it needs it to hunt in the depths.{{citation needed|date=March 2022}}
Herman Melville's fictional story ''Moby-Dick'' suggests that the "case" containing the spermaceti serves as a battering ram for use in fights between males.<ref name=Carrier/> A few famous instances include the well-documented sinking of the ships ''Essex'' and ''Ann Alexander'' by attackers estimated to weigh only one-fifth as much as the ships.<ref name=Carrier /> However, the hypothesis that the enlarged head of male sperm whales primarily functions as a weapon in intra-sex competition has been subject to significant criticism, and the rarity of records of head-butting fights between males raises questions about whether such behavior is sufficiently typical to drive strong sexual selection.<ref name="Eguiguren" /> {{Clear}} <gallery> File:Sperm whale phonic lips (NASA).jpg|The phonic lips. File:Sperm whale exposed frontal sac.jpg|The frontal sac, exposed. Its surface is covered with fluid-filled knobs. File:Sperm whale frontal sac surface close-up.jpg|A piece of the posterior wall of the frontal sac. The grooves between the knobs trap a consistent film of air, making it an excellent sound mirror.<ref name="NorrisHarvey1972"/> </gallery>
====Eyes and vision==== thumb|right|Like other toothed whales, the sperm whale can retract its eyes. The sperm whale's eye does not differ greatly from those of other toothed whales except in size. It is the largest among the toothed whales, weighing about 170 g. It is overall ellipsoid in shape, compressed along the visual axis, measuring about 7×7×3 cm. The cornea is elliptical and the lens is spherical. The sclera is very hard and thick, roughly 1 cm anteriorly and 3 cm posteriorly. There are no ciliary muscles. The choroid is very thick and contains a fibrous ''tapetum lucidum''. Like other toothed whales, the sperm whale can retract and protrude its eyes, thanks to a 2-cm-thick retractor muscle attached around the eye at the equator, but are unable to roll the eyes in their sockets.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bjerager |first1=Poul |last2=Heegaard |first2=Steffen |last3=Tougaard |first3=Jakob |title=Anatomy of the eye of the sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus L.) |journal=Aquatic Mammals |date=2003 |volume=29 |issue=1 |pages=31–36 |doi=10.1578/016754203101024059 |bibcode=2003AqMam..29...31B }}</ref>
According to Fristrup and Harbison (2002),<ref name="FristrupHarbison2002">{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.2002.tb01017.x|title=How do sperm whales catch squids?|year= 2002 |first1= K. M. |last1=Fristrup|first2=G. R.|last2=Harbison |journal= Marine Mammal Science |volume=18|issue=1|pages=42–54|bibcode=2002MMamS..18...42F |doi-access=free}}</ref> sperm whale's eyes afford good vision and sensitivity to light. They conjectured that sperm whales use vision to hunt squid, either by detecting silhouettes from below or by detecting bioluminescence. If sperm whales detect silhouettes, Fristrup and Harbison suggested that they hunt upside down, allowing them to use the forward parts of the ventral visual fields for binocular vision.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fais |first1=A. |last2=Johnson |first2=M. |last3=Wilson |first3=M. |last4=Soto |first4=N. Aguilar |last5=Madsen |first5=P.T. |date=June 24, 2016 |title=Sperm whale predator-prey interactions involve chasing and buzzing, but no acoustic stunning |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=6 |pages=2:6 |article-number=28562 |doi=10.1038/srep28562 |pmid=27340122 |pmc=4919788 }}</ref>
===Sleeping=== For some time researchers have been aware that pods of sperm whales may sleep for short periods, assuming a vertical position with their heads just below or at the surface, or head down.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gibbens |first=Sarah |date=2017-08-05 |title=Photo Shows How Sperm Whales Sleep |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/photography/article/sperm-whales-nap-sleeping-photography-spd |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301074022/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/photography/article/sperm-whales-nap-sleeping-photography-spd |archive-date=1 March 2021 |access-date=2021-06-25 |website=National Geographic |language=en}}</ref> A 2008 study published in ''Current Biology'' recorded evidence that whales may sleep with both sides of the brain. It appears that some whales may fall into a deep sleep for about 7 percent of the time, most often between 6 p.m. and midnight.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sperm Whales Sleep While 'Drifting' Vertically, Scientists Say (VIDEO) |first=Jacqueline |last=Howard |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/08/08/sperm-whales-sleep_n_1757951.html |newspaper=HuffPost |date=2012-09-08 |access-date=2013-02-08}}</ref>
===Genetics=== Sperm whales have 21 pairs of chromosomes (2n=42).<ref name="Arnason1981">{{Cite journal | last1 = Árnason | first1 = U. | title = Banding studies on the gray and sperm whale karyotypes | doi = 10.1111/j.1601-5223.1981.tb01418.x | journal = Hereditas | volume = 95 | issue = 2 | pages = 277–281 | year = 2009 | pmid = 7309542| doi-access = free }}</ref> The genome of live whales can be examined by recovering shed skin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.seaswap.info/study/genetics.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090105161744/http://www.seaswap.info/study/genetics.html |archive-date=2009-01-05 |title=SEASWAP: Genetic Sampling |publisher=Seaswap.info|access-date=2013-07-23}}</ref>
==Vocalization complex== <!--wiktionary:monkey lips links here --> {{Further|topic=the sonar operator slang term|Carpenter fish}} thumb|Sperm whale vocalization After Valentine Worthington and William E. Schevill confirmed the existence of sperm whale vocalization,<ref name="Worthington-1957" /> further studies found that sperm whales are capable of emitting sounds at a source level of 236 decibels{{nbsp}}–{{nbsp}}making the sperm whale the loudest animal in the world.<ref name="Møhl, B., Wahlberg, M., Madsen, P.T., Heerfordt, A. & Lund, A. 2003 1143–1154"/><ref name="Davies"/>
===Mechanism=== When echolocating, the sperm whale emits a directionally focused beam of broadband clicks. Clicks are generated by forcing air through a pair of phonic lips (also known as "monkey lips" or "{{lang|fr|museau de singe}}") at the front end of the nose, just below the blowhole.<ref name="MuseauSinge">{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-374593-4.00041-3 |chapter=Generation of sound in marine mammals |title=Handbook of Mammalian Vocalization - an Integrative Neuroscience Approach |series=Handbook of Behavioral Neuroscience |date=2010 |last1=Reidenberg |first1=Joy S. |last2=Laitman |first2=Jeffrey T. |volume=19 |pages=451–465 |isbn=978-0-12-374593-4 }}</ref> The sound then travels backwards along the length of the nose through the spermaceti organ. Most of the sound energy is then reflected off the frontal sac at the cranium and into the melon, whose lens-like structure focuses it.<ref name="Cranford2000ImpulseSoundSources"/> Some of the sound will reflect back into the spermaceti organ and back towards the front of the whale's nose, where it will be reflected through the spermaceti organ a third time. This back and forth reflection which happens on the scale of a few milliseconds creates a multi-pulse click structure.<ref>{{cite book|last1= Backus |first1= R.H. |last2= Schevill |first2= W.E.|year=1966|chapter=Physeter clicks|title=Whales, dolphins and porpoises| editor=Norris, K.S.| publisher= University of California Press, Berkeley, California|pages=510–527}}</ref>
This multi-pulse click structure allows researchers to measure the whale's spermaceti organ using only the sound of its clicks.<ref>{{cite journal| last= Goold |first= J.C. | title=Signal processing techniques for acoustic measurement of sperm whale body lengths| journal=Journal of the Acoustical Society of America | volume=100| pages=3431–3441 | year=1996| doi=10.1121/1.416984| pmid=8914321| issue=5|bibcode = 1996ASAJ..100.3431G }}</ref><ref name="JCDG Eval 1991">{{cite journal| last= Gordon |first= J.C.D. | title=Evaluating a method for determining the length of sperm whales (''Physeter catodon'') from their vocalizations| journal=Journal of Zoology, London | volume=224| pages=301–314 | year= 1991| doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1991.tb04807.x| issue=2 |bibcode= 1991JZoo..224..301G }}</ref> Because the interval between pulses of a sperm whale's click is related to the length of the sound producing organ, an individual whale's click is unique to that individual. However, if the whale matures and the size of the spermaceti organ increases, the tone of the whale's click will also change.<ref name="JCDG Eval 1991" /> The lower jaw is the primary reception path for the echoes. A continuous fat-filled canal transmits received sounds to the inner ear.<ref name="echo">{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-373553-9.00085-7 |chapter=Echolocation |title=Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals |date=2009 |last1=Au |first1=Whitlow W.L. |pages=348–357 |isbn=978-0-12-373553-9 }}</ref>
The source of the air forced through the phonic lips is the right nasal passage. While the left nasal passage opens to the blow hole, the right nasal passage has evolved to supply air to the phonic lips. It is thought that the nostrils of the land-based ancestor of the sperm whale migrated through evolution to their current functions, the left nostril becoming the blowhole and the right nostril becoming the phonic lips.<ref name="tohora">{{cite web | url= http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/exhibitions/whales/segment.aspx?irn=163 | work= Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa | title= Whale Sounds | date= 19 January 2018 | access-date= 28 December 2011 | archive-date= 4 March 2016 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052405/http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/exhibitions/whales/segment.aspx?irn=163 }}</ref>
Air that passes through the phonic lips passes into the distal sac, then back down through the left nasal passage. This recycling of air allows the whale to continuously generate clicks for as long as it is submerged.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fais |first1=A. |last2=Aguilar Soto |first2=N. |last3=Johnson |first3=M. |last4=Pérez-González |first4=C. |last5=Miller |first5=P. J. O. |last6=Madsen |first6=P. T. |title=Sperm whale echolocation behaviour reveals a directed, prior-based search strategy informed by prey distribution |journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |date=April 2015 |volume=69 |issue=4 |pages=663–674 |doi=10.1007/s00265-015-1877-1 |bibcode=2015BEcoS..69..663F |hdl=10023/8168 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
===Vocalization types=== The sperm whale's vocalizations are all based on clicking, described in four types: the usual echolocation, creaks, codas, and slow clicks.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=135}}
The usual echolocation click type is used in searching for prey.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=135}} A creak is a rapid series of high-frequency clicks that sounds somewhat like a creaky door hinge. It is typically used when homing in on prey.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=135}}
Slow clicks are heard only in the presence of males (it is not certain whether females occasionally make them). Males make a lot of slow clicks in breeding grounds (74% of the time), both near the surface and at depth, which suggests they are primarily mating signals. Outside breeding grounds, slow clicks are rarely heard, and usually near the surface.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=144}}
{| class="wikitable" |+ Characteristics of sperm whale clicks{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=135}} ! Click type ! Apparent<br/> source level <br/> (dB re 1 μPa m) ! Directionality ! Centroid<br/>frequency <br/> (kHz) ! Inter-click<br/> interval <br/> (s) ! Duration<br/> of click <br/> (ms) ! Duration<br/> of pulse <br/> (ms) ! Range audible<br/> to sperm whale <br/> (km) ! Inferred function ! Audio sample |- ! Usual | 230 || High || 15 || 0.5–1.0 || 15–30 || 0.1 || 16 || Searching for prey || File:Sperm Whale Ordinary Clicks.ogg |- ! Creak | 205 || High || 15 || 0.005–0.1 || 0.1–5 || 0.1 || 6 || Homing in on prey || File:Sperm Whale Creak 2.ogg |- ! Coda | 180 || Low || 5 || 0.1–0.5 || 35 || 0.5 || ~2 || Social communication || File:Cachalot coda exchange.ogg |- ! Slow | 190 || Low || 0.5 || 5–8 || 30 || 5 || 60 || Communication by males || File:Sperm Whale Slow Clicks.ogg |}
====Codas==== The most distinctive vocalizations are codas, which are short rhythmic sequences of clicks, mostly numbering 3–12 clicks, in stereotyped patterns.<ref name="Whitehead-2024">{{cite journal |author1=Hal Whitehead |title=Sperm whale clans and human societies |journal=Royal Society Open Science |date=2024 |volume=11 |issue=1 |article-number=231353 |doi=10.1098/rsos.231353 |doi-access=free|pmid=38204796 |pmc=10776220 |bibcode=2024RSOS...1131353W }}</ref> They are classified using variations in the number of clicks, rhythm, and tempo.<ref name="Hersh-2022"/>
Codas are the result of vocal learning within a stable social group,<ref name="Gero-2016">{{cite journal |last1=Gero |first1=Shane |last2=Whitehead |first2=Hal |last3=Rendell |first3=Luke |title=Individual, unit and vocal clan level identity cues in sperm whale codas |journal=Royal Society Open Science |date=2016 |volume=3 |issue=1 |doi=10.1098/rsos.150372 |doi-access=free|pmid=26909165 |pmc=4736920 |bibcode=2016RSOS....350372G |hdl=10023/8071 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and are made in the context of the whales' social unit.<ref name="Whitehead-2024"/> "The foundation of sperm whale society is the matrilineally based social unit of ten or so females and their offspring. The members of the unit travel together, suckle each others' infants, and babysit them while mothers make long deep dives to feed."<ref name="Whitehead-2024"/> Over 70% of a sperm whale's time is spent independently foraging; codas "could help whales reunite and reaffirm their social ties in between long foraging dives".<ref name="Hersh-2022"/><ref name="Safina-2020-pp16–19"/>
While nonidentity codas are commonly used in multiple different clans,<ref name="PNAS-20221205"/> some codas express clan identity, and denote different patterns of travel, foraging, and socializing or avoidance among clans.<ref name="Safina-2020-pp16–19">{{cite book |last1=Safina |first1=Carl |title=Becoming Wild: How Animal Cultures Raise Families, Create Beauty, and Achieve Peace |date=2020 |publisher=Henry Holt and Company |isbn=978-1-250-17333-1 |pages=16–19}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cantor |first1=Maurício |last2=Whitehead |first2=Hal |title=How does social behavior differ among sperm whale clans? |journal=Marine Mammal Science |date=October 2015 |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=1275–1290 |doi=10.1111/mms.12218 |bibcode=2015MMamS..31.1275C }}</ref> In particular, whales will not group with whales of another clan even though they share the same geographical area.<ref name="Whitehead-2024"/> Statistically, as the clans' ranges become more overlapped, the distinction in clan identity coda usage becomes more pronounced.<ref name="PNAS-20221205">{{cite journal |last1=Null |title=Cultural identity in sperm whales |url=https://www.pnas.org/post/podcast/cultural-identity-sperm-whales |website=PNAS |publisher=National Academy of Sciences |access-date=February 7, 2024 |date=December 5, 2022}}</ref> Distinctive codas identify seven clans described among the approximately 150,000 female sperm whales in the Pacific Ocean, and there are another four clans in the Atlantic.<ref name="Whitehead-2024"/> As "arbitrary traits that function as reliable indicators of cultural group membership", clan identity codas act as symbolic markers that modulate interactions between individuals.<ref name="Hersh-2022">{{cite journal |author1=Taylor A. Hersh |title=Evidence from sperm whale clans of symbolic marking in non-human cultures |journal=PNAS |date=2022 |volume=119 |issue=37 |article-number=e2201692119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2201692119 |publisher=National Academy of Sciences |doi-access=free |pmid=36074817 |pmc=9478646 |bibcode=2022PNAS..11901692H |display-authors=et al|hdl=10023/27122 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
Individual identity in sperm whale vocalizations is an ongoing scientific issue, however. A distinction needs to be made between cues and signals. Human acoustic tools can distinguish individual whales by analyzing micro-characteristics of their vocalizations,<ref name="Obaldía-2015">{{cite conference |conference=41. Deutsche Jahrestagung für Akustik, (DAGA 2015) |doi=10.13140/RG.2.1.3764.9765 |date=March 2015 |last1=Obaldía |first1=Carlos De |last2=Simkus |first2=Gediminas |last3=Zölzer |first3=Udo |title=Estimating the number of sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) individuals based on grouping of corresponding clicks |at=Nuremberg}}</ref> and the whales can probably do the same. This does not prove that the whales deliberately use some vocalizations to signal individual identity in the manner of the signature whistles that bottlenose dolphins use as individual labels.<ref name="Gero-2016"/><ref name="Hersh-2022"/>
==Ecology==
===Distribution=== thumb|Global concentrations of sperm whales Sperm whales are among the most cosmopolitan species.<ref name=Jefferson/> They prefer ice-free waters over {{convert|1000|m|ft}} deep.<ref name="iucn">{{cite iucn |author=Taylor, B.L. |author2=Baird, R. |author3=Barlow, J. |author4=Dawson, S.M. |author5=Ford, J. |author6=Mead, J.G. |author7=Notarbartolo di Sciara, G. |author8=Wade, P. |author9=Pitman, R.L. |year=2025 |title=''Physeter macrocephalus'' |article-number=e.T41755A50382216 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2025-2.RLTS.T41755A50382216.en}}</ref> Although both sexes range through temperate and tropical oceans and seas, only adult males populate higher latitudes.<ref name="audubon"/> Among several regions, such as along coastal waters of southern Australia, sperm whales have been considered to be locally extinct.<ref>{{cite journal|editor= Bester L.|year=2015|title=Mornington Peninsula Biodiversity: Survey and Research Highlights|url=http://www.mornpen.vic.gov.au/files/b81e450c-d2c6-4813-b90e-a48a00f54425/Mornington_Peninsula_Biodiversity_-_Survey_and_Research_Highlights.pdf.|journal=Caulton S. Et Al.|publisher=The Shire of Mornington Peninsula|access-date=2016-08-16}}</ref>
They are relatively abundant from the poles to the equator and are found in all the oceans. They inhabit the Mediterranean Sea, but not the Black Sea,<ref name="princeton"/> while their presence in the Red Sea is uncertain.<ref name="iucn" /> The shallow entrances to both the Black Sea and the Red Sea may account for their absence.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=33}} The Black Sea's lower layers are also anoxic and contain high concentrations of sulphur compounds such as hydrogen sulphide.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Murray |first1=J. W. |last2=Jannasch |first2=H. W. |last3=Honjo |first3=S. |last4=Anderson |first4=R. F. |last5=Reeburgh |first5=W. S. |last6=Top |first6=Z. |last7=Friederich |first7=G. E. |last8=Codispoti |first8=L. A. |last9=Izdar |first9=E. |title=Unexpected changes in the oxic/anoxic interface in the Black Sea |journal=Nature |date=March 1989 |volume=338 |issue=6214 |pages=411–413 |doi=10.1038/338411a0 |bibcode=1989Natur.338..411M |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7xg3p017 }}</ref> The first ever sighting off the coast of Pakistan was made in 2017.<ref>Irfan M. 2017. [https://en.dailypakistan.com.pk/pakistan/first-live-sperm-whales-sighted-in-pakistani-waters-wwf-video/ First live sperm whales sighted in Pakistani waters: WWF (VIDEO)]. Daily Pakistan. Retrieved 21 September 2017</ref><ref>Minton G.. 2017. [https://arabianseawhalenetwork.org/2017/09/14/sperm-whales-and-blue-whales-sighted-by-fishermen-off-the-coast-of-pakistan/ Sperm whales and blue whales sighted by fishermen off the coast of Pakistan]. Arabian Sea Whale Network. Retrieved 21 September 2017</ref> The first ever record off the west coast of the Korean Peninsula (Yellow Sea) was made in 2005.<ref>엄기영. 김주하. 2005. [http://imnews.imbc.com/20dbnews/history/2005/1980984_19610.html 전남 신안군 우의도, 길이 16m 무게 40톤 초대형 고래 죽은채 발견[김양훈]. MBC뉴스. Retrieved 7 October 2017</ref> followed by one near Ganghwa Island in 2009.<ref>2015. [http://www.nocutnews.co.kr/news/4391138 [단독] 강화 해변서 최후 맞은 향고래...6년만에 '부활']. No Cut News. Retrieved 7 October 2017</ref>
Populations are denser close to continental shelves and canyons.<ref name="audubon" /> Sperm whales are usually found in deep, off-shore waters, but may be seen closer to shore, in areas where the continental shelf is small and drops quickly to depths of {{convert|310|to|920|m|ft}}.<ref name="princeton" /> Coastal areas with significant sperm whale populations include the Azores and Dominica.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|pp=23–24}} In east Asian waters, whales are also observed regularly in coastal waters in places such as the Commander and Kuril Islands, Shiretoko Peninsula which is one of few locations where sperm whales can be observed from shores,<ref>{{cite web|work=世界遺産知床情報局|date=2015-08-16|title=陸からクジラの潮吹きがわかる！「クジラの見える丘」|url=http://shiretoko.jpn.org/?p=729|publisher=ニッポン旅マガジン|access-date=2016-08-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170817001728/http://shiretoko.jpn.org/?p=729|archive-date=17 August 2017}}</ref> off Kinkasan, vicinity to Tokyo Bay<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/t5xVIc5zCts Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20150524194007/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t5xVIc5zCts&feature=player_embedded Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t5xVIc5zCts|title=相模湾にマッコウクジラとみられる群れ/神奈川新聞（カナロコ）|date=9 January 2010 |via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and the Bōsō Peninsula to the Izu<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sv361.xserver.jp/~tes-sev/kohkaimaru.com/?photo_gallery&l=1|title=エコツアー風景 -イルカ・クジラ・ネイチャー ウォッチングセンター：静岡県伊東市城ヶ崎 富戸港 – 光海丸で行く、本当の大自然との、"ふれあい"。- ドルフィンウォッチング、エコツーリスト、エコツーリズム KOHKAIMARU 石井泉 光海丸|author=((vegan1110))|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303225021/https://sv361.xserver.jp/~tes-sev/kohkaimaru.com/?photo_gallery&l=1|archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref><ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/purfxbOkkk0 Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20151018051308/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=purfxbOkkk0 Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=purfxbOkkk0|title=相模湾でマッコウクジラに遭遇 Sperm Whale Encounter in Japan|date=6 August 2012 |via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and the Izu Islands, the Volcano Islands, Yakushima and the Tokara Islands to the Ryukyu Islands,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://monodon.jimdofree.com/ryukyu-islands/|title=琉球諸島|website=くじらガイドがお届けするクジラ・シャチ・イルカ・自然・エコツアー情報}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.yahoo.co.jp/kujirabaka/48480791.htmlAnimal|title=ޥåη졪 |work='̣ ϡȥɤΥۥ}}</ref> Taiwan, the Northern Mariana Islands,<ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/YJw6xwNueYY Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20150517143207/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YJw6xwNueYY Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YJw6xwNueYY|title=Guam Whales!!!|date=18 April 2010 |via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> and so forth. Historical catch records suggest there could have been smaller aggression grounds in the Sea of Japan as well.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Spatial and Seasonal Distribution of American Whaling and Whales in the Age of Sail|first1=Tim D.|last1=Smith|first2=Randall R.|last2=Reeves|first3=Elizabeth A.|last3=Josephson|first4=Judith N.|last4=Lund|date=27 April 2012|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=7|issue=4|article-number=e34905|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0034905|pmid=22558102|pmc=3338773|bibcode=2012PLoSO...734905S|doi-access=free}}</ref> Along the Korean Peninsula, the first confirmed observation within the Sea of Japan, eight animals off Guryongpo, was made in 2004 since after the last catches of five whales off Ulsan in 1911,<ref>JoongAng Ilbo. 2004. [http://japanese.joins.com/article/j_article.php?aid=50489 マッコウクジラ、90年ぶりに東海出現]. Retrieved 17 August 2017</ref> In April 2025, a 10-year-old adult male, {{convert|15|-|20|m|ft|sp=us}} long and weighing over {{convert|30|t|ST}}, was sighted at the Port of Gwangyang.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.sbs.co.kr/news/endPage.do?news_id=N1008058128|title=광양 부두 연안에 나타난 15미터 고래…전문가 모두 모인 구출 작전|last=Seoul Broadcasting System|work=Seoul Broadcasting System |date=April 10, 2025 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.joongang.co.kr/article/25327310|title=수심 얕은 광양항에 갇혔던 대형 향유고래, 엿새 만에 탈출할까?|last=중앙일보|work=중앙일보 |date=April 9, 2025 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.joongang.co.kr/article/25327038|title=광양항 맴도는 15m 향고래, 온 몸엔 상처…구조 어려운 이유|last=중앙일보|work=중앙일보 |date=April 8, 2025 }}</ref> while nine whales were observed in the East China Sea side of the peninsula in 1999.<ref name=EastSea>{{cite book |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-22720-7_15 |chapter=Marine Mammals |title=Oceanography of the East Sea (Japan Sea) |date=2016 |last1=Park |first1=Kyum Joon |pages=373–387 |isbn=978-3-319-22719-1 }}</ref>
Grown males are known to enter surprisingly shallow bays to rest (whales will be in a state of rest during these occasions). Unique, coastal groups have been reported from various areas around the globe, such as near Scotland's coastal waters,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-21532214|title=Sperm whales sighting off north-west Scotland 'extraordinary'|newspaper=BBC News|date=21 February 2013}}</ref> and the Shiretoko Peninsula, off Kaikōura, in Davao Gulf. Such coastal groups were more abundant in pre-whaling days.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.11238/mammalianscience.54.279 |date=2014 |volume=54 |last1=粕谷 |first1=俊雄 |title=鯨類研究50年を顧みる |trans-title=Looking back on 50 years of cetacean research |language=ja |journal=哺乳類科学 |trans-journal=Mammalian Science |issue=2 |pages=279–290 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Genetic analysis indicates that the world population of sperm whales originated in the Pacific Ocean from a population of about 10,000 animals around 100,000 years ago, when expanding ice caps blocked off their access to other seas. In particular, colonization of the Atlantic was revealed to have occurred multiple times during this expansion of their range.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morell |first1=Virginia |title=Something killed a lot of sperm whales in the past—and it wasn't whalers |journal=Science |date=18 May 2018 |doi=10.1126/science.aau2256 }}</ref>
===Diet=== [[File:A piece of sperm whale skin with Giant Squid sucker scars.JPG|thumb|A piece of sperm whale skin with giant squid sucker scars|alt=Photo of whale skin with many overlapping circular indentations]]
Sperm whales usually dive between {{convert|300|and|800|m|ft}}, and sometimes {{convert|1|to|2|km|ft}}, in search of food.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=79}} Such dives can last more than an hour.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=79}} They feed on several species, notably the giant squid, but also the colossal squid,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=M.R. |year=1980 |title=Cephalopoda in the diet of sperm whales of the southern hemisphere and their bearing on sperm whale biology |journal=Discovery Reports |volume=37 |pages=1–324}}</ref> octopuses, and fish such as demersal rays and sharks,{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} but their diet is mainly medium-sized squid.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|pp=43–55}} Sperm whales may also possibly prey upon swordfish on rare occasions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kailola |first1=P. J. |title=Australian fisheries resources |website=www.sidalc.net |date=1993 |url=https://www.sidalc.net/search/Record/unfao:635378/Description|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240721213736/https://www.sidalc.net/search/Record/unfao:635378/Description|archive-date=21 July 2024}}</ref> Some prey may be taken accidentally while eating other items.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|pp=43–55}} Most of what is known about deep-sea squid has been learned from specimens in captured sperm whale stomachs, although more recent studies analysed faeces.
One study, carried out around the Galápagos, found that squid from the genera ''Histioteuthis'' (62%), ''Ancistrocheirus'' (16%), and ''Octopoteuthis'' (7%) weighing between {{convert|12|and|650|g|lb}} were the most commonly taken.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Smith S. |author2=Whitehead, H. |name-list-style=amp |year=2000|title=The Diet of Galapagos sperm whales ''Physeter macrocephalus'' as indicated by faecal sample analysis|journal=Marine Mammal Science|volume=16|issue=2|pages=315–325|doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.2000.tb00927.x|bibcode=2000MMamS..16..315S }}</ref> Battles between sperm whales and giant squid or colossal squid have never been observed by humans; however, white scars are believed to be caused by the large squid. One study published in 2010 collected evidence that suggests that female sperm whales may collaborate when hunting Humboldt squid.<ref>{{cite news|title=Sperm Whales Use Teamwork to Hunt Prey|author=Perkins, S.|url=https://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2010/02/sperm-whale-teams/|access-date=2010-02-24|magazine=Wired|date=2010-02-23}}</ref> Tagging studies have shown that sperm whales hunt upside down at the bottom of their deep dives. It is suggested that the whales can see the squid silhouetted above them against the dim surface light.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Clapham|url= http://www.americanscientist.org/bookshelf/pub/mr-melvilles-whale |first=Philip J.|title=Mr. Melville's Whale|journal=American Scientist|date=November–December 2011|volume=99|issue= 6 |series=6|pages=505–506|doi= 10.1511/2011.93.505 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>
An older study, examining whales captured by the New Zealand whaling fleet in the Cook Strait region, found a 1.69:1 ratio of squid to fish by weight.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Gaskin D. |author2=Cawthorn M. |name-list-style=amp |year=1966|title=Diet and feeding habits of the sperm whale (''Physeter macrocephalus'' L.) in the Cook Strait region of New Zealand|journal=New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research|volume=1|issue=2|pages=156–179|doi= 10.1080/00288330.1967.9515201|doi-access=free}}</ref> Sperm whales sometimes take sablefish and toothfish from long lines. Long-line fishing operations in the Gulf of Alaska complain that sperm whales take advantage of their fishing operations to eat desirable species straight off the line, sparing the whales the need to hunt.<ref name="Sneaky Cetaceans">{{cite web|title=Sneaky Cetaceans |url=http://seagrant.uaf.edu/news/04ASJ/05.28.04sneaky-cetaceans.html|publisher=Arctic Science Journeys|access-date=2008-11-04}}</ref> However, the amount of fish taken is very little compared to what the sperm whale needs per day. Video footage has been captured of a large male sperm whale "bouncing" a long line, to gain the fish.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/quirks/archives/05-06/mar18.html#3 |title=Whale Buffet |access-date=2007-03-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070207232120/http://www.cbc.ca/quirks/archives/05-06/mar18.html |archive-date= 7 February 2007 }}</ref> Sperm whales are believed to prey on the megamouth shark, a rare and large deep-sea species discovered in the 1970s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Sharks/Megamouth/Mega13.htm |title=FLMNH Ichthyology Department: Megamouth |publisher=Flmnh.ufl.edu |access-date=2012-06-23}}</ref> In one case, three sperm whales were observed attacking or playing with a megamouth.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Compagno |first1=L. V. J. |title=Sharks of the World. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of Shark species know to date. Volume 2. Bullhead, mackerel and carpet sharks (Heterodontformes, Lamniformes and Orectolobiformes) |date=2001 |isbn=978-92-5-104543-5 |url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/handle/20.500.14283/x9293e |pages=74–78 |publisher=Food & Agriculture Org. }}</ref>
Sperm whales have also been noted to feed on bioluminescent pyrosomes such as ''Pyrosoma atlanticum''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clarke |first1=M.R. |last2=Martins |first2=H.R. |last3=Pascoe |first3=P. |title=The diet of sperm whales (''Physeter macrocephalus'' Linnaeus 1758) off the Azores |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences |date=29 January 1993 |volume=339 |issue=1287 |pages=67–82 |doi=10.1098/rstb.1993.0005|bibcode=1993RSPTB.339...67C |pmid=8096086}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Best |first1=P. B. |title=Food and feeding of sperm whales ''Physeter macrocephalus'' off the west coast of South Africa |journal=South African Journal of Marine Science |date=June 1999 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=393–413 |doi=10.2989/025776199784126033|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="chuaetal2019">{{cite journal |last1=Chua |first1=Marcus A.H. |last2=Lane |first2=David J.W. |last3=Ooi |first3=Seng Keat |last4=Tay |first4=Serene H.X. |last5=Kubodera |first5=Tsunemi |title=Diet and mitochondrial DNA haplotype of a sperm whale (''Physeter macrocephalus'') found dead off Jurong Island, Singapore |journal=PeerJ |date=5 April 2019 |volume=7 |article-number=e6705 |doi=10.7717/peerj.6705|pmid=30984481 |pmc=6452849 |doi-access=free }}</ref> It is thought that the foraging strategy of sperm whales for bioluminescent squids may also explain the presence of these light-emitting pyrosomes in the diet of the sperm whale.<ref name=chuaetal2019/>
[[File:Ambergris.jpg|thumb|right|Ambergris]] The sharp beak of a consumed squid lodged in the whale's intestine may lead to the production of ambergris, analogous to the production of pearls in oysters.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Dannenfeldt K.H.|year=1982|title=Ambergris: The Search for Its Origin|journal=Isis|volume=73|issue=3|pages=382–397|doi=10.1086/353040|pmid=6757176 }}</ref> The irritation of the intestines caused by squid beaks stimulates the secretion of this lubricant-like substance.
Sperm whales are prodigious feeders and eat around 3% of their body weight per day.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sperm Whales|date=30 January 2023 |url=https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/species/sperm-whale|publisher=North American Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author1=Whitehead H. |author2=Shin M. |name-list-style=amp |title=Current global population size, post-whaling trend and historical trajectory of sperm whales|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=12|date=2022|issue=1 |page=19468 |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-24107-7|doi-access=free|pmid=36376385 |pmc=9663694 |bibcode=2022NatSR..1219468W }}</ref>
Sperm whales hunt through echolocation. Their clicks are among the most powerful sounds in the animal kingdom (see above). It has been hypothesised that it can stun prey with its clicks. Experimental studies attempting to duplicate this effect have been unable to replicate the supposed injuries, casting doubt on this idea.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Benoit-Bird K. Au W. |author2=Kastelein R. |name-list-style=amp |title=Testing the odontocete acoustic prey debilitation hypothesis: No stunning results|journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America|volume=120|issue=2|pages=1118–1123|date=August 2006|pmid=16938998|doi=10.1121/1.2211508|bibcode = 2006ASAJ..120.1118B }}</ref> One study showing that sound pressure levels on the squid are more than an order of magnitude below levels required for debilitation, and therefore, precluding acoustic stunning to facilitate prey capture.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fais |first1=A.|last2=Johnson |first2=M. |last3=Wilson |first3=M. |last4=Aguilar Soto |first4=N. |last5=Madsen |first5=P.T.|title=Sperm whale predator-prey interactions involve chasing and buzzing, but no acoustic stunning |journal=Scientific Reports |year=2016|volume=6 |article-number=28562 |doi=10.1038/srep28562|pmid=27340122|pmc=4919788|bibcode=2016NatSR...628562F}}</ref>
Sperm whales, as well as other large cetaceans, help fertilise the surface of the ocean by consuming nutrients in the depths and transporting those nutrients to the oceans' surface when they defecate, an effect known as the whale pump.<ref>Channel 4 British television program ''Jimmy and the Whale Whisperer'', Sunday 23 September 2012, 7 pm to 8 pm</ref> This fertilises phytoplankton and other plants on the surface of the ocean and contributes to ocean productivity and the drawdown of atmospheric carbon.<ref name="LaveryEtAl2010"/>
==Life cycle== {{See also|Whale reproduction}} Sperm whales can live 70 years or more.<ref name="princeton" /><ref name="audubon" /><ref name="Cetacean Societies"/><ref name=Jefferson/> The oldest recorded living sperm whale was 77–80 years old.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rangel |first1=Francisco Alejandro Lagunas |title=Deciphering the whale's secrets to have a long life |journal=Experimental Gerontology |date=August 2021 |volume=151 |article-number=111425 |doi=10.1016/j.exger.2021.111425 |pmid=34051285 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Nicola–Maio">{{cite journal |last1=Maio |first1=Nicola |last2=Fioravanti |first2=Tatiana |last3=Latini |first3=Lucrezia |last4=Petraccioli |first4=Agnese |last5=Mezzasalma |first5=Marcello |title=Life History Traits of Sperm Whales Physeter macrocephalus Linnaeus, 1758 Stranded along Italian Coasts (Cetartiodactyla: Physeteridae) |journal=Animals |date= 2022|volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=79 |doi=10.3390/ani13010079 |doi-access=free|pmid=36611689 |pmc=9817511 }}</ref> They are a prime example of a species that has been K-selected, meaning their reproductive strategy is associated with stable environmental conditions and comprises a low birth rate, significant parental aid to offspring, slow maturation, and high longevity.<ref name="Whitehead Sperm Whale"/>
How they choose mates has not been definitively determined. Bulls will fight with each other over females, and males will mate with multiple females, making them polygynous, but they do not dominate the group as in a harem.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=276}}<ref name=Ellis146>{{Cite book| last = Ellis| first = Richard| title = The Great Sperm Whale: A Natural History of the Ocean's Most Magnificent and Mysterious Creature| publisher = University Press of Kansas| series = Zoology| volume = 179| location = USA| year = 2011| page = [https://archive.org/details/greatspermwhalen0000elli/page/146 146]| isbn = 978-0-7006-1772-2| zbl = 0945.14001| url = https://archive.org/details/greatspermwhalen0000elli/page/146}}</ref> Bulls do not provide paternal care to their offspring but rather play a fatherly role to younger bulls to show dominance.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=343}}
Recent studies have shown that associations between groups of males and females are temporary, and that associations between groups and individual males appear to be determined by female choice rather than male aggression. As if to support this, aggression between male sperm whales is rare within breeding grounds; only one case of male-male aggression was recorded over 11 years in a 40-year study around the Galapagos Islands, and no aggression was reported in a similar 20-year study off the Dominican Republic. Males do occasionally bear teeth marks, which could have occurred during intra-sex competition, but this raises the possibility that male sperm whale teeth marks may have evolved as a signal of male dominance rather than as a direct result of competition for females.<ref name="Eguiguren" /><ref name=Jefferson/> However, observations may be rare because fights between males occur very quickly or under the water.<ref name="Eguiguren" />
Females appear to reach sexual maturity around 6–13 years of age.<ref name="Eguiguren" /> Females appear to reach sexual maturity around age 9 on average and become fertile around age 10. However, the age of sexual maturity in females varies considerably across regions.<ref name="Eguiguren" />{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=122}} Female sperm whales' reproductive capacity appears to decline steadily from the age of 10–14, then sharply after age 40.<ref name="Eguiguren">{{cite book |last1=Eguiguren |first1=Ana |last2=Konrad Clarke |first2=Christine M. |last3=Cantor |first3=Mauricio |title=Sex in Cetaceans |chapter=Sperm Whale Reproductive Strategies: Current Knowledge and Future Directions |date=2023 |pages=443–467 |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-35651-3_19 |isbn=978-3-031-35650-6 }}</ref> The oldest pregnant female ever recorded was 41 years old.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=123}} Gestation requires 14 to 16 months, producing a single calf.<ref name="princeton"/><ref name="Nicola–Maio" /><ref name="Eguiguren" /> Sexually mature females give birth once every 4 to 20 years (pregnancy rates were higher during the whaling era).{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=122}} Birth is a social event, as the mother and calf need others to protect them from predators. The other adults may jostle and bite the newborn in its first hours.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=185}} Females reach their full size at about age 25-45.<ref name="Eguiguren" />
Lactation proceeds for 19 to 42 months, but calves, rarely, may suckle up to 13 years.<ref name="Eguiguren" /><ref name="princeton" /> Like that of other whales, the sperm whale's milk has a higher fat content than that of terrestrial mammals: about 36%,<ref name=Lockyer499>{{cite book|title=Mammals in the Seas Vol. 3: General Papers & Large Cetaceans (Fao/Unep) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BKaUpfo2XCUC&pg=PA499 |year=1981 |publisher=Food & Agriculture Org. |isbn=978-92-5-100513-2 |page=499}}</ref> compared to 4% in cow milk. This gives it a consistency similar to cottage cheese,<ref>[http://biology.kenyon.edu/slonc/bio3/2006projects/McFarlane_Papows/info.html General Whale Information]. Biology.kenyon.edu. Retrieved 2013-03-19.</ref> which prevents it from dissolving in the water before the calf can drink it.<ref>[http://www.whalefacts.org/whale-milk/ Whale Milk]. Whalefacts.org. Retrieved 2013-03-19.</ref> It has an energy content of roughly 3,840 kcal/kg,<ref name="Lockyer499"/> compared to just 640 kcal/kg in cow milk.<ref>[https://archive.today/20130215164550/http://calorielab.com/foods/milk/40 Milk Calorie Counter]. Calorielab.com. Retrieved 2013-03-19.</ref> Calves may be allowed to suckle from females other than their mothers.<ref name="princeton" />
Males become sexually mature at 9–21 years.<ref name="Nicola–Maio" /><ref name="Eguiguren" /> Upon reaching sexual maturity, males move to higher latitudes, where the water is colder and feeding is more productive. Females remain at lower latitudes.<ref name="princeton" /> Males reach their full size at about age 50-60.<ref name="Whitehead Sperm Whale"/><ref name="Eguiguren" />
==Social behaviour==
===Relations within the species=== [[File:Marguerite formation Vector.svg|thumb|Sperm whales adopt the "marguerite formation" to defend a vulnerable pod member.|alt=Diagram showing silhouettes of 10 inward-facing whales surrounding a single, presumably injured, group member]]
Like elephants, females and their young live in matriarchal groups called pods, while bulls live apart. Bulls sometimes form loose bachelor groups with other males of similar age and size. As they grow older, they typically live solitary lives, only returning to the pod to socialize or to breed.<ref name="Whitehead Sperm Whale"/><ref name=Jefferson/> Bulls have beached themselves together, suggesting a degree of cooperation which is not yet fully understood.<ref name="Whitehead Sperm Whale"/> The whales rarely, if ever, leave their group.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=232}}
A ''social unit'' is a group of sperm whales who live and travel together over a period of years. Individuals rarely, if ever, join or leave a social unit. There is a huge variance in the size of social units. They are most commonly between six and nine individuals in size but can have more than twenty.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=233}} Unlike orcas, sperm whales within a social unit show no significant tendency to associate with their genetic relatives.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=235}} Females and calves spend about three-quarters of their time foraging and a quarter of their time socializing. Socializing usually takes place in the afternoon.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=204}}
When sperm whales socialize, they emit complex patterns of clicks called codas. They will spend much of the time rubbing against each other. Tracking of diving whales suggests that groups engage in herding of prey, similar to bait balls created by other species, though the research needs to be confirmed by tracking the prey.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1=Perkins |first1=Sid |date=February 23, 2010 |title=Sperm Whales Use Teamwork to Hunt Prey |url=https://www.wired.com/2010/02/sperm-whale-teams/ |magazine=WIRED}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afsc.noaa.gov/nmml/education/cetaceans/sperm.php|title=National Marine Mammal Laboratory|date=27 January 2021}}</ref>
===Relations with other species=== The most common natural predator of sperm whales is the orca (killer whale), but pilot whales and false killer whales sometimes harass them.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Pitman RL, Ballance LT, Mesnick SI, Chivers SJ |year=2001 |title=Killer whale predation on sperm whales: Observations and implications |url=http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=ENV&recid=5136745&q=&uid=788845644&setcookie=yes |journal=Marine Mammal Science |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=494–507 |doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.2001.tb01000.x |bibcode=2001MMamS..17..494P |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605091808/http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=ENV&recid=5136745&q=&uid=788845644&setcookie=yes |archive-date=5 June 2013 |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Cetacean Societies|chapter=The Sperm Whale|author1=Whitehead, H.|author2=Weilgart, L.|name-list-style=amp|editor=Mann, J.|editor2=Connor, R.|editor3=Tyack, P.|editor4=Whitehead, H.|year=2000|page=[https://archive.org/details/cetaceansocietie0000unse/page/165 165]|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-50341-7|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cetaceansocietie0000unse/page/165}}</ref> Orcas prey on target groups of females with young, usually making an effort to extract and kill a calf. The females will protect their calves or an injured adult by encircling them. They may face inwards with their tails out (the 'marguerite formation', named after the flower). The heavy and powerful tail of an adult whale is potentially capable of delivering lethal blows.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.bluespheremedia.com/2013/04/orcas-vs-sperm-whales/ |title=Orcas vs Sperm Whales |magazine=Blue Sphere Media |access-date=2019-11-20}}</ref> Alternatively, they may face outwards (the 'heads-out formation'). Other than sperm whales, southern right whales had been observed to perform similar formations.<ref name=Ponnampalam2016>{{cite journal |last1=Ponnampalam |first1=Louisa S. |title=No Danger in Sight? An Observation of Sperm Whales (Physeter macrocephalus) in Marguerite Formation off Muscat, Sultanate of Oman |journal=Aquatic Mammals |date=June 2016 |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=162–167 |id={{Gale|A474766958}} {{ProQuest|1796132692}} |doi=10.1578/AM.42.2.2016.162 |bibcode=2016AqMam..42..162P }}</ref> However, formations in non-dangerous situations have been recorded as well.<ref name=Ponnampalam2016/> Early whalers exploited this behaviour, attracting a whole unit by injuring one of its members.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Piper |first1=Ross |title=Extraordinary Animals: An Encyclopedia of Curious and Unusual Animals |date=2007 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA |isbn=978-0-313-08594-9 }}{{page needed|date=January 2025}}</ref> Such a tactic is described in ''Moby-Dick'': <blockquote>"Say you strike a Forty-barrel-bull—poor devil! all his comrades quit him. But strike a member of the harem school, and her companions swim around her with every token of concern, sometimes lingering so near her and so long, as themselves to fall a prey."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Moby Dick; Or the Whale |last=Melville|first=Herman|publisher=Chancellor|year=1985|isbn=978-1-85152-011-4|location=London|pages=405}}</ref></blockquote>If the killer whale pod is large, its members may sometimes be able to kill adult female sperm whales and can at least injure an entire pod of sperm whales.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jefferson |first1=Thomas A. |last2=Stacey |first2=Pam J. |last3=Baird |first3=Robin W. |title=A review of Killer Whale interactions with other marine mammals: predation to co-existence |journal=Mammal Review |date=December 1991 |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=151–180 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2907.1991.tb00291.x |bibcode=1991MamRv..21..151J }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pitman |first1=Robert L. |last2=Ballance |first2=Lisa T. |last3=Mesnick |first3=Sarah I. |last4=Chivers |first4=Susan J. |title=Killer whale predation on sperm whales: observations and implications |journal=Marine Mammal Science |date=July 2001 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=494–507 |doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.2001.tb01000.x |bibcode=2001MMamS..17..494P }}</ref> Bulls have no predators, and are believed to be too large, powerful and aggressive to be threatened by killer whales.<ref name="estes">{{cite book|title=Whales, Whaling, and Ocean Ecosystems|author=Estes, J.|page=179|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=daY_utPoJGAC&q=%22sperm+whale%22+%22killer+whale%22+predator+male&pg=PA179 |year=2006|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-24884-7 | access-date=2008-11-03}}</ref> Solitary bulls are known to interfere and come to the aid of vulnerable groups nearby.<ref>Kurita T., 2010, 『シャチに襲われたマッコウクジラの行動』, Japan Cetology Research Group News Letter 25. Retrieved 10-05-2014</ref> However, the bull sperm whale, when accompanying pods of female sperm whales and their calves as such, may be reportedly unable to effectively dissuade killer whales from their attacks on the group, although the killer whales may end the attack sooner when a bull is present.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p={{page needed|date=January 2025}}}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martinez |first1=David R. |last2=Klinghammer |first2=Erich |title=The Behavior of the Whale Orcinus orca: a Review of the Literature |journal=Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie |date=12 January 1970 |volume=27 |issue=7 |pages=828–839 |doi=10.1111/j.1439-0310.1970.tb01903.x }}</ref>
At potential feeding sites, the killer whales may prevail over sperm whales even when outnumbered by the sperm whales. Some authors consider the killer whales "usually" behaviorally dominant over sperm whales but express that the two species are "fairly evenly matched", with the killer whales' greater aggression, more considerable biting force for their size and predatory prowess more than compensating for their smaller size.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p={{page needed|date=January 2025}}}}<ref>Purves, M. G., Agnew, D. J., Balguerias, E., Moreno, C. A., & Watkins, B. (2004). "Killer whale (''Orcinus orca'') and sperm whale (''Physeter macrocephalus'') interactions with longline vessels in the Patagonian toothfish fishery at South Georgia, South Atlantic". Ccamlr Science, 11(111–126).</ref> A 2013 study found male sperm whales changed their behavior in response to the orca sound playback by performing deep dives and reduced vocal activity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Curé |first1=Charlotte |last2=Antunes |first2=Ricardo |last3=Alves |first3=Ana Catarina |display-authors=et al. |date=2013 |title=Responses of male sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) to killer whale sounds: implications for anti-predator strategies |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=3 |article-number=1579 |doi=10.1038/srep01579 |pmid=23545484 |pmc=3613802 |bibcode=2013NatSR...3.1579C |doi-access=free}}</ref> While several cases of orcas hunting bull sperm whales have been documented, none of these events were successful.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cosentino |first1=Mel |last2=Griffiths |first2=Emily T. |last3=van Dam |first3=J. A. |last4=van Dongen |first4=C. H. |date=2025 |title=Skittish Males in High Latitudes: Complex Social and Acoustic Response of Adult Male Sperm Whales When Harassed by Orcas |journal=Marine Mammal Science |volume=41 |issue=4 |article-number=e70057 |bibcode=2025MMamS..4170057C |doi=10.1111/mms.70057 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
Sperm whales are not known for forging bonds with other species, but it was observed that a bottlenose dolphin with a spinal deformity had been accepted into a pod of sperm whales.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/130123-sperm-whale-dolphin-adopted-animal-science/ |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130125215226/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/130123-sperm-whale-dolphin-adopted-animal-science/ |archive-date = 25 January 2013 |title = Deformed Dolphin Accepted into New Family |last = Poon |first = Linda |publisher = National Geographic News |date = 2013-01-23 |access-date = 2013-02-08}}</ref> They are known to swim alongside other cetaceans such as humpback,<ref>[http://e-shiretoko.com/index.htm Shiretoko Nature Cruise] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140530072144/http://www.e-shiretoko.com/index.htm |date=30 May 2014 }}. 2008. Shiretoko Rausu-cho Tourist Association. Retrieved 13-05-2014</ref> fin, minke, pilot,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Weller |first1=David W. |last2=Würsig |first2=Bernd |last3=Whitehead |first3=Hal |last4=Norris |first4=Jeffrey C. |last5=Lynn |first5=Spencer K. |last6=Davis |first6=Randall W. |last7=Clauss |first7=Nathalie |last8=Brown |first8=Patricia |title=Observations of an Interaction Between Sperm Whales and Short-Finned Pilot Whales in the Gulf of Mexico |journal=Marine Mammal Science |date=October 1996 |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=588–594 |doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.1996.tb00071.x |bibcode=1996MMamS..12..588W }}</ref> and killer whales on occasion.<ref>[http://www.e-shiretoko.com/news013.html Shiretoko Nature Cruise] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512231728/http://www.e-shiretoko.com/news013.html |date=12 May 2014 }}. 2008.</ref>
===Parasites=== Sperm whales can suffer from parasites. Out of 35 sperm whales caught during the 1976–1977 Antarctic whaling season, all of them were infected by ''Anisakis physeteris'' (in their stomachs) and ''Phyllobothrium delphini'' (in their blubber). Both whales with a placenta were infected with ''Placentonema gigantissima'',<ref name="Dailey">{{cite journal |last1=Dailey |first1=Murray |last2=Vogelbein |first2=Wolfgang |title=Parasite Fauna Of 3 Species Of Antarctic Whales With Reference To Their Use As Potential Stock Indicators |journal=Fishery Bulletin |date=1991 |volume=89 |issue=3 |pages=355–365 |url=https://scholarworks.wm.edu/vimsarticles/607/ }}</ref> potentially the largest nematode worm ever described.<ref>{{cite journal |id={{QID|Q124216019}} | title=Parasite diversity with specific reference to nematodes | journal=Journal of Parasitic Diseases | date=January 2005 | volume=29 | issue=2 | pages=81–84 | last1=Jairajpuri | first1=Shamim }}</ref>
==Evolutionary history== {{See also|Sperm whale family}} {{cladogram|width=auto|1= {{clade |label1=Cetacea{{space|4}} |1={{clade |label1=Toothed whales |1={{clade |label1=Physeteroidea |1={{clade |1=Other Physeteroidea'''†''' |2={{clade |label1=Kogiidae |1={{clade |1=Pygmy sperm whale |2=Dwarf sperm whale }} |label2=Physeteridae |2={{clade |1=Other Physeteridae'''†''' |2='''Sperm whale''' }} }} }} |2={{clade |1=South Asian river dolphin |2={{clade |1={{clade |1=Other river dolphins |2=Oceanic dolphins |3=Porpoises |4=Arctic whales }} |2=Beaked whales }} }} }} |2=Baleen whales }} }} | caption = Evolutionary family tree of sperm whales,<ref name="Nikaido" /><br/>including simplified summary of extinct groups ('''†''')<ref name=Zygophyseter /> }}
===Fossil record=== Although the fossil record is poor,<ref name="FordyceBarnes2004EvolutionaryHistory">{{cite journal |last1=Fordyce |first1=R. Ewan |last2=Barnes |first2=Lawrence G. |title=The Evolutionary History of Whales and Dolphins |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |date=May 1994 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=419–455 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.22.050194.002223 |bibcode=1994AREPS..22..419F }}</ref> several extinct genera have been assigned to the clade Physeteroidea, which includes the last common ancestor of the modern sperm whale, pygmy sperm whales, dwarf sperm whales, and extinct physeteroids. These fossils include ''Ferecetotherium'', ''Idiorophus'', ''Diaphorocetus'', ''Aulophyseter'', ''Orycterocetus'', ''Scaldicetus'', ''Placoziphius'', ''Zygophyseter'' and ''Acrophyseter''.<ref name=Acrophyseter>{{cite journal|title=A new stem-sperm whale (Cetacea, Odontoceti, Physeteroidea) from the Latest Miocene of Peru|author=Lambert, O.|author2=Bianucci, G.|author3=de Muizon, C.|name-list-style=amp|journal=Comptes Rendus Palevol|volume=7|issue=6|pages=361–369|date=August 2008|doi=10.1016/j.crpv.2008.06.002|bibcode=2008CRPal...7..361L }}</ref><ref name=Zygophyseter/><ref>{{cite book |author1=Stucky, R.E. |author2=McKenna, M.C. |name-list-style=amp | year=1993| chapter=Mammalia | pages=[https://archive.org/details/fossilrecord02bent/page/n735 739]–771| editor=Benton, M.J. | title=The Fossil Record|url=https://archive.org/details/fossilrecord02bent |url-access=limited | publisher=Chapman & Hall| location=London|isbn=978-0-412-39380-8 }}</ref> ''Ferecetotherium'', found in Azerbaijan and dated to the late Oligocene (about {{ma|28|23}}), is the most primitive fossil that has been found, which possesses sperm whale-specific features, such as an asymmetric rostrum ("beak" or "snout").<ref name="McHedlidze Sperm Whales, Evolution"/> Most sperm whale fossils date from the Miocene period, {{ma|23|5}}. ''Diaphorocetus'', from Argentina, has been dated to the early Miocene. Fossil sperm whales from the Middle Miocene include ''Aulophyseter'', ''Idiorophus'' and ''Orycterocetus'', all of which were found on the West Coast of the United States, and ''Scaldicetus'', found in Europe and Japan.<ref name="McHedlidze Sperm Whales, Evolution"/><ref name=Scaldicetus>{{cite journal |title=A new species of Middle Miocene sperm whale of the genus Scaldicetus (Cetacea; Physeteridae) from Shiga-mura, Japan|author1=Hirota, K. |author2=Barnes, L. G. |name-list-style=amp |journal=Island Arc|volume=3|issue=4|pages=453–472|date=5 April 2006|doi=10.1111/j.1440-1738.1994.tb00125.x}}</ref> ''Orycterocetus'' fossils have also been found in the North Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea, in addition to the west coast of the United States.<ref>{{cite journal |title=First discovery of the Miocene northern Atlantic sperm whale Orycterocetus in the Mediterranean|author=Bianucci, G.|author2=Landrini, W.|author3=Varola, W.|name-list-style=amp|journal=Geobios|volume=37|issue=5|date=September–October 2004|pages=569–573|doi=10.1016/j.geobios.2003.05.004|bibcode=2004Geobi..37..569B }}</ref> ''Placoziphius'', found in Europe, and ''Acrophyseter'', from Peru, are dated to the late Miocene.<ref name=Acrophyseter/><ref name="McHedlidze Sperm Whales, Evolution"/>
Fossil sperm whales differ from modern sperm whales in tooth count and the shape of the face and jaws.<ref name="McHedlidze Sperm Whales, Evolution"/> For example, ''Scaldicetus'' had a tapered rostrum.<ref name=Scaldicetus/> Genera from the Oligocene and early and middle Miocene, with the possible exception of ''Aulophyseter'', had teeth in their upper jaws.<ref name="McHedlidze Sperm Whales, Evolution"/> ''Acrophyseter'', from the late Miocene, also had teeth in both the upper and lower jaws as well as a short rostrum and an upward curving mandible (lower jaw).<ref name=Acrophyseter/> These anatomical differences suggest that fossil species may not have necessarily been deep-sea squid eaters such as the modern sperm whale, but that some genera mainly ate fish.<ref name="McHedlidze Sperm Whales, Evolution"/> ''Zygophyseter'', dated from the middle to late Miocene and found in southern Italy, had teeth in both jaws and appears to have been adapted to feed on large prey, rather like the modern killer whale (orca). Other fossil sperm whales with adaptations similar to this are collectively known as killer sperm whales.<ref name=Zygophyseter>{{cite journal|title=Killer sperm whale: a new basal physeteroid (Mammalia, Cetacea) from the Late Miocene of Italy|author1=Bianucci, G. |author2=Landini, W. |name-list-style=amp |journal=Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=148|issue=1|pages=103–131|date=8 September 2006|doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.2006.00228.x|doi-access=free}}</ref>
Two poorly known fossil species belonging to the modern genus ''Physeter'' have been recognized so far: ''P. antiquus'' (Neogene of France)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=136970|title=''Physeter antiquus'' (Gervais 1849)|website=The Paleobiology Database}}</ref> and ''P. vetus'' (Neogene of eastern North America).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://paleobiodb.org/classic/checkTaxonInfo?taxon_no=105119|title=''Physeter vetus'' (Leidy 1849)|website=The Paleobiology Database}}</ref> ''Physeter vetus'' is very likely an invalid species, as the few teeth that were used to identify this species appear to be identical to those of another toothed whale, ''Orycterocetus quadratidens''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hay |first1=Oliver Perry |title=The Pleistocene of North America and Its Vertebrated Animals from the States East of the Mississippi River and from the Canadian Provinces East of Longitude 95 |date=1923 |publisher=Carnegie Institution of Washington |isbn=978-0-598-34472-4 |pages=370}}</ref>
===Phylogeny=== The traditional view has been that Mysticeti (baleen whales) and Odontoceti (toothed whales) arose from more primitive whales early in the Oligocene period, and that the super-family Physeteroidea, which contains the sperm whale, dwarf sperm whale, and pygmy sperm whale, diverged from other toothed whales soon after that, over {{ma|23}}.<ref name="FordyceBarnes2004EvolutionaryHistory" /><ref name="McHedlidze Sperm Whales, Evolution">{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-373553-9.00249-2 |chapter=Sperm Whales, Evolution |title=Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals |date=2009 |last1=McHedlidze |first1=Guram A. |pages=1097–1098 |isbn=978-0-12-373553-9 }}</ref> From 1993 to 1996, molecular phylogenetics analyses by Milinkovitch and colleagues, based on comparing the genes of various modern whales, suggested that the sperm whales are more closely related to the baleen whales than they are to other toothed whales, which would have meant that Odontoceti were not monophyletic; in other words, it did not consist of a single ancestral toothed whale species and all its descendants.<ref name="Nikaido" /> However, more recent studies, based on various combinations of comparative anatomy and molecular phylogenetics, criticised Milinkovitch's analysis on technical grounds and reaffirmed that the Odontoceti are monophyletic.<ref name="Nikaido">{{cite journal|title=Retroposon analysis of major cetacean lineages: The monophyly of toothed whales and the paraphyly of river dolphins|author=Nikaido, M.|author2=Matsuno, F.|author3=Hamilton, H.|author4=Brownwell, R.|author5=Cao, Y.|author6=Ding, W.|author7=Zuoyan, Z.|author8=Shedlock, A.|author9=Fordyce, R. E.|author10=Hasegawa, M.|author11=Okada, N.|name-list-style=amp|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=98|issue=13|pages=7384–7389|date=19 June 2001|pmid=11416211|pmc=34678|doi=10.1073/pnas.121139198|bibcode = 2001PNAS...98.7384N |doi-access=free}}</ref>{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|pp=2–3}}<ref>{{cite journal|title=Sperm Whale Phylogeny Revisited: Analysis of the Morphological Evidence|author=Heyning, J.|journal=Marine Mammal Science|volume=13|issue=4|pages=596–613|date=23 August 2006|doi=10.1111/j.1748-7692.1997.tb00086.x}}</ref>
These analyses also confirm that there was a rapid evolutionary radiation (diversification) of the Physeteroidea in the Miocene period.<ref name=Zygophyseter /> The Kogiidae (dwarf and pygmy sperm whales) diverged from the Physeteridae (true sperm whales) at least {{ma|8}}.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|pp=2–3}} {{Clear}}
==Usage by humans== ===Sperm whaling=== {{Main|Whaling|Sperm whaling}}
thumb|In the 19th century, sperm whales were hunted using rowboats and hand-thrown harpoons, a rather dangerous method, as the whales sometimes fought back. |alt=Painting of a sperm whale destroying a boat, with other boats in the background Spermaceti, obtained primarily from the spermaceti organ, and sperm oil, obtained primarily from the blubber in the body, were much sought after by 18th, 19th, and 20th century whalers. These substances found a variety of commercial applications, such as candles, soap, cosmetics, machine oil, other specialised lubricants, lamp oil, pencils, crayons, leather waterproofing, rust-proofing materials and many pharmaceutical compounds.<ref name="smithsonian">{{cite book|title=The Smithsonian Book of North American Mammals|author=Wilson, D.|page=300|year=1999|isbn=978-0-7748-0762-3|publisher=UBC Press|location=Vancouver}}</ref><ref name="highseas">{{cite web|title=The status of natural resources on the high seas|url=http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/highseas.pdf|author1=The Southampton Oceanography Centre |author2=A deFontaubert |name-list-style=amp |publisher=IUCN|page=63|access-date=2008-10-11}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=A Dictionary of Mechanical Science, Arts, Manufactures, and Miscellaneous Knowledge|url=https://archive.org/details/adictionarymech01jamigoog|author=Jamieson, A.|year=1829|page=[https://archive.org/details/adictionarymech01jamigoog/page/n17 566]|publisher=H. Fisher, Son & Co.}}</ref><ref name="aquarium"/> Ambergris, a highly expensive, solid, waxy, flammable substance produced in the digestive system of sperm whales, was also sought as a fixative in perfumery.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Clarke |first=R. |date=2006 |title=The origin of ambergris |url=https://lajamjournal.org/index.php/lajam/article/view/231 |journal=The Latin American of Aquatic Mammals |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=7:16 |via=Latin American Journal of Aquatic Mammals}}</ref>
Prior to the early eighteenth century, hunting was mostly by indigenous Indonesians.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|p=14}} Legend has it that sometime in the early 18th century, around 1712, Captain Christopher Hussey, while cruising for right whales near shore, was blown offshore by a northerly wind, where he encountered a sperm whale pod and killed one.<ref>{{cite web|title=Christopher Hussey Blown Out (Up) to Sea|url=http://www.nha.org/history/hn/HNsimons-hussey.htm|author=Simons, B.|publisher=Nantucket Historical Association}}</ref> Although the story may not be true, sperm whales were indeed soon exploited by American whalers. Judge Paul Dudley, in his ''Essay upon the Natural History of Whales'' (1725), states that a certain Atkins, 10 or 12 years in the trade, was among the first to catch sperm whales sometime around 1720 off the New England coast.<ref name="dudley"> {{cite book|title=Philosophical Transactions (1683–1775), Vol. 33|author=Dudley, P.|chapter=An Essay upon the Natural History of Whales, with a Particular Account of the Ambergris Found in the Sperma Ceti Whale|chapter-url= https://archive.org/details/philtrans04271050 |page=267|year=1725|publisher=The Royal Society}}</ref>
There were only a few recorded instances during the first few decades (1709–1730s) of offshore sperm whaling. Instead, sloops concentrated on the Nantucket Shoals, where they would have taken right whales or went to the Davis Strait region to catch bowhead whales. By the early 1740s, with the advent of spermaceti candles (before 1743), American vessels began to focus on sperm whales. The diary of Benjamin Bangs (1721–1769) shows that, along with the bumpkin sloop he sailed, he found three other sloops flensing sperm whales off the coast of North Carolina in late May 1743.<ref name="leviathan">{{cite book|title=Leviathan: The History of Whaling in America|author=Dolin, E.|year=2007|pages=[https://archive.org/details/leviathanhistory00doli/page/98 98–100]|publisher=W. W. Norton|isbn=978-0-393-06057-7|url=https://archive.org/details/leviathanhistory00doli/page/98}}</ref> On returning to Nantucket in the summer 1744 on a subsequent voyage, he noted that "45 spermacetes are brought in here this day," another indication that American sperm whaling was in full swing.<ref name="leviathan" />
American sperm whaling soon spread from the east coast of the American colonies to the Gulf Stream, the Grand Banks, West Africa (1763), the Azores (1765), and the South Atlantic (1770s). From 1770 to 1775 Massachusetts, New York, Connecticut, and Rhode Island ports produced 45,000 barrels of sperm oil annually, compared to 8,500 of whale oil.<ref name="history">{{cite book|title=History of the American Whale Fishery from its Earliest Inception to the Year 1876|author=Starbuck, A.|year=1878|url=http://mysite.du.edu/~ttyler/ploughboy/starbuck.htm#sectiond|isbn=978-0-665-35343-7}}</ref> In the same decade, the British began sperm whaling, employing American ships and personnel.<ref name="bockstoce">{{cite journal|title=From Davis Strait to Bering Strait: The Arrival of the Commercial Whaling Fleet in North America's West Arctic|author=Bockstoce, J.|journal=Arctic|volume=37|issue=4|pages=528–532|date=December 1984|url=http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic37-4-528.pdf|doi=10.14430/arctic2234|access-date=15 October 2008|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303184619/http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic37-4-528.pdf}}</ref> By the following decade, the French had entered the trade, also employing American expertise.<ref name="bockstoce" /> Sperm whaling increased until the mid-nineteenth century. Spermaceti oil was important in public lighting (for example, in lighthouses, where it was used in the United States until 1862, when it was replaced by lard oil, in turn replaced by petroleum) and for lubricating the machines (such as those used in cotton mills) of the Industrial Revolution. Sperm whaling declined in the second half of the nineteenth century, as petroleum came into broader use. In that sense, petroleum use may be said to have protected whale populations from even greater exploitation.<ref name="estes2">{{cite book|title=Whales, Whaling, and Ocean Ecosystems|url=https://archive.org/details/whaleswhalingoce00este_846|url-access=limited|author=Estes, J.|page=[https://archive.org/details/whaleswhalingoce00este_846/page/n345 329]|year=2006|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-24884-7}}</ref>{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|pp=13–21}} Sperm whaling in the 18th century began with small sloops carrying only one or two whaleboats. The fleet's scope and size increased over time, and larger ships entered the fishery. In the late 18th century and early 19th century, sperm whaling ships sailed to the equatorial Pacific, the Indian Ocean, Japan, the coast of Arabia, Australia and New Zealand.<ref name="bockstoce" /><ref>{{cite book|title=Whales & Destiny: The Rivalry between America, France, and Britain for Control of the Southern Whale Fishery, 1785–1825|author=Stackpole, E. A.|year=1972|publisher=The University of Massachusetts Press|isbn=978-0-87023-104-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=A Review of Cetaceans from Waters off the Arabian Peninsula|author=Baldwin, R.|author2=Gallagher, M.|author3=van Waerebeek, K.|name-list-style=amp|url=http://www.vliz.be/imisdocs/publications/243252.pdf |page=6|access-date=2008-10-15}}</ref> Hunting could be dangerous to the crew, since sperm whales (especially bulls) will readily fight to defend themselves against attack, unlike most baleen whales. When dealing with a threat, sperm whales will use their huge head effectively as a battering ram.<ref name=Carrier/> Arguably the most famous sperm whale counter-attack occurred on 20 November 1820, when a whale claimed to be about {{convert|25.9|m|ft}} long rammed and sank the Nantucket whaleship ''Essex''. Only 8 out of 20 remaining sailors survived to be rescued by other ships.<ref name="Whaleship–Essex">{{cite web|title=The Wreck of the Whaleship Essex|date=12 February 2002 |url=https://h2g2.com/edited_entry/A671492|publisher=BBC|access-date=2008-10-11}}</ref> This instance is popularly believed to have inspired Herman Melville's famous book ''Moby-Dick''.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McKinley |first=Jesse |date=2011-02-11 |title=No 'Moby-Dick': A Real Captain, Twice Doomed (Published 2011) |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/11/science/11shipwreck.html |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250523143211/https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/11/science/11shipwreck.html |archive-date=2025-05-23 |access-date=2025-10-27 |work=The New York Times |language=en}}</ref> [[File:Nantucket Whaling scrimshaw E.Burdett.jpg|thumb|right|Scrimshaw was the art of engraving on the teeth of sperm whales. It was a way for whalers to pass the time between hunts.]] The sperm whale's ivory-like teeth were often sought by 18th- and 19th-century whalers, who used them to produce inked carvings known as ''scrimshaw.'' 30 teeth of the sperm whale can be used for ivory. Each of these teeth, up to {{convert|20|cm|in|abbr=on|0}} and {{convert|8|cm|in|abbr=on|0}} across, are hollow for the first half of their length. Like walrus ivory, sperm whale ivory has two distinct layers. However, sperm whale ivory contains a much thicker inner layer. Though a widely practised art in the 19th century, scrimshaw using genuine sperm whale ivory declined substantially after the retirement of the whaling fleets in the 1880s.{{citation needed|date=March 2022}}
Modern whaling was more efficient than open-boat whaling, employing steam-powered ships and exploding harpoons. Initially, modern whaling activity focused on large baleen whales, but as these populations were taken, sperm whaling increased. Spermaceti, the fine waxy oil produced by sperm whales, was in high demand. In both the 1941–1942 and 1942–1943 seasons, Norwegian expeditions took over 3,000 sperm whales off the coast of Peru alone. After World War II, whaling continued unabated to obtain oil for cosmetics and high-performance machinery, such as automobile transmissions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gosho |first=Merrill E. |last2=Rice |first2=Dale W. |last3=Breiwick |first3=Jeffrey M. |date=1984 |title=The Sperm Whale, Physeter macrocephalus |url=https://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=gfopb_WsW4YC&oi=fnd&pg=RA3-PA54&dq=sperm+whale+world+war+2&ots=iTC7pZqAAB&sig=ZFTdv8nJMojzOKtnaRw-517CiGI&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=sperm%20whale%20world%20war%202&f=false |journal=Marine Fisheries Review |volume=46 |issue=4 |pages=62 |via=Books Google}}</ref>
The hunting led to the near-extinction of large whales, including sperm whales, until bans on whale oil use were instituted in 1972. The International Whaling Commission gave the species full protection in 1985, but hunting by Japan in the northern Pacific Ocean continued until 1988.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|pp=13–21}}
It is estimated that the historic worldwide population numbered 1,100,000 before commercial sperm whaling began in the early 18th century.<ref name="iucn" /><ref name="McClain" /> By 1880, it had declined by an estimated 29 percent.<ref name="iucn" /> From that date until 1946, the population appears to have partially recovered as whaling activity decreased, but after the Second World War, the population declined even further, to 33 per cent of the pre-whaling population.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}} Between 184,000 and 236,000 sperm whales were killed by the various whaling nations in the 19th century,<ref>{{cite book|title=In Pursuit of Leviathan: Technology, Institutions, Productivity, and Profits in American Whaling, 1816–1906 (National Bureau of Economic Research Series on Long-Term Factors in Economic Dev)|author=Davis, L|author2=Gallman, R.|author3=Gleiter, K.|name-list-style=amp|page=135|year=1997|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-13789-6}}</ref> while in the 20th century, at least 770,000 were taken, the majority between 1946 and 1980.<ref>Over 680,000 officially reported at {{cite web |title=Whaling Statistics |url=http://luna.pos.to/whale/sta.html |access-date=2008-10-15 |archive-date=15 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015053920/http://luna.pos.to/whale/sta.html }}. In addition, studies have found that official reports understated USSR catches by at least 89,000 {{cite web |title=Sperm Whale (''Physeter macrocephalus'') California/Oregon/Washington Stock |url=http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/pdfs/sars/po2007whsp-cow.pdf |access-date=2008-10-16 }} Furthermore, other countries, such as Japan, have been found to have understated catches. {{cite web |title=The RMS – A Question of Confidence: Manipulations and Falsifications in Whaling |url=http://www.wdcs.org/submissions_bin/rmsreview.pdf |access-date=2008-10-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081007174536/http://www.wdcs.org/submissions_bin/rmsreview.pdf |archive-date=7 October 2008 }}</ref>
thumb|Sperm whaling peaked in the 1830s and 1960s. Sperm whales increase levels of primary production and carbon export by depositing iron-rich faeces into surface waters of the Southern Ocean. The iron-rich faeces cause phytoplankton to grow and take up more carbon from the atmosphere. When the phytoplankton dies, it sinks to the deep ocean and takes the atmospheric carbon with it. By reducing the abundance of sperm whales in the Southern Ocean, whaling has resulted in an extra 2 million tonnes of carbon remaining in the atmosphere each year.<ref name="LaveryEtAl2010">{{cite journal |author=Lavery, Trish L. |author2=Ben Roudnew |author3=Peter Gill |author4=Justin Seymour |author5=Laurent Seuront |author6=Genevieve Johnson |author7=James G. Mitchell |author8=Victor Smetacek |name-list-style=amp |year=2010 |title=Iron defecation by sperm whales stimulates carbon export in the Southern Ocean |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B |volume=277 |issue=1699 |pages=3527–3531 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2010.0863 |pmid=20554546 |pmc=2982231}}</ref>
Remaining sperm whale populations are large enough that the species' conservation status is rated as vulnerable rather than endangered.<ref name="iucn" /> The current global sperm whale population is estimated at 360,000.<ref name=Jefferson/> However, the recovery from centuries of commercial whaling is a slow process, particularly in the South Pacific, where the toll on breeding-age males was severe.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|pp=360–362}}
===Conservation status=== The total number of sperm whales worldwide is unknown, but it is estimated to be as many as 360,000.<ref name=Jefferson/><ref name="iucn" /> The conservation outlook is brighter than for many other whales. Commercial whaling has ceased,<ref name="iucn" /> and the species is protected almost worldwide, though records indicate that in the 11-year period starting from 2000, Japanese vessels have caught 51 sperm whales.{{Update inline|date=July 2022|reason=Data is from 2011. Has any new data been released since then?}} Fishermen do not target sperm whales to eat,<ref name="iucn" /> but long-line fishing operations in the Gulf of Alaska have complained about sperm whales "stealing" fish from their lines.<ref name="Sneaky Cetaceans" />
Since the 2000s, entanglement in fishing nets and collisions with ships represent the greatest threats to the sperm whale population.<ref name="audubon" /> Other threats include ingestion of marine debris, ocean noise, and chemical pollution.{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|pp=362–368}} The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) regards the sperm whale as being "vulnerable".<ref name="iucn" /> The species is listed as endangered on the United States Endangered Species Act.<ref>{{FWS profile |spcode=A02T |sci=Physeter catodon |name=Sperm whale |date=16 November 2010}}</ref>
Sperm whales are listed on Appendix I<ref name="Appendices">"[https://web.archive.org/web/20110611112003/http://www.cms.int/documents/appendix/Appendices_COP9_E.pdf Appendix I and Appendix II]" of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). As amended by the Conference of the Parties in 1985, 1988, 1991, 1994, 1997, 1999, 2002, 2005 and 2008. Effective: 5 March 2009.</ref> and Appendix II<ref name="Appendices" /> of the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). It is listed on Appendix I<ref name="Appendices" /> as this species has been categorized as being in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant proportion of their range and CMS Parties strive towards strictly protecting these animals, conserving or restoring the places where they live, mitigating obstacles to migration and controlling other factors that might endanger them. It is listed on Appendix II<ref name="Appendices" /> as it has an unfavourable conservation status or would benefit significantly from international co-operation organised by tailored agreements. It is also covered by the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS) and the Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region (Pacific Cetaceans MOU).{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}
The species is protected under Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This makes commercial international trade (including in parts and derivatives) prohibited, with all other international trade strictly regulated through a system of permits and certificates.<ref name="CITES">{{Cite web|title=Appendices {{!}} CITES|url=https://cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php|access-date=2022-01-14|website=cites.org}}</ref>
===Cultural importance=== thumb|Sperm whale teeth necklace from Fiji Rope-mounted teeth are important cultural objects throughout the Pacific. In New Zealand, the Māori know them as "rei puta"; such whale tooth pendants were rare objects because sperm whales were not actively hunted in traditional Māori society.<ref>{{cite web |title=Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa Collections Online Search – Rei puta |url=http://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/search.aspx?term=Rei%20puta |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104003806/https://collections.tepapa.govt.nz/search.aspx?term=Rei%20puta |archive-date=2012-11-04 }}</ref> Whale ivory and bone were taken from beached whales. In Fiji the teeth are known as ''tabua'', traditionally given as gifts for atonement or esteem (called ''sevusevu''), and were important in negotiations between rival chiefs.<ref> {{cite journal|author=Arno, A.|year=2005|title=Cobo and tabua in Fiji: Two forms of cultural currency in an economy of sentiment|journal=American Ethnologist|volume=32|issue=1|pages=46–62|id={{INIST|16581746}} |doi=10.1525/ae.2005.32.1.46}}</ref> Friedrich Ratzel in ''The History of Mankind'' reported in 1896 that, in Fiji, whales' or cachalots' teeth were the most-demanded article of ornament or value. They occurred often in necklaces.<ref>Ratzel, Friedrich (1896). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110706145510/http://www.inquirewithin.biz/history/american_pacific/oceania/melanesian-ornament.htm "Dress and Weapons of the Melanesians: Ornament"], ''The History of Mankind''. London: MacMillan. Retrieved 21 October 2009.</ref> Today the tabua remains an important item in Fijian life. The teeth were originally rare in Fiji and Tonga, which exported teeth, but with the Europeans' arrival, teeth flooded the market and this "currency" collapsed. The oversupply led in turn to the development of the European art of scrimshaw.<ref name="Constantine Folklore and Legends">{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-373553-9.00106-1 |chapter=Folklore and Legends |title=Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals |date=2009 |last1=Constantine |first1=Rochelle |pages=447–449 |isbn=978-0-12-373553-9 }}</ref>
Herman Melville's novel ''Moby-Dick'' is based on a true story about a sperm whale that attacked and sank the whaleship ''Essex''.<ref name="bartleby1">{{cite book|chapter-url=http://www.bartleby.com/187/5.html |chapter=Chapter 3. Romances of Adventure. Section 2. Herman Melville|author= Van Doren, Carl|year= 1921|title= The American Novel |publisher=Bartleby.com | access-date=2008-10-19}}</ref><ref name="zwart"/> Melville associated the sperm whale with the Bible's Leviathan.<ref name="zwart">{{cite journal|title=What is a Whale? Moby Dick, marine science and the sublime|author=Zwart, H.|year=2000|journal=Erzählen und Moral. Narrativität Im Spannungsfeld von Ethik und Ästhetik.|pages=185–214|url= http://www.filosofie.science.ru.nl/research/hra/whale.pdf |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090320091308/http://www.filosofie.science.ru.nl/research/hra/whale.pdf |archive-date= 2009-03-20 |publisher=Tubingen Attempo}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Edwards |first1=Brian |title=Playful Learning: Melville's Artful Art in ''Moby-Dick'' |journal=Australasian Journal of American Studies |date=2006 |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |jstor=41054003 }}</ref> The fearsome reputation perpetuated by Melville was based on bull whales' ability to fiercely defend themselves from attacks by early whalers, smashing whaling boats and, occasionally, attacking and destroying whaling ships.{{citation needed|date=January 2022}}
In Jules Verne's 1870 novel ''Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas'', the Nautilus fights a group of "cachalots" (sperm whales) to protect a pod of southern right whales from their attacks. Verne portrays them as being savage hunters ("nothing but mouth and teeth").<ref>{{cite web|url=https://etc.usf.edu/lit2go/83/twenty-thousand-leagues-under-the-sea/1444/part-2-chapter-12-sperm-whales-and-baleen-whales/|title=Part 2, Chapter 12: Sperm Whales and Baleen Whales|publisher=Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea|access-date=12 February 2026}}</ref>
The sperm whale was designated as the Connecticut state animal by the General Assembly in 1975.<ref>"Sperm whale designated Connecticut state animal," ''Cetacean Times'', 1 (3) May 1975, p.6.</ref> It was selected because of its specific contribution to the state's history and because of its present-day plight as an endangered species.<ref>{{Cite journal | title = The State Animal | journal = State of Connecticut Sites, Seals and Symbols | publisher = State of Connecticut | url = http://vvv.state.ct.us/emblems/animal.htm | access-date = 26 December 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110901204148/http://vvv.state.ct.us/emblems/animal.htm | archive-date = 1 September 2011 }} [https://portal.ct.gov/SOTS/Register-Manual/Register-Manual/Connecticut-State-Register--Manual Reproduced from the Connecticut State Register & Manual].</ref>
===Watching sperm whales=== {{See also|Whale watching}}
Sperm whales are not the easiest of whales to watch, due to their long dive times and ability to travel long distances underwater. However, due to the distinctive look and large size of the whale, watching is increasingly popular.{{citation needed|date=December 2022|reason=Need source for both claim that watching is increasingly popular and claim that this increase is due to distinctive look and large size.}} Sperm whale watchers often use hydrophones to listen to the clicks of the whales and locate them before they surface.<ref>{{cite web|date=2016-05-26|title=Sperm whales|url=https://whaletrips.org/en/whales/sperm-whales/|access-date=2022-12-11|website=Whaletrips|language=en-US}}</ref> Popular locations for sperm whale watching include the town of Kaikōura on New Zealand's South Island, Andenes and Tromsø in Arctic Norway; as well as the Azores, where the continental shelf is so narrow that whales can be observed from the shore,{{sfn|Whitehead|2003|pp=23–24}}<ref>{{cite web|title= Whale and dolphin watching in the Azores |url= http://www.wildlifeextra.com/go/whales/azores/#cr |publisher=Wildlife Extra|access-date=2008-09-26}}</ref> and Dominica<ref>{{cite web|title=Whale Watching Dominica|url=http://www.dominica.dm/site/whalewatching.cfm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100127084646/http://www.dominica.dm/site/whalewatching.cfm|archive-date=2010-01-27|access-date=2008-09-26}}</ref> where a long-term scientific research program, The Dominica Sperm Whale Project, has been in operation since 2005.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Dominica Sperm Whale Project|url=http://www.thespermwhaleproject.org|access-date=2016-01-25}}</ref>
===Plastic waste=== <!-- not sure if this shouldn't be under ecology--> The introduction of plastic waste to the ocean environment by humans is relatively new. From the 1970s, sperm whales have occasionally been found with pieces of plastic in their stomachs.<ref name=chuaetal2019/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/mar/30/plastic-debris-killing-sperm-whales|title=Whales are starving – their stomachs full of our plastic waste {{pipe}} Philip Hoare|date=30 March 2016|website=The Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=nYBPAAAAIBAJ&sjid=lCQEAAAAIBAJ&pg=5390,3277095|title=The Times-News - Google News Archive Search|website=news.google.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jacobsen |first1=Jeff K. |last2=Massey |first2=Liam |last3=Gulland |first3=Frances |title=Fatal ingestion of floating net debris by two sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) |journal=Marine Pollution Bulletin |date=May 2010 |volume=60 |issue=5 |pages=765–767 |doi=10.1016/j.marpolbul.2010.03.008 |pmid=20381092 |bibcode=2010MarPB..60..765J }}</ref>
==See also== {{Portal|Cetaceans|Mammals|Marine life}} *List of sperm whale strandings *List of cetaceans *List of individual cetaceans *Marine biology *''Livyatan''
==Notes== {{Notelist}}
==References== {{Reflist}}
==Further reading== * {{cite book |last1=Whitehead |first1=Hal |title=Sperm Whales: Social Evolution in the Ocean |date=2003 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-89518-5 |oclc=1151343133 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TKXdCli7nI0C&dq=8+Ma+sperm&pg=PA3 }} * {{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-373553-9.X0001-6 |title=Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-12-373553-9 |editor1-first=William F. |editor1-last=Perrin |editor2-first=Bernd |editor2-last=Würsig |editor3-first=J.G.M. |editor3-last=Thewissen }} * {{cite book |last1=Carwardine |first1=Mark |title=Whales & Dolphins |date=1998 |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=978-0-00-220105-6 }} * {{cite book |last1=Geptner |first1=Vladimir Georgievič |last2=Naumov |first2=Nikolaj Pavlovič |last3=Mead |first3=James G. |last4=Hoffmann |first4=Robert S. |title=Mammals of the Soviet Union: Volume II, Part 3: Pinnipeds and Toothed Whales, Pinnipedia and Odontoceti |date=1988 |publisher=Science Publishers |isbn=978-1-57808-170-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/mammalsofsov231996gept }}
==External links== {{Commons category|Physeter macrocephalus}} {{Wikispecies|Physeter macrocephalus}} {{EB1911 poster|Sperm-Whale}} *[http://thespermwhaleproject.org/ The Dominica Sperm Whale Project]- a long-term scientific research program focusing on the behaviour of sperm whale units. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20051231151038/http://www.candlecomfort.com/historyofcandles.html Spermaceti in candles] 22 July 2007 *[http://www.marinemammalscience.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=496&Itemid=313 Society for Marine Mammalogy Sperm Whale Fact Sheet] *[http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/cetaceans/spermwhale.htm US National Marine Fisheries Service Sperm Whale web page] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060214205618/http://www.70south.com/resources/antarctic-animals/whales 70South]—information on the sperm whale * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927214224/http://www.newsday.com/community/guide/lihistory/ny-history-hs9phys%2C0%2C4763989.story?coll=ny-lihostory-navigation "Physty"-stranded sperm whale nursed back to health and released in 1981] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20050404115135/http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Physeter_macrocephalus/ ARKive]—Photographs, video. *[https://web.archive.org/web/20090218170542/http://www.whaletrackers.com/whales-mediterranean-sea/sperm-whales-of-greece/ Whale Trackers]—An online documentary film exploring the sperm whales in the Mediterranean Sea. *[https://web.archive.org/web/20120402142126/http://www.cms.int/reports/small_cetaceans/data/P_macrocephalus/P_macrocephalus.htm Convention on Migratory Species page on the sperm whale] *[http://www.pacificcetaceans.org/ Website of the Memorandum of Understanding for the Conservation of Cetaceans and Their Habitats in the Pacific Islands Region] *[http://www.accobams.org/ Official website of the Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans in the Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area] * [http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/98/13/7384 Retroposon analysis of major cetacean lineages: The monophyly of toothed whales and the paraphyly of river dolphins] 19 June 2001 *[http://cetus.ucsd.edu/voicesinthesea_org/species/spermWhales/sperm.html Voices in the Sea – sounds of the sperm whale] *[https://abcnews.go.com/International/sperm-whales-quickly-learned-avoid-humans-hunting-19th/story?id=76466360 Sperm whales quickly learned to avoid humans who were hunting them in the 19th century, scientists say]. ABC News. 16 March 2021.
{{Cetacea|O.}} {{Taxonbar |from=Q81214}} {{Authority control}}
Category:Apex predators Category:Mammals described in 1758 Category:EDGE species Category:Sperm whales Category:Symbols of Connecticut Category:Cosmopolitan mammals Category:Articles containing video clips Category:Animals that use echolocation Category:Animal taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Category:ESA endangered species