{{Short description|Endangered language spoken in Canada and Alaska}} {{Use dmy dates|date=June 2016}} {{Infobox language | name = Haida | nativename = {{lang|hai|X̱aat Kíl, X̱aadas Kíl, X̱aayda Kil, Xaad kil}} | states = {{Plainlist}} * British Columbia (Haida Gwaii) 25px * Alaska (Prince of Wales Island) {{Endplainlist}} | ethnicity = Haida people | speakers = 13 | date = 2018, 2020 | ref = e25 | familycolor = american | family = Language isolate | dia1 = Alaskan/Kaigani | dia2 = Masset | dia3 = Skidegate | dia4 = Ninstints {{extinct}} | script = Latin | nation = 27px Council of the Haida Nation <br> 27px Alaska | iso2 = hai | iso3 = hai | lc1 = hdn | ld1 = Northern Haida | lc2 = hax | ld2 = Southern Haida | map = Haida lang.png | mapcaption = Pre-contact distribution of Haida | map2 = Lang Status 20-CR.svg | mapcaption2 = {{center|{{small|Northern Haida is classified as Critically Endangered by the UNESCO ''Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger''}}}} | notice = IPA|||| | glotto = haid1248 | glottorefname = Haida | image = File:00canadafilm-ss-slide-Q7S7-superJumbo.jpg | imagecaption = A woman hangs posters with the Haida words for various facial features }} {{Infobox ethnonym|root=|person=|people=Haida|language=Haida kil|country=Haida Gwaii}} '''Haida''' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|aɪ|d|ə}}<ref>Laurie Bauer, 2007, ''The Linguistics Student's Handbook'', Edinburgh</ref> (''{{lang|hai|X̱aat Kíl}}'', ''{{lang|hai|X̱aadas Kíl}}'', ''{{lang|hai|X̱aayda Kil}}'', ''{{lang|hai|Xaad kil}}''<ref>{{cite news |url=https://vancouversun.com/Opinion/Columnists/stephen-hume-a-high-tech-fight-to-save-bcs-indigenous-languages?r |title=A high-tech fight to save B.C.'s indigenous languages |first=Stephen |last=Hume |work=The Vancouver Sun |date=March 17, 2014 }}</ref>) is the language of the Haida people, spoken in the Haida Gwaii archipelago off the coast of western Canada and on Prince of Wales Island in Alaska. An endangered language, Haida currently{{When|date=November 2022}} has 24 native speakers, though revitalization efforts are underway. At the time of the European arrival at {{lang|hai|Haida Gwaii}} in 1774, it is estimated that Haida speakers numbered about 15,000. Epidemics soon led to a drastic reduction in the Haida population, which became limited to three villages: Masset, Skidegate, and Hydaburg. Positive attitudes towards assimilation combined with the ban on speaking Haida in residential schools led to a sharp decline in the use of the Haida language among the Haida people, and today almost all ethnic Haida use English to communicate.

Classification of the Haida language is a matter of controversy, with some linguists placing it in the Na-Dené language family and others arguing that it is a language isolate. Haida itself is split between Northern and Southern dialects, which differ primarily in phonology. The Northern Haida dialects have developed pharyngeal consonants, typologically uncommon sounds which are also found in some of the nearby Salishan and Wakashan languages.

The Haida sound system includes ejective consonants, glottalized sonorants, contrastive vowel length, and phonemic tone. The nature of tone differs between the dialects, and in Alaskan Haida it is primarily a pitch accent system. Syllabic laterals appear in all dialects of Haida, but are only phonemic in Skidegate Haida. Extra vowels which are not present in Haida words occur in nonsense words in Haida songs. There are a number of systems for writing Haida using the Latin alphabet, each of which represents the sounds of Haida differently.

While in Haida nouns and verbs behave as clear word classes, adjectives form a subclass of verbs. Haida has only a few adpositions. Indo-European-type adjectives translate into verbs in Haida, for example ''{{lang|hai|'láa}}'' "(to be) good", and English prepositional phrases are usually expressed with Haida "relational nouns", for instance Alaskan Haida ''{{lang|hai|dítkw}}'' 'side facing away from the beach, towards the woods'. Haida verbs are marked for tense, aspect, mood, and evidentiality, and person is marked by pronouns that are cliticized to the verb. Haida also has hundreds of classifiers. Haida has the rare direct-inverse verbal alignment where instead of nominal cases, it is marked depending on whether or not the grammatical subject and object follow a hierarchy between persons and noun classes. Haida also has obligatory possession, where certain types of nouns cannot stand alone and require a possessor.

==History== The first documented contact between the Haida and Europeans was in 1772, on Juan Pérez's exploratory voyage.<ref name="e1">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=1}}</ref> At this time Haidas inhabited the {{lang|hai|Haida Gwaii}}, Dall Island, and Prince of Wales Island.<ref name="e1" /> The precontact Haida population was about 15,000; the first smallpox epidemic came soon after initial contact, reducing the population to about 10,000 and depopulating a large portion of the Ninstints dialect area.<ref name="e2">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=2}}</ref> The next epidemic came in 1862, causing the population to drop to 1,658.<ref name="e2" /> Venereal disease and tuberculosis further reduced the population to 588 by 1915.<ref name="e2" /> This dramatic decline led to the merger of villages, the final result being three Haida villages: Masset (merged 1876), Skidegate (merged 1879), and Hydaburg (merged 1911).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|pp=2–3}}</ref>

{{Main|Haida Jargon}} In the 1830s a pidgin trade language based on Haida, known as '''Haida Jargon''', was used in the islands by speakers of English, Haida, Coast Tsimshian, and Heiltsuk.<ref name="Campbell1997">Lyle Campbell (1997) ''American Indian Languages'', p. 24</ref> The Fraser Canyon Gold Rush of 1858 led to a boom in the town of Victoria, and Southern Haida began traveling there annually, mainly for the purpose of selling their women.<ref name="e3">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=3}}</ref> For this the Haida used Chinook Jargon.<ref name="e4" /> This contact with whites had a strong effect on the Southern Haida, even as the Northern Haida remained culturally conservative.<ref name="e4">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=4}}</ref> For instance, Skidegate Haida were reported as dressing in the European fashion in 1866, while Northern Haida "were still wearing bearskins and blankets ten years later."<ref name="e4" />

In 1862, William Duncan, a British Anglican missionary stationed at Fort Simpson, took fifty Tsimshian converts and created a new model community, Metlakatla, in Alaska.<ref name="e5">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=5}}</ref> The new village was greatly successful, and throughout the Northwest coast the attitude spread that abandoning tradition would pave the way for a better life.<ref name="e6">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=6}}</ref> The Haida themselves invited missionaries to their community, the first arriving in 1876.<ref name="e6" /> These missionaries initially worked in the Haida language.<ref name="e6" />

The Rev. John Henry Keen translated the Book of Common Prayer into Haida, published in 1899 in London by the Church Mission Society.<ref name="bo">{{cite book |last=Beolens |first=Bo |title=The Eponym Dictionary of Mammals |year=2009 |publisher=JHU Press |page=220 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I-kSmWLc6vYC&pg=PA220 |display-authors=etal |isbn=9780801895333 }}</ref><ref group="nb">Keen also translated 3 books of the New Testament into Haida: Acts, published in 1898; and the gospels of Luke and John, published 1899. {{cite journal |last=Hatch |first=Melville H. |title=A Biographical Memoir of Rev. Keen|journal=The Coleopterists Bulletin |date=Autumn 1957 |volume=XI |issue=3/4 |pages=62–64 |jstor=3999009 }}</ref> The book of Psalms as well as 3 Gospels and Acts from the New Testament would also be translated into Haida.<ref name="e6" /> However, negative attitudes towards the use of the Haida language were widespread among the Haida people, even in the fairly conservative village of Masset where Keen was located.<ref name="e6" /> In an 1894 letter, Keen wrote:

{{blockquote|text=These people would fain have their services etc. entirely in English. It has been by sheer determination that I now have the whole service (except hymns and canticles) in the vernacular.|sign=John Henry Keen |source=1894 letter, quoted in {{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=6}}}}

Beginning at the turn of the century, Haida began sending their children to residential schools.<ref name="e6" /> This practice was most widespread among the Southern Haida; among the Northern Haida it was practiced by the more "progressive" families.<ref name="e7">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=7}}</ref> These schools strictly enforced a ban on the use of native languages, and played a major role in the decimation of native Northwest Coast languages.<ref name="e7" /> The practice of Haida families using English to address children spread in Masset in the 1930s, having already been practiced in Skidegate, the rationale being that this would aid the children in their school education.<ref name="e7" /> After this point few children were raised with Haida as a primary language.<ref name="e7" />

==Status== [[File:Old Massett.jpg|thumb|Haida text on Old Massett welcome sign]] Today most Haida do not speak the Haida language. The language is listed as "critically endangered" in UNESCO's ''Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger'', with nearly all speakers elderly.<ref>{{cite book |title=Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger |date=2010 |publisher=UNESCO |isbn=978-92-3-104096-2 |edition=3rd |url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/endangered-languages/atlas-of-languages-in-danger/|access-date=19 July 2016 }}</ref><ref name="hlorg">{{cite web |title=Haida Language Mainpage |last=Lachler |first=Jordan |url =http://haidalanguage.org/ |access-date=23 May 2008 }}</ref> As of 2003, most speakers of Haida are between 70 and 80 years of age, though they speak a "considerably simplified" form of Haida, and comprehension of the language is mostly limited to persons above the age of 50. The language is rarely used even among the remaining speakers and comprehenders.<ref name="e17"/>

The Haida have a renewed interest in their traditional culture, and are now funding Haida language programs in schools in the three Haida communities, though these have been ineffectual.<ref name="e8">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=8}}</ref> Haida classes are available in many Haida communities and can be taken at the University of Alaska Southeast in Juneau, Ketchikan, and Hydaburg.<ref name="hlorg" /><ref name="ktoo201310">{{Cite episode |publisher=KTOO, Juneau, Alaska |credits=Lisa Phu (Director) |title=UAS and Yukon College partnership advances Native language efforts |access-date=24 October 2013 |date=22 October 2013 |minutes=3:44 |url=http://www.ktoo.org/2013/10/22/uas-and-yukon-college-partnership-advances-native-language-efforts/ }}</ref> A Skidegate Haida language app is available for iPhone, based on a "bilingual dictionary and phrase collection {{sic|comprised |hide=y|of}} words and phrases archived at the online Aboriginal language database FirstVoices.com."<ref>{{Cite web |title=FirstVoices: Hlg̱aagilda X̱aayda Kil Welcome Page |access-date=19 January 2013 |url=http://www.firstvoices.com/en/Hlgaagilda-Xaayda-Kil }}</ref>

In 2017 Kingulliit Productions was working on the first feature film to be acted entirely in Haida; the actors had to be trained to pronounce the lines correctly.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/11/world/americas/reviving-a-lost-language-of-canada-through-film.html|title=Reviving a Lost Language of Canada Through Film|first=Catherine|last=Porter|newspaper=The New York Times |date=11 June 2017}}</ref> The film, titled SGaawaay K’uuna ("''Edge of the Knife''"), premiered publicly at the 2018 Toronto International Film Festival.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/08/31/world/canada/a-tumultuous-week-for-justin-trudeau-the-canada-letter.html |title=A Tumultuous Week for Justin Trudeau: The Canada Letter |last=Austen |first=Ian |date=31 August 2018 |work=The New York Times|accessdate=3 September 2018}}</ref>

==Classification== Franz Boas first suggested that Haida might be genetically related to the Tlingit language in 1894, and linguist Edward Sapir included Haida in the Na-Dené language family in 1915.<ref name="e2004" /> The classification of Haida has been contentious ever since, with some authors supporting its membership in the Na-Dené family,<ref name="e2004">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2004|p=229}}</ref> and others arguing that this classification is due to errors or loanwords in the early data on Haida.<ref name="Levine1979">{{Harvcoltxt|Levine|1979}}</ref>

Today, Haida is generally considered to be a language isolate.<ref name="Schoonmaker">{{Harvcoltxt|Schoonmaker|Von Hagen|Wolf|1997|p=257}}</ref><ref name="eth20">{{Ethnologue20|HAN}}</ref> However, this theory is not universally accepted; for example, Enrico (2004) argues that Haida does in fact belong to the Na-Dené family, though early loanwords make the evidence problematic.<ref name="e2004" />

The contentious Dene-Yeniseian languages proposal, which links the Na-Dené language family to the Yeniseian family of central Siberia, treats Haida as separate from the Na-Dené languages.<ref name=symposium>{{Cite web |url=http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/dy2008.html |title=Dene–Yeniseic Symposium |access-date=17 March 2008 |archive-date=26 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090526221250/http://www.uaf.edu/anlc/dy2008.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Dialects== Haida has a major dialectal division between Northern and Southern dialects.<ref name="e1" /> Northern Haida is split into Alaskan (or Kaigani) Haida and Masset (or North Graham Island) Haida.<ref name="e1" /> Southern Haida was originally split into Skidegate Haida and Ninstints Haida, but Ninstints Haida is now extinct and is poorly documented.<ref name="e1" /> The dialects differ in phonology and to some extent vocabulary; however, they are grammatically mostly identical.<ref name="hlorg" />

Northern Haida is notable for its pharyngeal consonants.<ref name="m18"/> Pharyngeal consonants are rare among the world's languages, even in North America.<ref name="m17">{{Harvcoltxt|Mithun|2001|p=17}}</ref> They are an areal feature of some languages in a small portion of Northwest America, in the Salishan and Wakashan languages as well as Haida.<ref name="m18" /> The pharyngeal consonants of Wakashan and Northern Haida are known to have developed recently.<ref name="m18" />

==Phonology== ===Consonants=== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center" |+ Skidegate Haida consonants<ref name="e10" /><ref name="e12" /> |- ! rowspan=2 colspan=2| ! rowspan=2 | Bilabial ! colspan=2 | Alveolar ! rowspan=2 | Postalveolar<br/> / Palatal ! rowspan=2 | Palatal~Velar ! rowspan=2 | Uvular ! rowspan=2 | Pharyngeal ! rowspan=2 | Glottal |- ! <small>median</small> ! <small>lateral</small> |- ! rowspan=3|Plosive ! <small>plain</small>{{ref|plain plosives|1|}} | {{IPA link|b̥}} | {{IPA link|d̥}} | | | {{IPA link|ɡ̊}} | {{IPA link|ɢ̥}} |({{IPA link|ʕ̥}}){{ref|rad|3}} | {{IPA link|ʔ}} |- ! <small>aspirated</small> | | {{IPA link|tʰ}} | | | {{IPA link|kʰ}} | {{IPA link|qʰ}} | | |- ! <small>ejective</small> | | {{IPA link|tʼ}} | | | {{IPA link|kʼ}} | {{IPA link|qʼ}} | | |- ! rowspan=3| Affricate ! <small>lenis</small> | | | {{IPA link|d̥͡ɮ̊}} | {{IPA link|d̥͡ʒ̊}} | | | | |- ! <small>fortis</small> | | | {{IPA link|t͡ɬʰ}} | {{IPA link|t͡ʃʰ}} {{ref|ts|2|}} | | | | |- ! <small>ejective</small> | | {{IPA link|t͡sʼ}} | {{IPA link|t͡ɬʼ}} | | | | | |- ! colspan="2" | Fricative | | {{IPA link|s}} | {{IPA link|ɬ}} | | {{IPA link|x}} | {{IPA link|χ}} | ({{IPA link|ħ}}){{ref|rad|3}} | {{IPA link|h}} |- ! rowspan=2| '''Nasal''' ! <small>plain</small> | {{IPA link|m}} | {{IPA link|n}} | | | {{IPA link|ŋ}} | | | |- ! <small>glottalized</small> | {{IPA link|mˀ}} | {{IPA link|nˀ}} | | | | | | |- ! rowspan=2|Approximant ! <small> plain</small> | | | {{IPA link|l}} | {{IPA link|j}} | {{IPA link|w}} | | | |- ! <small> glottalized</small> | | | {{IPA link|lˀ}} | | | | | |}

* {{note|plain plosives|1}} The plain stops are partially voiced in syllable-initial position.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|Stuart|1996|pp=x–xi}}</ref> * {{note|ts|2}} For some speakers, {{IPA|[t͡ʃ]}} occurs only at the beginning of syllables, while {{IPA|[t͡s]}} does not occur there, making them allophones of the same phoneme.<ref name="L18">{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=18}}</ref> * {{note|rad|3}} In Northern Haida (Masset Haida and Alaskan Haida), {{IPA|/χ ɢ̥/}} historically developed into {{IPA|/ħ ʕ/}},<!-- need citation for affricate pronunciation of second sound --> with {{IPA|/χ ɢ̥/}} then being reintroduced by occasional borrowings from Southern Haida, Tlingit, Tsimshian, and Chinook jargon.<ref name="e12" /><ref name="lepi">{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|pp=48–49}}</ref> The actual realization of the pharyngeal consonants {{IPA|/ħ ʕ/}} varies with dialect.<ref name="m18">{{Harvcoltxt|Mithun|2001|p=18}}</ref> In Masset Haida they are pharyngeal fricatives, {{IPA|[ħ, ʕ]}}, whereas in the variety of Alaskan Haida spoken in Hydaburg they have been described as an epiglottal trill {{IPA|[ʜ]}} and a trilled epiglottal affricate {{IPA|[ʡʢ]}} or an epiglottal stop {{IPA|[ʡ]}} respectively.<ref name="m18" /><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://lingserver.arts.ubc.ca/linguistics/sites/default/files/1993_Bessell.pdf |last=Bessell |first=Nicola J. |title=Preliminary Notes on Some Pacific Northwest Coast Pharyngeals |publisher=University of Pennsylvania |access-date=5 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304185927/http://lingserver.arts.ubc.ca/linguistics/sites/default/files/1993_Bessell.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

In Alaskan Haida, all velar, uvular, and epiglottal consonants, as well as {{IPA|/n l j/}} for some speakers, have rounded variants resulting from coalescence of clusters with {{IPA|/w/}}.<ref name="L278">{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|pp=27–28}}</ref> Alaskan Haida also shows simplification of {{IPA|/ŋ/}} to {{IPA|/n/}} when preceding an alveolar or postalveolar obstruent, and of {{IPA|/sd̥͡ɮ̊/}} to {{IPA|/sl/}}.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|pp=45–46}}</ref>

In Skidegate Haida, {{IPA|/x/}} has allophone {{IPA|[h]}} in syllable-final position.<ref name="e10" />

Masset Haida phonology is complicated by various spreading processes caused by contiguous sonorants across morpheme boundaries, caused by loss of consonants in morpheme-initial position.<ref name="e16">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=16}}</ref>

===Vowels=== {| | {|class="wikitable" |+ Skidegate Haida vowels<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|pp=10–11}}</ref> ! ! Front ! Back |- ! Close | align=center | {{IPA link|i}} {{IPA link|iː}} | align=center | {{IPA link|u}} {{IPA link|uː}} |- ! Open-mid | align=center | ({{IPA link|ɛː}}) | align=center | ({{IPA link|ɔː}}) |- ! Open | align=center colspan=2 | {{IPA link|a}} {{IPA link|aː}} |} | {| class="wikitable" |+ Masset and Kaigani Haida vowels<ref name="esxi" /> ! ! Front ! Back |- ! Close | align=center | {{IPA link|i}} {{IPA link|iː}} | align=center | {{IPA link|u}} {{IPA link|uː}} |- ! Mid | align=center | {{IPA link|e}} {{IPA link|eː}} | align=center | ({{IPA link|oː}}) |- ! Open | align=center colspan=2 | {{IPA link|a}} {{IPA link|aː}} |} |} The high vowels {{IPA|/i iː u uː/}} may be realized as upper mid to high and include lax as well as tense values.<ref name="e11">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=11}}</ref>

The vowels {{IPA|/ɛː ɔː/}} are rare in Skidegate Haida.<ref name="e11"/> {{IPA|/ɔː/}} only occurs in some interjections and borrowings, and {{IPA|/ɛː/}} only occurs in the two words ''{{lang|hai|tleehll}}'' "five" and ''{{lang|hai|tl'lneeng}}'' (a clitic).<ref name="e11" /> In Masset Haida {{IPA|/ɛ/}} and {{IPA|/ɛː/}} are both very common, and are involved in spreading and ablaut processes.<ref name="e12" /> Alaskan Haida has neither of these, but has a diphthong {{IPA|/ei/}}, introduced from contraction of low-toned {{IPA|/əʔi/}} and {{IPA|/əji/}} sequences.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|pp=20, 42}}</ref>

In Skidegate Haida, some instances of the vowel {{IPA|/a/}} are on an underlying level unspecified for quality; Enrico (2003) marks specified {{IPA|/a/}} with the symbol {{angle bracket|}} {{IPA link|}}.<ref name="e11" /> Unspecified {{IPA|/a/}} becomes {{IPA|/u/}} after {{IPA|/w/}}, {{IPA|/i/}} after (non-lateral) alveolar and palatal consonants, and syllabic {{IPA|/l/}} after lateral consonants.<ref name="e11" /><ref group="nb">This may occur after FSS, for instance ''{{lang|hai|kwasaaw}}'' 'pig' + ''{{lang|hai|-aay}}'' 'DF' becomes ''{{lang|hai|kwasiwaay}}'', see {{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=17}}.</ref> This does not exist in Masset Haida.<ref name="e12" /> A small class of Masset Haida words has a new vowel in place of this unspecified vowel which differs in quality from the vowel {{IPA|/a/}}.<ref name="e13" /> <!-- Enrico & Stuart (1996) p. xii implies that this vowel is {{IPA|/e/}} and also occurs in this way in Kaigani -->

{{IPA|/ə/}} is the short counterpart of {{IPA|/aː/}} and so can also be analyzed as {{IPA|/a/}}. Though quite variable in realization, it has an allophone {{IPA|[ʌ]}} when occurring after uvular and epiglottal consonants.<ref name="L323">{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|pp=32–33}}</ref> The sequences {{IPA|/jaː/}} and {{IPA|/waː/}} tend towards {{IPA|[æː]}} and {{IPA|[ɒː]}} for some speakers.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=26}}</ref>

A number of the contrasts between vowels, or sequences of vowels and the semivowels {{IPA|/j/}} and {{IPA|/w/}}, are neutralized in certain positions: * The short vowels do not contrast after the alveolar and postalveolar fricatives and affricates. Only one short vowel occurs in this position, in Alaskan Haida usually realized as {{IPA|[e]}}, but {{IPA|[i]}} when further followed by {{IPA|/j/}}, and {{IPA|[u]}} when followed by any rounded consonant.<ref name="L323"/> * The contrasts of {{IPA|/i/}} with {{IPA|/jə/}}, and {{IPA|/u/}} with {{IPA|/wə/}} are neutralized when preceded by a velar/uvular/epiglottal consonant, as well as word-initially before the glottal stop.<ref name="L35">{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=35}}</ref> * No contrast exists between long high vowels and short high vowels followed by a semivowel. Thus, {{IPA|/iː/}} is equivalent to {{IPA|/ij/}}, and {{IPA|/uː/}} is equivalent to {{IPA|/uw/}};<ref name="L35"/> moreover, {{IPA|/wiː/}} is also equivalent to {{IPA|/uj/}}, and {{IPA|/juː/}} to {{IPA|/iw/}}.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=27}}</ref> * After consonants other than velar/uvular/epiglottal, {{IPA|/əj/}} and {{IPA|/əw/}} are also neutralized to {{IPA|/iː/}} and {{IPA|/uː/}}.<ref name="L35"/> * Long vowels are shortened before syllable-final glottal consonants, the high vowels {{IPA|/iː uː/}} also before sonorant (nasal or approximant) consonants. Where productive, this is a late process that applies after the preceding neutralizations, so that e.g. {{IPA|/qʰwaːʔáːj/}} "the rock" is realized as {{IPA|[qʰwʌʔáːj]}}, not {{IPA|[qʰuʔáːj]}}.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=36}}</ref>

The vowels {{IPA|/ɯ ɜ æ/}} and short {{IPA|/o/}} occur in nonsense syllables in Haida songs.<ref name="esxii" />

===Tone=== Haida features phonemic tone, the nature of which differs by dialect.

The Canadian dialects (Skidegate and Masset) have a tone system with low functional load.<ref name="e13">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=13}}</ref> Unmarked heavy syllables (those with long vowels or ending in sonorants) have high pitch, and unmarked light syllables have low pitch: ''{{lang|hai|gid}}'' {{IPA|[ɡ̊ìd̥]}} "dog", ''{{lang|hai|gin}}'' {{IPA|[ɡ̊ín]}} "sapwood".<ref name="e13" /> Examples of marked syllables include ''{{lang|hai|sùu}}'' "among" (Masset), ''{{lang|hai|k'á}}'' "tiny" (Skidegate).<ref name="e14">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=14}}</ref> In Masset Haida marked low tone syllables are more common, resulting from elision of intervocalic consonants: compare Skidegate ''{{lang|hai|7axad}}'' to Masset ''{{lang|hai|7àad}}'' "net".<ref name="e14" /> Some alternations may be interpreted as results of syllable parsing rather than marked tone: compare Masset ''{{lang|hai|q'al.a}}'' {{IPA|[qʼálà]}} 'muskeg' to ''{{lang|hai|q'ala}}'' {{IPA|[qʼàlà]}} 'be suspicious of', where ''{{lang|hai|.}}'' marks a syllable boundary.<ref name="e14" />

In Skidegate Haida, short vowels which do not have marked tone are phonetically lengthened when they are in a word-initial open syllable, thus ''{{lang|hai|q'an}}'' {{IPA|[qʼán]}} "grass" becomes ''{{lang|hai|q'anaa}}'' {{IPA|[qʼàːnáː]}} "grassy".<ref name="e17">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=17}}</ref>

In Masset Haida, marked low tone syllables have extra length, thus ''{{lang|hai|ginn}}'' "thing", ''{{lang|hai|7aww}}'' "mother".<ref name="e15">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=15}}</ref>

In Kaigani, the system is primarily one of pitch accent, with at most one syllable per word featuring high tone in most words, though there are some exceptions (e.g. ''{{lang|hai|gúusgáakw}}'' "almost"), and it is not always clear what should be considered an independent "word".<ref name="esxii">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|Stuart|1996|p=xii}}</ref><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|pp=53–55}}</ref> High tone syllables are usually heavy (having a long vowel or ending in a sonorant).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|pp=50–51}}</ref>

===Phonotactics=== The syllable template in Haida is (C(C(C)))V(V)(C(C)).<ref name="e13"/> In Skidegate Haida the two unaspirated stops /p t/ can occur in the syllable coda, while none of the other unaspirated or aspirated stops can.<ref name="e10">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=10}}</ref> In Masset Haida the unaspirated stops and affricates which may be in the syllable coda are {{IPA|/p t t͡s t͡ʃ k/}},<ref name="e12">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=12}}</ref> in Alaskan Haida {{IPA|/p t t͡s t͡ɬ k kʷ ʡ͡ʜ/}}.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=30}}</ref> Would-be final {{IPA|/q/}} in loanwords may be nativized to zero.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=49}}</ref>

In Skidegate Haida a long syllabic lateral may appear in VV position, e.g. ''{{lang|hai|tl'll}}'' "sew".<ref name="e12" /> Historically this developed from long ''{{lang|hai|ii}}'' after a lateral consonant, but a few Skidegate words retain ''{{lang|hai|ii}}'' in this position, e.g. ''{{lang|hai|qaahlii}}'' "inside", ''{{lang|hai|liis}}'' "mountain goat wool".<ref name="e12" /> Syllabic resonants occur frequently in Masset Haida and occasionally in Kaigani Haida, but they are not present on the phonemic level.<ref name="esxi">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|Stuart|1996|p=xi}}</ref>

==Orthography== ===First orthography=== Several orthographies have been devised for writing Haida. The first alphabet was devised by the missionary Charles Harrison<ref>{{Cite web|title=Queen Charlotte Islands; The Reverend And Mrs. Charles Harrison With Haida Indians – RBCM Archives|url=https://search-bcarchives.royalbcmuseum.bc.ca/queen-charlotte-islands-reverend-and-mrs-charles-harrison-with-haida-indians|access-date=2021-07-16|website=search-bcarchives.royalbcmuseum.bc.ca}}</ref> of the Church Mission Society who translated some Old Testament Stories in the Haida Language,<ref>[https://archive.org/details/cihm_05385 Old Testament Stories in the Haida Language] on archive.org</ref> and some New Testament books. These were published by the British and Foreign Bible Society with the Haida Gospel of Matthew in 1891,<ref>[https://archive.org/details/saintmatthewgieg00harr Haida Gospel of Matthew] on archive.org</ref> Haida Gospel of Luke in 1899<ref>[https://archive.org/details/gospelaccordingt00keen Haida Gospel of Luke] on archive.org</ref> and the Haida Gospel of John in 1899,<ref>[https://archive.org/details/cihm_14249b Haida Gospel of John] on archive.org</ref> and the book of Acts in Haida in the 1890s.

===Modern orthography=== The linguist John Enrico created another orthography for Skidegate and Masset Haida which introduced {{angle bracket|7}} and {{angle bracket|@}} as letters and did away with the distinction between upper and lower case, and this system is popular in Canada.<ref name="esx">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|Stuart|1996|p=x}}</ref><ref name="wwh">{{cite web |last=Lachler |first=Jordan |url=http://www.haidalanguage.org/ways-of-writing.html |title=Ways of Writing Haida |access-date=25 November 2012 }}</ref><ref name="lg">{{cite web |last=Harvey |first=Chris |url=http://www.languagegeek.com/isolate/xaadas.html |title=Haida Language |year=2008 |access-date=25 November 2012 }}</ref> Another alphabet was devised by Alaska Native Language Center (ANLC) for Kaigani Haida in 1972, based on Tlingit orthographic conventions, and is still in use.{{citation needed|date=June 2023}} Robert Bringhurst, for his publications on Haida literature, created an orthography without punctuation or numerals, and few apostrophes; and in 2008 the Skidegate Haida Immersion Program (SHIP) created another, which is the usual orthography used in Skidegate.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bringhurst |first=Robert |year=2011 |title=A Story as Sharp as a Knife: The Classical Haida Mythtellers and Their World |section=Appendix 1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/storyassharpaskn0000brin/page/429 429] |publisher=Douglas & McIntyre |isbn=978-1553658399 |url=https://archive.org/details/storyassharpaskn0000brin/page/429 }}</ref> Other systems have been used by isolated linguists.<ref name="lg"/> Haida consonants are represented as follows.

{| class="wikitable" border="1" |+ Haida consonants<ref name="wwh"/><ref name="lg"/> ! colspan="5" | Spelling ! rowspan="2" | Phoneme |- ! Enrico<br/>Masset ! Enrico<br/>Skidegate ! ANLC ! SHIP ! Bringhurst |- | colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | b | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA|b̥}} |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | c | colspan="3" style="text-align: center;" | x | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|x}} |- | colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | d | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA|d̥}} |- | colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | dl | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA|d̥͡ɮ̊}} |- | colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | g | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA|ɡ̊}} |- | style="text-align: center;" | G | style="text-align: center;" | r | style="text-align: center;" | ĝ | style="text-align: center;" | g̱ | style="text-align: center;" | gh | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA|ɢ̥}} |- | colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | h | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|h}} |- | colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | hl | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|ɬ}} |- | colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | j | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA|d̥͡ʒ̊}} |- | colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | k | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|kʰ}} |- | colspan="4" style="text-align: center;" | kʼ | style="text-align: center;" | kk | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|kʼ}} |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | q | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | ḵ | style="text-align: center;" | q | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|qʰ}} |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | qʼ | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | ḵʼ | style="text-align: center;" | qq | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|qʼ}} |- | colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | l | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|l}} |- | colspan="4" style="text-align: center;" | ʼl | style="text-align: center;" | ll | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA|lˀ}} |- | colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | m | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|m}} |- | colspan="4" style="text-align: center;" | ʼm | style="text-align: center;" | mm | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA|mˀ}} |- | colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | n | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|n}} |- | colspan="4" style="text-align: center;" | ʼn | style="text-align: center;" | nn | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA|nˀ}} |- | colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | ng | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|ŋ}} |- | colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | p | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|pʰ}} |- | colspan="4" style="text-align: center;" | pʼ | style="text-align: center;" | – | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|pʼ}} |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | r | style="text-align: center;" | g̱ | style="text-align: center;" | – | style="text-align: center;" | gh ({{okina}}) | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|ʕ̥}} |- | colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | s | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|s}} |- | colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | t | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|tʰ}} |- | colspan="4" style="text-align: center;" | tʼ | style="text-align: center;" | tt | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|tʼ}} |- | colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | tl | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|t͡ɬʰ}} |- | colspan="4" style="text-align: center;" | tlʼ | style="text-align: center;" | ttl | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|t͡ɬʼ}} |- | colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | ts (ch) | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|t͡s}} |- | colspan="4" style="text-align: center;" | tsʼ | style="text-align: center;" | tts | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|t͡sʼ}} |- | colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | w | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|w}} |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | x | style="text-align: center;" | x̱ | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | – | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|ħ}} |- | style="text-align: center;" | X | style="text-align: center;" | x | style="text-align: center;" | x̂ | style="text-align: center;" | x̱ | style="text-align: center;" | xh | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|χ}} |- | colspan="5" style="text-align: center;" | y | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|j}} |- | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | 7 | colspan="3" style="text-align: center;" | ʼ | style="text-align: center;" | {{IPA link|ʔ}} |- |- ! Enrico<br/>Masset ! Enrico<br/>Skidegate ! ANLC ! SHIP ! Bringhurst ! Phoneme |}

In ANLC orthography {{angle bracket|ch}} is used for {{angle bracket|ts}} in syllable-initial position, and a hyphen is used to distinguish consonant clusters from digraphs (e.g. ''{{lang|hai|kwáan-gang}}'' contains the sequence {{IPA|/n/}} followed by {{IPA|/ɡ/}} rather than the consonant {{IPA|/ŋ/}}).<ref name="wwh"/> Bringhurst uses a raised dot for the same, ''{{lang|hai|kwáan·gang}}''. The Enrico orthography uses {{angle bracket|l}} (or {{angle bracket|ll}} when long) for the syllabic lateral in Skidegate Haida, e.g. ''{{lang|hai|tl'l}}''.<ref name="esxii"/><ref name="wwh"/> Enrico uses a period {{angle bracket|.}} for an "unlinked consonant slot."<ref name="esxi"/> {{angle bracket|r x}} are used for {{IPA|/q χ/}} in Enrico's Skidegate orthography since they generally correspond to {{IPA|/ʡ͡ʜ ʜ/}} in the other dialects.<ref name="wwh"/>

The following are how Haida vowels are written:

{| class="wikitable" |+ Haida vowels<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|Stuart|1996|pp=xi–xii}}</ref> ! ! Front ! Back |- ! Close | align=center | i ii | align=center | u uu |- ! Mid | align=center | e ee | align=center | o oo |- ! Open | align=center colspan=2 | a aa |}

Enrico (2003) uses {{angle bracket|@}} for some instances of {{IPA|/a/}} based on morphophonemics. Alaskan Haida also has a diphthong written {{angle bracket|ei}}. Enrico & Stuart (1996) use {{angle bracket|ï ë ä}} for the vowels {{IPA|/ɯ ɜ æ/}} that occur in nonsense syllables in songs.<ref name="esxii" /> The Alaskan Haida orthography was updated in 2010 by Jordan Lachler.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://sealaskaheritage.org/programs/Language%20Resources/Haida_dictionary_web.pdf |title=Dictionary of Alaskan Haida |last=Lachler |first=Jordan |date=22 June 2016 |website=Dictionary of Alaskan Haida |publisher=Sealaska Heritage Institute |access-date=22 June 2016 |archive-date=13 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113051135/https://sealaskaheritage.org/programs/Language%20Resources/Haida_dictionary_web.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Grammar==

===Morphology=== The word classes in Haida are nouns, verbs, postpositions, demonstratives, quantifiers, adverbs, clitics, exclamations, replies, classifiers, and instrumentals.<ref name="e21" /> Unlike in English, adjectives and some words for people are expressed with verbs, e.g. ''{{lang|hai|jáada}}'' "(to be a) woman", ''{{lang|hai|'láa}}'' "(to be) good".<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|pp=57–58}}</ref> Haida morphology is mostly suffixing.<ref name="e19" /> Prefixation is only used to form "complex verbs", made up of a nominal classifier or instrumental plus a bound root, for instance Skidegate ''{{lang|hai|sq'acid}}'' "pick up stick-object" and ''{{lang|hai|ts'icid}}'' "pick up several (small objects) together, with tongs", which share the root ''{{lang|hai|cid}}'' "pick up".<ref name="e20">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=20}}</ref> Infixation occurs with some stative verbs derived from classifiers, for instance the classifier ''{{lang|hai|7id}}'' plus the stative suffix ''{{lang|hai|-(aa)gaa}}'' becomes ''{{lang|hai|7yaadgaa}}''.<ref name="e20" />

The definite article is suffixed ''{{lang|hai|-aay}}''.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=59}}</ref> Some speakers shorten this suffix to ''{{lang|hai|-ay}}'' or ''{{lang|hai|-ei}}''.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=60}}</ref> Some nouns, especially verbal nouns ending in long vowels and loan words, take ''{{lang|hai|-gaay}}'' instead, often accompanied by shortening or eliding preceding ''{{lang|hai|aa}}''.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=63}}</ref><ref group="nb">In Alaskan Haida, the definite article takes high tone if added to a low-tone syllable, and also takes the high tone from stems ending in a sonorant, nasal, or {{IPA|/iː/}} or {{IPA|/uː/}} "unless their vowel is lengthened", e.g. ''{{lang|hai|x̱akw}}'' "halibut" becomes ''{{lang|hai|x̱agwáay}}''. See {{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=61}}</ref> Haida also has a partitive article ''{{lang|hai|-gyaa}}'', referring to "part of something or ... to one or more objects of a given group or category," e.g. ''{{lang|hai|tluugyaa uu hal tlaahlaang}}'' 'he is making a boat (a member of the category of boats).'<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=64}}</ref><ref group="nb">In Alaskan Haida, ''{{lang|hai|-gyaa}}'' takes high tone if the noun does not have a high tone already. See {{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=65}}</ref> Partitive nouns are never definite, so the two articles never co-occur.<ref name="l65">{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=65}}</ref>

Personal pronouns occur in independent and clitic forms, which may each be in either agentive or objective form; first and second person pronouns also have separate singular and plural forms.<ref name="e92">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=92}}</ref> The third person pronoun is only used for animates, though for possession ''{{lang|hai|ahljíi}}'' (lit. "this one") may be used; after relational nouns and prepositions ''{{lang|hai|'wáa}}'' (lit. "it, that place, there") is used instead.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=151}}</ref> {| class="wikitable Unicode" |+ (Alaskan) Haida pronouns<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|pp=150–151}}</ref> ! colspan="2" | ! colspan="2" | Indep. ! colspan="2" | Clitic |- ! colspan="2" | ! Agentive ! Objective ! Agentive ! Objective |- ! rowspan="2" | 1 ! sg. | {{lang|hai|hláa}} | {{lang|hai|hl}} | {{lang|hai|díinaa}} | {{lang|hai|díi}} |- ! pl. | {{lang|hai|tl'áng}} / {{lang|hai|t'alang}} | {{lang|hai|tl'áng}} / {{lang|hai|dalang}} | {{lang|hai|íitl'aa}} | {{lang|hai|íitl'}} |- ! rowspan="2" | 2 ! sg. | {{lang|hai|dáa}} / {{lang|hai|dáng}} | {{lang|hai|dáng}} | {{lang|hai|dáangaa}} | {{lang|hai|dáng}} |- ! pl. | {{lang|hai|dláng}} / {{lang|hai|dalang}} | {{lang|hai|dláng}} | {{lang|hai|dláangaa}} | {{lang|hai|dláng}} / {{lang|hai|dalang}} |- ! colspan="2" | 3 (anim.) | {{lang|hai|'láa}} | {{lang|hai|hal}} | {{lang|hai|'láangaa}} | {{lang|hai|'láa}} / {{lang|hai|hal}} <sup>1</sup> |- ! rowspan="3" | indef. ! anim. sg. | – | {{lang|hai|nang}} | – | {{lang|hai|nang}} |- ! anim. pl. | – | {{lang|hai|tl'}} | {{lang|hai|tl'aangaa}} | {{lang|hai|tl'aa}} / {{lang|hai|tl'}} <sup>1</sup> |- ! inan. | – | – | – | {{lang|hai|gin}} |- ! colspan="2" | reflex. | – | – | {{lang|hai|aangaa}} | {{lang|hai|án}} / {{lang|hai|-ang}} <sup>2</sup> |- ! colspan="2" | recip. | – | – | {{lang|hai|gut-áangaa}} | {{lang|hai|gut}} / {{lang|hai|gu}} <sup>1</sup> |} {{smalldiv|1= # short form used as bound possessive pronoun before dependent nouns and cliticized to intransitive verbs (that take an objective argument); long form used as bound possessive pronoun before relational nouns and prepositions, and cliticized to transitive verbs # ''{{lang|hai|an}}'' is the object pronoun, while ''{{lang|hai|-ang}}'' is the bound possessive pronoun, suffixed to the noun or preposition it modifies }}

Number is not marked in most nouns, but is marked in certain cases in verbs.<ref name="eplur">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=24}}</ref> Relationship nouns do have a plural in with ''{{lang|hai|-'lang}}'' (or for many speakers ''{{lang|hai|-lang}}''), e.g. ''{{lang|hai|díi chan'láng}}'' "my grandfathers".<ref name="l68">{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=68}}</ref><ref group="nb">As seen in this example, the suffix takes high tone after a low-tone stem. Also note that the suffix ''{{lang|hai|-(a)ng}}'' 'one's own' disappears after this suffix. See {{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=68}}</ref> A few verbs have suppletive plural forms, as in many other North American languages.<ref name="eplur" /> In addition, Haida has a plural verb suffix ''{{lang|hai|-ru}}'' (Skidegate) ''{{lang|hai|-7wa}}'' (Masset) ''{{lang|hai|-'waa}}'' / ''{{lang|hai|-'uu}}'' (Kaigani) that is used to indicate that some third person pronoun in the sentence is plural, and to mark plural subject in imperatives.<ref name="eplur" /><ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|pp=124, 128}}</ref> The third person pronoun that is pluralized can have any grammatical function, e.g. ''{{lang|hai|tsiin-ee 'laangaa hl dah rujuu-7wa-gan}}'' "I bought all '''their''' fish" (Masset).<ref name="eplur" />

Most nouns referring to family relationships have special vocative forms, e.g. ''{{lang|hai|chanáa}}'' (Alaskan) ''{{lang|hai|chaníi}}'' (Masset) "grandfather!"<ref name="l67" />

Haida uses so-called "relational nouns" referring to temporal and spatial relations in place of most prepositions or prepositional phrases in English.<ref name="l68"/> Many of these are formed with the suffix ''{{lang|hai|-guu}}'', or in Alaskan Haida more often ''{{lang|hai|-kw}}''.<ref name="l69">{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=69}}</ref> The updated orthography for Alaska Haida has changed the ''{{lang|hai|-kw}}'' to ''{{lang|hai|-gw}}''. For example, Haida ''{{lang|hai|únkw}}'' / ''{{lang|hai|ínkw}}'' / ''{{lang|hai|ánkw}}'' "surface" likely comes from ''{{lang|hai|ún}}'' "back (noun)", and Alaskan Haida ''{{lang|hai|dítkw}}'' "side facing away from the beach, towards the woods" comes from the noun ''{{lang|hai|(a)díit}}'' "away from the beach, place in the woods".<ref name="l69" /> These contrast with "local nouns", which refer to localities and do not occur with possessive pronouns, e.g. ''{{lang|hai|(a)sáa}}'' "above, up".<ref name="l71" /> Some local nouns have an optional prefix ''{{lang|hai|a-}}'' which does not have semantic value.<ref name="l71" /> Both relational and local nouns may take the areal suffix ''{{lang|hai|-sii}}'' to refer to the entire area rather than a particular location, so for example ''{{lang|hai|'waa ungkw}}'' means "[at some place] on its surface" while ''{{lang|hai|'waa ungkwsii}}'' means "its surface area".<ref name="l72">{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=72}}</ref>

Haida has a small class of true postpositions, some <!-- ? --> of which may be suffixed to relational nouns.<ref name="l70">{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=70}}</ref> The Alaskan postpositions ''{{lang|hai|-k}}'' "to" and ''{{lang|hai|-st}}'' "from" (Skidegate ''{{lang|hai|-ga}}'', ''{{lang|hai|-sda}}'') fuse to the preceding word.<ref name="l70" /> The Alaskan postposition of ''{{lang|hai|-k}}'' has been updated in the current Alaska Haida orthography to ''{{lang|hai|-g}}''. These also fuse with a preceding suffix ''{{lang|hai|-kw}}'' to become ''{{lang|hai|-gwiik}}'' and ''{{lang|hai|-guust}}''.<ref name="l70" /> The updated orthography for Alaska Haida has changed the ''{{lang|hai|-kw}}'' to ''{{lang|hai|-gw}}''. Some postpositions have forms beginning with ''{{lang|hai|ǥ-}}'' which are used in some common constructions without a preceding possessive pronoun, and translate into English as a pronoun plus "it", e.g. ''{{lang|hai|ǥáa hal gut'anánggang}}'' "he's thinking about it" (with ''{{lang|hai|ǥáa}}'' for ''{{lang|hai|aa}}'' "to, at").<ref name="l71">{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=71}}</ref>

Haida demonstratives are formed from the bases ''{{lang|hai|áa}}'' (close to speaker), ''{{lang|hai|húu}}'' (close to listener), ''{{lang|hai|'wáa}}'' (away from both), and ''{{lang|hai|a(hl)}}'' (something previously mentioned), which when used independently are place demonstratives.<ref name="ldem">{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=152}}</ref> These may be given the following suffixes to create other demonstratives: ''{{lang|hai|jii}}'' (singular object), ''{{lang|hai|sgaay}}'' (plural objects), ''{{lang|hai|s(d)luu}}'' (quantity or time), ''{{lang|hai|tl'an}}'' (place), ''{{lang|hai|tl'daas}}'' (plural people), ''{{lang|hai|tsgwaa}}'' (area), and ''{{lang|hai|k'un}}'' (manner).<ref name="ldem" />

Haida verbs have three basic forms: the ''present'', the ''past'', and the ''inferential'' forms.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=78}}</ref> The past and inferential forms are both used to refer to events in the past, but differ in evidentiality: the inferential marks that the speaker was informed of or inferred the event rather than having experienced it personally.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=79}}</ref> The bare present form refer to present-tense events, while future is formed with the suffix ''{{lang|hai|-saa}}'', using a present-form verb, e.g. ''{{lang|hai|hal káasaang}}'' "he will go".<ref name="l125">{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=125}}</ref> The interrogative past form, made from the inferential form by removing final ''{{lang|hai|n}}'', is used in place of both past and inferential forms in sentences with question words.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|pp=125–126}}</ref>

There are four <!-- source says five but only lists 4 !!? --> classes of verb stems:<ref group="nb">The stem of a verb, which is "the form which most people will give as the basic form of a verb if you ask them how to say 'to do so and so{{' "}}, may be determined by removing ''{{lang|hai|-saang}}'' from the future form of the verb, e.g. ''{{lang|hai|kíngsaang}}'' "will see" has stem ''{{lang|hai|kíng}}'' "to see". See {{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=78}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" |+ Haida verb classes (Kaigani Haida)<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|pp=79–88}}</ref> ! ! ending in "weak" ''{{lang|hai|-aa}}'' ! ending in "strong" vowel or ''{{lang|hai|h}}'' ! ending in consonant other than ''{{lang|hai|t}}'' or ''{{lang|hai|s}}'' ! ending in ''{{lang|hai|t}}'' or ''{{lang|hai|s}}'' |- ! stem | ''{{lang|hai|ḵats'áa}}'' | ''{{lang|hai|st'i}}'' | ''{{lang|hai|dáang}}'' | ''{{lang|hai|chat'as}}'' |- ! present | ''{{lang|hai|ḵats'aang}}'' | ''{{lang|hai|st'igáng}}'' | ''{{lang|hai|dáanggang}}'' | ''{{lang|hai|chat'íijang}}'' |- ! past | ''{{lang|hai|ḵats'gán}}'' | ''{{lang|hai|st'igan}}'' | ''{{lang|hai|dáanggan}}'' | ''{{lang|hai|chat'íijan}}'' |- ! inferential | ''{{lang|hai|ḵats'áayaan}}'' | ''{{lang|hai|st'igaan}}'' | ''{{lang|hai|dáangaan}}'' | ''{{lang|hai|chat'ajaan}}'' |- ! meaning | "go, come inside" | "be sick" | "leave, throw away" | "wear" |}

Habitual aspect uses the suffix ''{{lang|hai|-gang}}'' in the present and inferential and ''{{lang|hai|-(g)iinii}}'' in the past.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|pp=123, 125}}</ref> Potential mood is marked with ''{{lang|hai|-hang}}'' and hortative with the particle ''{{lang|hai|ts'an}}'' (in the same position as the tense suffixes).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|pp=125,128}}</ref> Imperatives are marked with the particle ''{{lang|hai|hl}}'' after the first phrase in the sentence, or ''{{lang|hai|hlaa}}'' after the verb word (the verb dropping final weak ''{{lang|hai|aa}}'' if present) if there is no non-verbal phrase.<ref name="l128">{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=128}}</ref><ref group="nb">This clitic ''{{lang|hai|hl}}'' becomes ''{{lang|hai|hahl}}'' if the previous word ends in a lateral consonant. See {{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=149}}</ref> Verbs are negated with the negative suffix ''{{lang|hai|-'ang}}'', usually with the negative word ''{{lang|hai|gam}}'' "not" in sentence-head position.<ref name="lneg">{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=123}}</ref> Verbs drop weak ''{{lang|hai|-aa}}'' before this suffix, e.g. ''{{lang|hai|gám hín hal ist-ánggang}}'' "he is not doing it that way".<ref name="lneg" />

Haida uses instrumental prefixes, classificatory prefixes, and directional suffixes to derive verbs.<ref name="l91">{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=91}}</ref> Some verb stems, known as ''bound stems'', must occur with at least one such affix; for example ''{{lang|hai|-daa}}'' "strike once" requires an instrumental prefix.<ref name="l91" />

Haida has a large number of classifiers (on the order of 475).<ref name="e21">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=21}}</ref> These have a limited number of rhyme structures, which relate to each other ideophonically.<ref name="e21" />

Numerals are generally treated as verbs in Haida, e.g. ''{{lang|hai|vdíi git'aláng sdáansaangaangang}}'' "I have eight children" (literally "my children are eight").<ref name="lnum">{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=144}}</ref> For some types of objects, classificatory prefixes are used, e.g. ''{{lang|hai|sdlakw dlasáng}}'' "two land otters" (''{{lang|hai|dla-}}'' = small animal or fish).<ref name="lnum" />

Nouns and verbs that end in a vowel undergo glide formation (if the final vowel is high) or truncation (otherwise) before vowel-initial prefixes.<ref name="e17" /> Some vowel-initial suffixes cause nouns and verbs which are consonant-final and polysyllabic to undergo Final Syllable Shortening (FSS).<ref name="e17" /> : ''{{lang|hai|sk'u}}'' "high water" + ''{{lang|hai|-aay}}'' 'DF' → ''{{lang|hai|sk'waay}}'' (Masset) : ''{{lang|hai|st'a}}'' "foot" + ''{{lang|hai|-aang}}'' "own" → ''{{lang|hai|st'aang}}'' (Skidegate) : ''{{lang|hai|k'ugansaan}}'' "bladder" + ''{{lang|hai|-ang}}'' "own" → ''{{lang|hai|k'ugansanang}}'' (Masset)

In Masset Haida, final short vowels in polysyllabic verbs are lengthened in sentence-final position: compare Masset ''{{lang|hai|dii-ga-hl 7isdaa}}'' to Skidegate ''{{lang|hai|dii-gi-hla 7isda}}'' "Give it to me".<ref name="e19">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=19}}</ref>

===Syntax=== Haida clauses are verb-final.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=45}}</ref> SOV word order is always possible, while OSV may also be used when the subject is more 'potent' than the object; thus Haida is a direct–inverse language.<ref name="epot">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|pp=74–75}}</ref> For example, a human is more potent than a horse, which is more potent than a wagon.<ref name="epot" /> Thus the Masset Haida sentence ''{{lang|hai|yaank'ii.an-.uu Bill x-aay gu'laa-gang}}'' can only mean "truly Bill likes the dog", while ''{{lang|hai|yaank'ii.an.uu xaay Bill gu'laa-gang}}'' can mean either "truly the dog likes Bill" or "truly Bill likes the dog".<ref name="epot" /> The determinants of potency are complex and include "acquaintance, social rank, humanness, animacy.. number ... [and] gender was also important at least in the two southern dialects."<ref name="e76">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=76}}</ref> The following groups are listed in descending order of potency: "known single adult free humans; non-adult and/or enslaved and/or unknown and/or grouped humans; non-human higher animals; inanimates and lower organisms (fish and lower)."<ref name="e76" /> Grammatical definiteness does not affect potency.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=109}}</ref>

Pronouns are placed adjacent to the verb and cliticized to it.<ref name="e46">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=46}}</ref> Their internal order is object–subject, or in causatives object-causee-subject, for example ''{{lang|hai|Bill dii dalang squdang-hal-gan}}'' <small>Bill me you punch-direct.that-PA</small> "You told Bill to punch me / Bill told you to punch me".<ref name="e46" /><ref group="nb">When both pronouns are object pronouns, the pronoun translating to a subject in English comes last. See {{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=147}}</ref> Potency is also relevant for pronoun ordering when one pronoun is less potent, for example the indefinite pronoun ''{{lang|hai|ga}}'' in ''{{lang|hai|'laa ga 7isda-gan}}'' = ''{{lang|hai|ga 'la 7isda-gan}}'' 'she took some.'<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=78}}</ref> Sentences with ''{{lang|hai|nang}}'' "someone" or ''{{lang|hai|tl'}}'' "some people" as the subject may be translated as passive sentences in English, for example ''{{lang|hai|láa tl' ḵínggan}}'' "he was seen (by more than one person)", literally "some people saw him".<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=148}}</ref>

Clitic pronouns are used as complements of verbs, as inalienable possessives, with quantifiers, and in Skidegate Haida as the objects of some postpositions.<ref name="e92" /> Independent pronouns are used everywhere else.<ref name="e92" /> Agentive pronouns are marked and are only used as subjects of some verbs.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|pp=92–93}}</ref> Verbs taking agentive subjects are most common in the lexicon (about 69%), followed by those taking objective subjects (29%) and those that may take either (2%).<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=95}}</ref> Intransitive verbs of inherent states (e.g. "be old") take an objective subject, while most transitive verbs take agentive subjects (but cf. verbs like ''{{lang|hai|gu'laa}}'' "like").<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|pp=93–94}}</ref> With some verbs that may take either, there may be a semantic difference involved, e.g. ''{{lang|hai|gwaawa}}'' (Masset) which means "refuse" with agentive subject but ''not want'' with objective subject.<ref name="e96">{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=96}}</ref> Enrico (2003) argues that the agentive case indicates planning; thus Haida is essentially an active–stative language, though subject case is also variable in some transitive verbs.<ref name="e96" />

Enclitics are placed after the first phrase in the sentence, usually a noun phrase (except with the imperative clitic ''{{lang|hai|hl(aa)}}'' which follows a verb phrase).<ref name="l145">{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=145}}</ref> Independent pronouns are used instead of clitic pronouns when modified by a clitic, so for example ''{{lang|hai|hal ngíishlgan}}'' "he got well" becomes ''{{lang|hai|l'áa háns ngíishlgan}}'' "he also got well" when the clitic ''{{lang|hai|háns}}'' 'also, too' is added.<ref name="l145" /> The enclitics ''{{lang|hai|-uu}}'' and ''{{lang|hai|-kw}}'' follow other enclitics.<ref name="l146">{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=146}}</ref>

Focus and less commonly topic are marked with the clitic ''{{lang|hai|-.uu~-huu}}'', placed after a sentence-initial constituent, e.g. ''{{lang|hai|Bill-.uu Mary qing-gan}}'' (Skidegate) "'''Bill''' saw Mary" / "Mary saw '''Bill'''", ''{{lang|hai|7ahl7aaniis-.uu "qaagaa" hin.uu 'la kya.a-gaa-n}}'' "That one, he was called 'qaagaa{{' "}}.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|pp=193, 251–252, 254}}</ref><ref group="nb">In Masset this is elided after words with final ''{{lang|hai|uu}}'', see {{Harvcoltxt|Enrico|2003|p=246}}</ref> Question words always take this enclitic, for example ''{{lang|hai|guusuu}}'' "what?", ''{{lang|hai|tláanuu}}'' "where?", ''{{lang|hai|gíisanduu}}'' "when?".<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=153}}</ref>

There are multiple ways that Haida marks possession. Haida has obligatory possession, a common feature of native North American languages where certain nouns (in Haida, family relationship, body part, and "relational" nouns) must occur with a possessor and cannot stand alone.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|pp=66, 68}}</ref> For example, one can say ''{{lang|hai|díi aw}}'' "my mother" but not *''{{lang|hai|aw}}'', though one may use a circumlocution like ''{{lang|hai|nang awáa}}'' 'one who is a mother'.<ref name="l66">{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=66}}</ref> These nouns are possessed using the bound objective pronouns, which all precede the noun except ''{{lang|hai|-(a)ng}}'' 'one's own'.<ref name="l67">{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=67}}</ref><ref group="nb">The suffix ''{{lang|hai|-(a)ng}}'' behaves like ''{{lang|hai|-aay}}'' tonally, thus for instance ''{{lang|hai|awáng}}'' '[someone's] own mother' has high tone on the suffix.</ref> Included in the class of obligatorily possessed nouns are so-called "relational nouns" and postpositions, which generally translate to prepositions or prepositional phrases in English and refer to temporal and spatial relations.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|pp=68, 70}}</ref>

Relational nouns take some special third person possessive pronouns (''{{lang|hai|'láa, 'wáa, tl'áa}}'' rather than ''{{lang|hai|hal, ahljíi, tl'}}''), e.g. ''{{lang|hai|'wáa ḵáahlii}}'' "in(side) it" (lit. "its interior").<ref name="l69"/> Non-obligatory possession nouns are possessed by putting them in definite form after the possessor (a noun or a bound objective pronoun) in partitive form, e.g. ''{{lang|hai|ítl'gyaa yaats'áay}}'' "our knife".<ref name="lpos">{{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|pp=65–66}}</ref><ref group="nb">An exception to this construction is that ''{{lang|hai|gyáagan}}'' is used for "my" instead of the expected *''{{lang|hai|díigyaan}}'', e.g. ''{{lang|hai|gyáagan x̱áay}}'' "my dog". See {{Harvcoltxt|Lawrence|1977|p=65}}</ref> An alternate construction when the possessor is a pronoun is to place an independent objective pronoun after the possessed noun, the latter in definite form, e.g. ''{{lang|hai|náay díinaa}}'' "my house".<ref name="lpos" /> The independent objective pronouns also occur by themselves with possessive force, e.g. ''{{lang|hai|díinaa}}'' "mine".<ref name="l72" />

==Examples==

===Phrases in the Alaskan dialect=== {| class="wikitable" |- | {{lang|hai|Kíl 'láa}} || Hello / goodbye |- | {{lang|hai|Sán uu dáng G̱íidang}} || How do you do? |- | {{lang|hai|Díi 'láagang}} || I'm fine |- |{{lang|hai|Haw'áa}} || Thank you |- | {{lang|hai|Dáng díi Ḵuyáadang}} || I love you |- | {{lang|hai|Sán uu dáng kya'áang?}} || What's your name? |- |{{lang|hai|... hín díi kya'áang}} || My name is ... |- | {{lang|hai|Háws dáng díi Ḵíngsaang}} || I'll see you again |- |{{lang|hai|Hingáan an hl gu Ḵuyáat-'uu}} || Just love one another |- |{{lang|hai|Gíistgaay gúust uu dáng Ḵ'wáalaagang?}} || Whose moiety do you belong to? |}

==Notes== <references group="nb" />

==References== {{reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography== * {{cite book|last1=Enrico|first1=John|last2=Stuart|first2=Wendy Bross|title=Northern Haida Songs|year=1996|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|isbn=0-8032-1816-8}} * {{cite book|last=Enrico|first=John|title=Haida Syntax|year=2003|publisher=University of Nebraska Press|isbn=0-8032-1822-2}} * {{cite journal|last=Enrico|first=John|year=2004|title=Toward Proto – Na-Dene|journal=Anthropological Linguistics|volume=46|issue=3|pages=229–302}} * {{cite book|last=Lawrence|first=Erma|year=1977|title=Haida dictionary|location=Fairbanks|publisher=Alaska Native Language Center|url=http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/recordDetails.jsp?ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED162532&searchtype=keyword&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&_pageLabel=RecordDetails&accno=ED162532&_nfls=false }} * {{cite book|last=Mithun|first=Marianne|year=2001|title=The Languages of Native North America|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=052129875X}} * {{cite book |last1=Schoonmaker |first1=Peter K. |first2=Bettina |last2=Von Hagen |first3=Edward C. |last3=Wolf |title=The Rain Forests of Home: Profile of a North American Bioregion |publisher=Island Press |year=1997 |isbn=1-55963-480-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zHFKeC--U9cC }} * {{cite book |last1=Steedman |first1=Scott |last2=Collison |first2=Nika (Jisgang) |year=2011 |title=That Which Makes Us Haida &mdash; the Haida Language |location=Skidegate |publisher=Haida Gwaii Museum Press |isbn=978-0-920651-32-2 }}

==Other publications== {{refbegin}} #{{cite book |last=Andersen |first=Doris |year=1974 |title=Slave of the Haida |location=Toronto |publisher=Macmillan Co. of Canada |isbn=9780770516338}} #{{cite journal |last=Bengtson |first=John D |year=2008 |title=Materials for a Comparative Grammar of the Dene–Caucasian (Sino-Caucasian) Languages |journal=Aspects of Comparative Linguistics |volume=3 |location=Moscow |publisher=RSUH Publishers |pages=45–118}} #{{cite book |editor-last1=Dauenhauer |editor-first1=Nora |editor-last2=Dauenhauer |editor-first2=Richard |editor-last3=Black |editor-first3=Lydia |year=2008 |title=Anóoshi lingit aaní ká: Russians in Tlingit America: the battles of Sitka, 1802 and 1804 |publisher=University of Washington Press}} #{{Cite book |last1=Dawson |first1=George M. |chapter=Appendix B: Vocabulary of the Haida Indians of the Queen Charlotte Islands |title=Report on the Queen Charlotte Islands, 1878 |access-date=26 August 2012 |year=1880 |isbn=9780665148880 |url=https://archive.org/details/cihm_14888}} #{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Dürr |first1=Michael |last2=Renner |first2=Egon |year=1995 |title=The History of the Na-Dene Controversy: A Sketch |encyclopedia=Language and Culture in North America: Studies in Honor of Heinz-Jürgen Pinnow |editor-last1=Renner |editor-first1=Egon |editor-last2=Dürr |editor-first2=Michael |pages=3–18 |series=Lincom Studies in Native American Linguistics |volume=2 |location=Munich |publisher=Lincom Europa}} #{{cite book |last=Enrico |first=John |year=1983a |chapter=The Haida Language |title=The Outer Shores |editor-last1=Scudder |editor-first1=G. E. |editor-last2=Gessler |editor-first2=Nicholas |location=Queen Charlotte City, BC |publisher=Queen Charlotte Islands Museum Press |pages=223–248}} #{{cite journal |last=Enrico |first=John |year=1983b |title=Tense in the Haida Relative Clause |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=52 |pages=91–123|doi=10.1086/466008 |s2cid=144085511 }} #{{cite journal |last=Enrico |first=John |year=1986 |title=Word Order, Focus and Topic in Haida |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=49 |pages=136–166}} #{{cite book |last=Enrico |first=John |year=1991 |title=The Lexical Phonology of Masset Haida |series=Alaska Native Language Center Research Papers |volume=8 |location=Fairbanks |publisher=Alaska Native Language Center}} #{{cite journal |last=Enrico |first=John |year=1998 |title=Remarks on Pitch in Skidegate Haida |journal=Gengo Kenkyu |volume=12 |pages=115–120}} # Enrico, John. 2003. ''Haida Syntax''. (2 volumes). Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. # Enrico, John. 2005. ''Haida Dictionary: Skidegate, Masset, and Alaskan Dialects.'' (2 volumes). Fairbanks: Alaska Native Language Center; Juneau: Sealaska Heritage Institute. # Fisher, Robin. 1992. "Contact and Conflict: Indian-European Relations in British Columbia, 1774–1890." UBC Press. # Greenberg, J.H. 1987a. ''Language in the Americas.'' Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. # Greenberg, J.H. 1987b. "The Na-Dene Problem". In Greenberg (1987a), pp.&nbsp;321–330. # Harrison, Charles. 1925. "Ancient Warriors of the North Pacific; The Haidas, Their Laws, Customs and Legends." London, H. F. & G. Witherby. # {{Cite book | last1 = Harrison | first1 = Charles | last2 = Royal Society of Canada | title = Haida grammar (microform) | access-date = 26 August 2012 | year = 1895 | isbn = 9780665063992 | url = https://archive.org/details/cihm_06399 }} # {{Cite book | last = Hibben & Carswell | title = Dictionary of Indian tongues (microform) : containing most of the words and terms used in the Tshimpsean, Hydah, & Chinook, with their meaning or equivalent in the English language | access-date = 26 August 2012 | year = 1865 | isbn = 9780665143663 | url = https://archive.org/details/cihm_14366 }} # {{Cite book | publisher = Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge | last1 = Keen | first1 = John Henry | title = A grammar of the Haida language | access-date = 26 August 2012 | year = 1906 | url = https://archive.org/details/agrammarhaidala00keengoog }} #{{cite journal |last=Levine |first=Robert D. |year=1979 |title=Haida and Na-Dene: A New Look at the Evidence |journal=International Journal of American Linguistics |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=157–70|doi=10.1086/465587 |s2cid=143503584 }} #{{cite journal |last=Manaster Ramer |first=Alexis |year=1996 |title=Sapir's Classifications: Haida and the Other Na Dene languages |journal=Anthropological Linguistics |volume=38 |pages=179–215}} #{{cite book |last=Pinnow |first=Heinz-Jürgen |year=1976 |title=Geschichte der Na-Dene-Forschung |isbn=3-7861-3027-2}} # Pinnow. H-J. 1985. ''Das Haida als Na-Dene Sprache.'' (Abhandlungen der völkerkundlichen Arbeitsgemeinschaft, Hefte 43–46.) Nortorf, Germany: Völkerkundliche Arbeitsgemeinschaft. # Pinnow. H-J. 2006a. ''Die Na-Dene-Sprachen im Lichte der Greenberg-Klassifikation. / The Na-Déné Languages in Light of Greenberg's Classification.'' Zweite erweiterte Auflage / Second revised edition. Bredstedt: Druckerei Lempfert. # Pinnow. H-J. 2006b. ''Sprachhistorische Untersuchung zur Stellung des Haida als Na-Dene-Sprache.'' (Unveränderte Neuausgabe aus INDIANA 10, Gedenkschrift Gerdt Kutscher. Teil 2. Berlin 1985. Mit einem Anhang = Die Na-Dene-Sprachen im Verhältnis zum Tibeto-Chinesischen.) Bredstedt: Druckerei Lempfert. #{{cite book |last1=Rosman |first1=Abraham |last2=Rubel |first2=Paula G. |year=1971 |title=Feasting with Mine Enemy: Rank and Exchange among Northwest Coast Societies |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=9780231034838}} #{{cite journal |last=Ruhlen |first=M |year=1998 |title=The Origin of the Na-Dene |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=95 |number=23 |pages=13994–13996|doi=10.1073/pnas.95.23.13994 |pmid=9811914 |bibcode=1998PNAS...9513994R |doi-access=free |pmc=25007 }} #{{cite journal |last=Sapir |first=Edward |year=1915 |title=The Na-Dene Languages: A Preliminary Report |journal=American Anthropologist |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=534–558|doi=10.1525/aa.1915.17.3.02a00080 }} #{{cite book |last=Stearns |first=Mary Lee |year=1981 |title=Haida Culture in Custody |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=9780295957630}} # Swanton, John R. 1905. ''[https://archive.org/details/haidatextsandmy04swangoog Haida Texts and Myths. Skidegate dialect].'' (Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 29.) Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. # Swanton, John R. 1908. ''[https://archive.org/details/rosettaproject_hdn_vertxt-1 Haida Texts. Masset Dialect].'' (Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. 10, part 2.) Leiden: E. J. Brill. {{refend}}

==External links== * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170602153057/http://www.haidalanguage.org/ Haida language], archive * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170602153049/http://www.haidalanguage.org/sounds-of-haida.html Listen to the sounds of Haida], archive * [http://www.firstvoices.com/en/Hlgaagilda-Xaayda-Kil Skidegate Haida Portal, First Voices] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170602151729/http://www.haidalanguage.org/raven.html Raven, a story in the Haida language] * [http://www.languagegeek.com/isolate/xaadas.html Haida writing systems], archive * [http://www.ydli.org/biblios/haidbib.htm Haida linguistics bibliography] * [http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bcp/Haida/index.html The Book of Common Prayer in Haida] * [http://www.languagesandnumbers.com/how-to-count-in-haida/en/hai/ How to count in Haida] * [http://www.firstvoices.com/en/apps FirstVoices Haida iPhone App] * [http://www.firstvoices.com/en/Hlgaagilda-Xaayda-Kil FirstVoices Haida Online Dictionary] * [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\hai\hai&limit=-1 Haida basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database] *ELAR archive of [http://elar.soas.ac.uk/deposit/0218 Northern (Massett) Haida language documentation materials] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160601110300/http://elar.soas.ac.uk/deposit/0218 |date=1 June 2016 }} * [http://sealaskaheritage.org/programs/Language%20Resources/Haida_dictionary_web.pdf Dictionary of Alaska Haida] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231113051135/https://sealaskaheritage.org/programs/Language%20Resources/Haida_dictionary_web.pdf |date=13 November 2023 }} * [http://www.sealaskaheritage.org/sites/default/files/AlaskanHaidaPhrasebook_web.pdf Alaskan Haida Phrasebook] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802074941/https://www.sealaskaheritage.org/sites/default/files/AlaskanHaidaPhrasebook_web.pdf |date=2 August 2023 }} * [https://ids.clld.org/contributions/227 Northern Haida] (Intercontinental Dictionary Series) * John R. Swanton (1905) ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74172 Haida texts and myths: Skidegate dialect]''

{{Languages of Alaska}} {{Languages of Canada}} {{Language families}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Haida Language}} Category:Haida language Category:Haida Category:Language isolates of North America Category:Indigenous languages of the Pacific Northwest Coast Category:Northern Northwest Coast Sprachbund (North America) Category:Northwest Coast Sprachbund (North America) Category:Indigenous languages of Alaska Category:First Nations languages in Canada Category:Tonal languages Category:Endangered language isolates Category:Native American language revitalization Category:Official languages of Alaska