Mongolian script

{{Short description|Writing system}} {{About|the original Mongolian writing system|later developments|Mongolian writing systems|the language|Mongolian language}} {{Infobox writing system | name = Mongolian script | altname = {{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ|lang=mn}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ|lang=mn}} | sample = M injinash.jpg | imagesize = 200px | caption = Poem composed and brush-written by Injinash,<br />19th century | languages = Mongolian language | creator = Tata-tonga | type = Alphabet | fam1 = Egyptian hieroglyphs | fam2 = Proto-Sinaitic alphabet | fam3 = Phoenician alphabet | fam4 = Aramaic alphabet | fam5 = Syriac alphabet | fam6 = Sogdian alphabet | fam7 = Old Uyghur alphabet | sisters = | children = * Galik alphabet * Manchu alphabet ** Dagur alphabet ** Xibe alphabet * Clear Script (Oirat alphabet) * Vagindra script (Buryat alphabet) * Evenki alphabet | time = {{ubli|{{circa|1204}}–1941 (common use)|1941–present (common use in Inner Mongolia; chiefly ceremonial use in Mongolia)}} | unicode = {{Ublist |class=nowrap |[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1800.pdf U+1800–U+18AF] {{Smaller|Mongolian}} |[https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U11660.pdf U+11660–U+1167F] {{smaller|Mong. Supplement}}}} | direction = vertical top-to-bottom, left-to-right | iso15924 = Mong }} {{contains special characters|Mongolian}}

The traditional '''Mongolian script''',{{NoteTag|In Mongolian script: {{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} {{Angbr|frameless|upright=0.1 frameless|upright=0.1}} {{Transliteration|mn|mongɣol bičig}}; in Mongolian Cyrillic: Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|монгол бичиг}} {{Transliteration|khk|mongol bichig}} {{Citation needed span|text={{IPA|mn|ˈmɔɴɢɜɮ ˈpiʰt͡ɕɪ̥k|}}|date=October 2024|reason=Help:IPA/Mongolian is lacking sources and also does not include some of these IPA equivalents (ˈ ɴ ɢ ɜ iʰ t͡ɕ ɪ̥ k).}}}} also known as the '''Hudum Mongol bichig''',{{NoteTag| {{Citation needed span|text={{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ʊ|d|ə|m|_|ˈ|m|ɒ|ŋ|ɡ|ə|l|_|ˈ|b|ɪ|tʃ|ɪ|g}}|date=October 2024|reason=Necessary? If so, can this be supported with Help:IPA/English?}}; in Mongolian script: {{MongolUnicode|ᠬᠤᠳᠤᠮ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} {{Transliteration|mn|qudum mongɣol bičig}}; Khalkha: Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|худам монгол бичиг}}, {{Transliteration|khk|khudam mongol bichig}} {{Citation needed span|text={{IPA|mn|ˈχʊt(ə)m ˈmɔɴɢɜɮ ˈpiʰt͡ɕɪ̥k|}}|date=October 2024|reason=Help:IPA/Mongolian is lacking sources and also does not include some of these IPA equivalents (ˈ χ (ə) ɴ ɢ ɜ iʰ t͡ɕ ɪ̥ k).}}; {{Citation needed span|text=Buryat: {{Lang|bua-Cyrl|Худам Монгол бэшэг}}, {{Transliteration|bua|Hudam Mongol bèšèg}}; Kalmyk: {{Lang|xal-Cyrl|Хуудм Моңһл бичг}}, {{Transliteration|xal|Huudm Mon̦ḥl bičg}}|date=February 2021|reason=Sources needed for all these language variants, as well as their correct styles of capitalization.}}}} was the first writing system created specifically for the Mongolian language, and was the most widespread until the introduction of Cyrillic in 1946. The script is a co-official script in Mongolia since 2025, alongside the Cyrillic script for the language. It is also the official written form being taught in schools for Mongolian ethnic students in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China<ref>{{Cite web |title=内蒙古自治区民族事务委员会关于做好新时代蒙古语言文字规范化标准化工作的通知 |url=http://www.xlglrd.gov.cn/xlglrd/myyf/qyf/2cd5d3a20d78412b9e4aad349c1e9e4e/index.html |access-date=2026-03-09 |website=www.xlglrd.gov.cn |language=zh-hans}}</ref>. It is traditionally written in vertical lines from top to bottom, flowing in lines from left to right {{Script directionality|tb-lr|none}}. Derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet, it is a true alphabet, with separate letters for consonants and vowels. It has been adapted for such languages as Oirat and Manchu. Alphabets based on this classical vertical script continue to be used in Mongolia and Inner Mongolia to write Mongolian, Xibe and, experimentally, Evenki.

Computer operating systems have been slow to adopt support for the Mongolian script; almost all have incomplete support or other text rendering difficulties.

== History == [[File:Hermitage hall 366 - 06.jpg|thumb|upright|The so-called ''Stone of Genghis Khan'' or ''Stele of Yisüngge'', with the earliest known inscription in the Mongolian script.<ref name="Janhunen2006" />{{Rp|page=33}}]] The Mongolian vertical script developed as an adaptation of the Old Uyghur alphabet for the Mongolian language.<ref name="Daniels1996">{{Cite book |last1=Daniels |first1=Peter T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ospMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA545 |title=The World's Writing Systems |last2=Bright |first2=William |year=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-507993-7 |language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|page=545}} Tata-tonga, a 13th-century Uyghur scribe captured by Genghis Khan, was responsible for bringing the Old Uyghur alphabet to the Mongolian Plateau and adapting it to the form of the Mongolian script.<ref>{{cite book |last=Christian |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YLQW5lUajgkC&pg=PA398 |title=A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia: Inner Eurasia from Prehistory to the Mongol Empire |publisher=Wiley |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-631-20814-3 |page=398 |authorlink=David Christian (historian)}}</ref>

From the seventh and eighth to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Mongolian language separated into southern, eastern and western dialects. The principal documents from the period of the Middle Mongol language are: in the eastern dialect, the famous text ''The Secret History of the Mongols'', monuments in the Square script, materials of the Chinese–Mongolian glossary of the fourteenth century and materials of the Mongolian language of the middle period in Chinese transcription, etc.; in the western dialect, materials of the Arab–Mongolian and Persian–Mongolian dictionaries, Mongolian texts in Arabic transcription, etc.<ref name="Poppe1974" />{{Rp|pages=1–2}} The main features of the period are that the vowels ''ï'' and ''i'' had lost their phonemic significance, creating the ''i'' phoneme (in the Chakhar dialect, the Standard Mongolian in Inner Mongolia, these vowels are still distinct); inter-vocal consonants ''ɣ''/''g'', ''b''/''w'' had disappeared and the preliminary process of the formation of Mongolian long vowels had begun; the initial ''h'' was preserved in many words; grammatical categories were partially absent, etc. The development over this period explains why the Mongolian script looks like a vertical Arabic script (in particular the presence of the dot system).<ref name="Poppe1974" />{{Rp|pages=1–2}}

Eventually, minor concessions were made to the differences between the Uyghur and Mongol languages: In the 17th and 18th centuries, smoother and more angular versions of the letter ''tsadi'' became associated with {{IPAslink|dʒ}} and {{IPAslink|tʃ}} respectively, and in the 19th century, the Manchu hooked ''yodh'' was adopted for initial {{IPAslink|j}}. ''Zain'' was dropped as it was redundant for {{IPAslink|s}}. Various schools of orthography, some using diacritics, were developed to avoid ambiguity.<ref name="Daniels1996" />{{Rp|page=545}}

Words are written vertically from top to bottom, flowing in lines from left to right. The Old Uyghur script and its descendants, of which traditional Mongolian is one among Oirat Clear, Manchu, and Buryat are the only known vertical scripts written from left to right. This developed because the Uyghurs rotated their Sogdian-derived script, originally written right to left, 90 degrees counterclockwise to emulate Chinese writing, but without changing the relative orientation of the letters.<ref name="Kara2">György Kara, "Aramaic Scripts for Altaic Languages", in Daniels & Bright ''The World's Writing Systems,'' 1994.</ref><ref name="Janhunen2006" />{{Rp|page=36}}

The reed pen was the writing instrument of choice until the 18th century, when the brush took its place under Chinese influence.<ref name="Shepherd2013">{{Cite book |last=Shepherd |first=Margaret |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UZhGza8C77kC&pg=PT419 |title=Learn World Calligraphy: Discover African, Arabic, Chinese, Ethiopic, Greek, Hebrew, Indian, Japanese, Korean, Mongolian, Russian, Thai, Tibetan Calligraphy, and Beyond |date=2013-07-03 |publisher=Clarkson Potter/Ten Speed |isbn=978-0-8230-8230-8 |language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|page=422}} Pens were also historically made of wood, bamboo, bone, bronze, or iron. Ink used was black or cinnabar red, and written with on birch bark, paper, cloths made of silk or cotton, and wooden or silver plates.<ref name="Berkwitz2009">{{Cite book |last1=Berkwitz |first1=Stephen C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KvsLBf3jISAC&pg=PA80 |title=Buddhist Manuscript Cultures: Knowledge, Ritual, and Art |last2=Schober |first2=Juliane |last3=Brown |first3=Claudia |date=2009-01-13 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-00242-9 |language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=80–81}}

<gallery mode="packed"> File:Kalam2.jpg|Reed pens File:Pinceaux chinois.jpg|Ink brushes File:Богд хааны бичгийн хэрэглэл.jpg|Writing implements of the Bogd Khan </gallery>

Mongols learned their script as a syllabary, dividing the syllables into twelve different classes, based on the final phonemes of the syllables, all of which ended in vowels.<ref>Chinggeltei. (1963) ''A Grammar of the Mongol Language''. New York, Frederick Ungar Publishing Co. p. 15.</ref>

The script remained in continuous use by Mongolian speakers in Inner Mongolia in the People's Republic of China. In the Mongolian People's Republic, it was largely replaced by the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet, although the vertical script remained in limited use. In March 2020, the Mongolian government announced plans to increase the use of the traditional Mongolian script and to use both Cyrillic and Mongolian script in official documents by 2025.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.china.org.cn/arts/2020-03/19/content_75834583.htm|title=Mongolia to promote usage of traditional script|website=China.org.cn (March 19, 2020)}}</ref><ref>[https://www.montsame.mn/en/read/219358 Official documents to be recorded in both scripts from 2025], Montsame, 18 March 2020.</ref><ref>[http://mongolia.gogo.mn/r/146942 Mongolian Language Law is effective from July 1st], Gogo, 1 July 2015. "'''Misinterpretation 1:''' ''Use of cyrillic is to be terminated and only Mongolian script to be used.'' There is no provision in the law that states the termination of use of cyrillic. It clearly states that Mongolian script is to be added to the current use of cyrillic. Mongolian script will be introduced in stages and state and local government is to conduct their correspondence in both cyrillic and Mongolian script. This provision is to be effective starting January 1st of 2025. ID, birth certificate, marriage certificate and education certificates are to be both in Mongolian cyrillic and Mongolian script and currently Mongolian script is being used in official letters of President, Prime Minister and Speaker of Parliament."</ref> Due to the particularity of the traditional Mongolian script, a large part (40%<ref>{{cite journal |author1=藍美華 |title=近期內蒙古漢語教材抗爭事件觀察 |url=https://ws.mac.gov.tw/Download.ashx?u=LzAwMS9VcGxvYWQvMjk1L2NrZmlsZS85ZDc1NjVlMi00NGY0LTRhNDgtYjkwZC1iMWVmMDAzN2U2YjcucGRm&n=5Zub44CB6JeN576O6I%2BvLS3ov5HmnJ%2Flhafokpnlj6TmvKLoqp7mlZnmnZDmipfniK3kuovku7bop4Dlr58ucGRm |publisher=Mainland Affairs Council |access-date=2023-01-19 |archive-date=2021-03-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210312215123/https://ws.mac.gov.tw/Download.ashx?u=LzAwMS9VcGxvYWQvMjk1L2NrZmlsZS85ZDc1NjVlMi00NGY0LTRhNDgtYjkwZC1iMWVmMDAzN2U2YjcucGRm&n=5Zub44CB6JeN576O6I%2BvLS3ov5HmnJ%2Flhafokpnlj6TmvKLoqp7mlZnmnZDmipfniK3kuovku7bop4Dlr58ucGRm |website=ws.mac.gov.tw}}</ref>) of the Sinicized Mongols in China are unable to read or write this script, and in many cases the script is only used symbolically on plaques in many cities.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Caodaobateer |title=The Use and Development of Mongol and its Writing Systems in China |journal=Language Policy in the People's Republic of China |series=Language Policy |year=2004 |volume=4 |pages=289–302 |location=Dordrecht |doi=10.1007/1-4020-8039-5_16 |isbn=1-4020-8038-7 |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/1-4020-8039-5_16|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=Hsiao-ting Lin |title=Ethnopolitics in modern China: the Nationalists, Muslims, and Mongols in wartime Alashaa Banner (1937–1945) |url=https://ru4.ilovetranslation.com/jhLk6JJ3SWl=d/ |publisher=Hoover Institution, Stanford University |location=Stanford, CA, US}}</ref>

== Names == The script is known by a wide variety of names. As it was derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet, the ''Mongol script'' is known as the ''Uighur(-)Mongol script''.{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠤᠶᠢᠭᠤᠷᠵᠢᠨ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|uyiɣurǰin mongɣol bičig}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|уйгар/уйг'''а'''ржин/уйг'''у'''ржин монгол бичиг/үсэг}} {{Transliteration|khk|uigar/uig'''a'''rjin/uig'''u'''rjin mongol bichig/üseg}})}} From 1941 onwards, it became known as the ''Old Script'',{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠬᠠᠭᠤᠴᠢᠨ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|qaɣučin bičig}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|хуучин бичиг}} {{Transliteration|khk|khuuchin bichig}})}} in contrast to the ''New Script'',{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠰᠢᠨᠡ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}}/{{MongolUnicode|ᠰᠢᠨ{{mvs}}ᠡ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|sine/sin{{nbh}}e bičig}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|шинэ үсэг}} {{Transliteration|khk|shine üseg}})}} referring to Cyrillic. The Mongolian script is also known as the ''Hudum'' or 'not exact' script,{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠬᠤᠳᠤᠮ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|qudum mongɣol bičig}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|худам монгол бичиг}} {{Transliteration|khk|khudam mongol bichig}})}} in comparison with the Todo 'clear, exact' script,{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠲᠣᠳᠣ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}}/{{MongolUnicode|ᠦᠰᠦᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|todo bičig/üsüg}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|тод бичиг/үсэг}} {{Transliteration|khk|tod bichig/üseg}})}} and also as 'vertical script'.{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠣᠱᠤᠭ{{mvs}}ᠠ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|bošuɣ-a bičig}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|босоо бичиг}} {{Transliteration|khk|bosoo bichig}})}}<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hersch |first1=Roger |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bo453EDNBp4C&pg=PA308 |title=EP '98 |last2=Andre |first2=Jacques |last3=Brown |first3=Heather |date=1998-03-18 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-540-64298-5 |language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|page=308}}<ref name="Janhunen2006" />{{Rp|pages=30–32, 38–39}}<ref name="Sanders2010">{{Cite book |last=Sanders |first=Alan J. K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5JN83EDDLl4C |title=Historical Dictionary of Mongolia |date=2010-05-20 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-7452-7 |language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|page=640}}<ref name="Janhunen2012" />{{Rp|page=7}}<ref name="Bawden2013">{{Cite book |last=Bawden |first=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cULYAQAAQBAJ |title=Mongolian English Dictionary |date=2013-10-28 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-15588-8 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Sanders2015" />{{Rp|page=206}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Marzluf |first=Phillip P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2To8DwAAQBAJ |title=Language, Literacy, and Social Change in Mongolia: Traditionalist, Socialist, and Post-Socialist Identities |date=2017-11-22 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-1-4985-3486-4 |language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|page=27}}<ref name="MnToli" />

== Overview == The traditional or classical Mongolian alphabet, sometimes called ''Hudum'' 'traditional' in Oirat in contrast to the Clear script (''Todo'' 'exact'), is the original form of the Mongolian script used to write the Mongolian language. It does not distinguish several vowels (''{{Transliteration|Mong|o}}''/''{{Transliteration|Mong|u}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ö}}''/''{{Transliteration|Mong|ü}}'', final ''{{Transliteration|Mong|a}}''/''{{Transliteration|Mong|e}}'') and consonants (syllable-initial ''{{Transliteration|Mong|t}}''/''{{Transliteration|Mong|d}}'' and ''{{Transliteration|Mong|k}}''/''{{Transliteration|Mong|g}}'', sometimes ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ǰ}}''/''{{Transliteration|Mong|y}}'') that were not required for Uyghur, which was the source of the Mongol (or Uyghur-Mongol) script.<ref name="Kara2" /> The result is somewhat comparable to the situation of English, which must represent ten or more vowels with only five letters and uses the digraph ''th'' for two distinct sounds. Ambiguity is sometimes prevented by context, as the requirements of vowel harmony and syllable sequence usually indicate the correct sound. Moreover, as there are few words with an exactly identical spelling, actual ambiguities are rare for a reader who knows the orthography.

Letters have different forms depending on their position in a word: initial, medial, or final. In some cases, additional graphic variants are selected for visual harmony with the subsequent character.

The rules for writing below apply specifically for the ''Mongolian'' language, unless stated otherwise.

=== Vowel harmony === Mongolian vowel harmony separates the vowels of words into three groups – two mutually exclusive and one neutral: * The ''back'', ''male'', ''masculine'',<ref name="Manchu">by Manchu convention</ref> ''hard'', or ''yang''<ref name="Yinyang">in Inner Mongolia.</ref> vowels ''{{Transliteration|Mong|a}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|o}}'', and ''{{Transliteration|Mong|u}}''. * The ''front'', ''female'', ''feminine'',<ref name="Manchu" /> ''soft'', or ''yin''<ref name="Yinyang" /> vowels ''{{Transliteration|Mong|e}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ö}}'', and ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ü}}''. * The neutral vowel ''{{Transliteration|Mong|i}}'', able to appear in all words.

Any Mongolian word can contain the neutral vowel ''{{Transliteration|Mong|i}}'', but only vowels from either of the other two groups. The vowel qualities of visually separated vowels and suffixes must likewise harmonize with those of the preceding word stem. Such suffixes are written with ''front'' or neutral vowels when preceded by a word stem containing only neutral vowels. Any of these rules might not apply for foreign words however.<ref name="Poppe1974" />{{Rp|pages=11, 35, 39}}<ref name="Grønbech1993">{{Cite book |last1=Grønbech |first1=Kaare |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YanEBJXGRMC |title=An Introduction to Classical (literary) Mongolian: Introduction, Grammar, Reader, Glossary |last2=Krueger |first2=John Richard |year=1993 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-03298-8 |language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|page=10}}{{Refn|name=Bilig2011|{{Cite web|url=http://w.colips.org/journals/volume21/21.1.3-Biligsaikhan.pdf|title=A Study of Traditional Mongolian Script Encodings and Rendering: Use of Unicode in OpenType fonts|website=w.colips.org|access-date=9 November 2017}}}}{{Rp|page=4}}<ref name="CJVLang2013">{{Cite web|url=http://cjvlang.com/Writing/writmongol/index.html|title=Mongolian Traditional Script|website=cjvlang.com|access-date=2017-12-07}}</ref>

=== Separated final vowels === A separated final form of vowels ''{{Transliteration|Mong|a}}'' or ''{{Transliteration|Mong|e}}'' ({{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|{{mvs}}ᠠ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}{{Sup|{{Angbr|?}}}}}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}a/{{nbh}}e}}'') is common, and can appear at the end of a word stem, or suffix. This form requires a final-shaped preceding letter, and a word-internal gap in between. This gap can be transliterated with a hyphen.{{NoteTag|In digital typesetting, this shaping is achieved by inserting a {{Unichar|180E|MONGOLIAN VOWEL SEPARATOR|html=|note=<code>MVS</code>}} between the separated letters.}}<ref name="Poppe1974">{{Cite book |last=Poppe |first=Nicholas |url=https://archive.org/details/poppegrammarofwrittenmongolian1974/page/n1/mode/1up |title=Grammar of Written Mongolian |year=1974 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-00684-2 |language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=30, 77}}<ref name="Svantesson2005">{{Cite book |last1=Svantesson |first1=Jan-Olof |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hQVREAAAQBAJ |title=The Phonology of Mongolian |last2=Tsendina |first2=Anna |last3=Karlsson |first3=Anastasia |last4=Franzen |first4=Vivan |date=2005-02-10 |publisher=OUP Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-151461-6 |language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|page=42}}<ref name="Janhunen2006">{{Cite book |last=Janhunen |first=Juha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DuCRAgAAQBAJ |title=The Mongolic Languages |date=2006-01-27 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-79690-7 |language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=38–39}}<ref name="Bilig2011" />{{Rp|page=27}}<ref name="UCCoreSpec">{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode10.0.0/ch13.pdf|title=The Unicode® Standard Version 10.0 – Core Specification: South and Central Asia-II|website=Unicode.org|access-date=3 December 2017}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=534–535}} [[File:Mongolia police patch 03.tif|thumb|right|Two examples of the two kinds of letter separation: with the suffix ''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}un}}'' ({{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|{{nnbsp}}ᠤᠨ|lang=mn|valign=middle}}){{Sup|{{Angbr|?}}}}}} and the final vowel ''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}a}}'' ({{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|{{nnbsp}}ᠠ|lang=mn|valign=middle}}){{Sup|{{Angbr|?}}}}}}]]

The presence or lack of a separated ''{{Transliteration|Mong|a}}'' or ''{{Transliteration|Mong|e}}'' can also indicate differences in meaning between different words (compare {{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|ᠬᠠᠷ{{mvs}}ᠠ|lang=mn|valign=middle}}{{Sup|{{Angbr|?}}}}}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|qar{{nbh}}a}}'' 'black' with {{MongolUnicode|ᠬᠠᠷᠠ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|qara}}'' 'to look').<ref name="EKIMn2015">{{Cite web|url=https://www.eki.ee/knab/lat/kblcmg2.pdf|title=Mongolian / ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ Moŋġol|website=www.eki.ee|access-date=2017-11-18}}</ref>{{Rp|page=3}}<ref name="UCCoreSpec" />{{Rp|page=535}}

It has the same shape as the ''traditional'' dative-locative suffix ''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}a/{{nbh}}e}}'' exemplified in the next section. This form of the suffix is, however, more commonly found in older texts, and is restricted in its Post-Classical use.<ref name="Grønbech1993" />{{Rp|page=15}}<ref name="LinguaMnGrammar">{{Cite web|url=http://www.linguamongolia.com/gram1.html|title=Lingua Mongolia – Mongolian Grammar|last=Viklund|first=Andreas|website=www.linguamongolia.com|language=en|access-date=2017-12-13|archive-date=2017-12-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222230456/http://www.linguamongolia.com/gram1.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Janhunen2006" />{{Rp|page=46}}

=== Separated suffixes === [[File:Буряад-Монголон унэн 1925.jpeg|alt=1925 logo of Buryat–Mongolian newspaper in Mongolian script|thumb|1925 logo of Buryat–Mongolian newspaper (with the suffix {{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|{{nnbsp}}ᠤᠨ|lang=mn|valign=middle}}{{Sup|{{Angbr|?}}}}}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}un}}''): {{Unbulleted list center |{{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠤᠷᠢᠶᠠᠳ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ{{nnbsp}}ᠤᠨ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠦᠨᠡᠨ᠃|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} |''{{Transliteration|Mong|Buriyad Mongɣol{{nbh}}un ünen}}'' |'Buryat-Mongol truth'}}]]

All case suffixes, as well as any plural suffixes consisting of one or two syllables, are likewise separated by a preceding and hyphen-transliterated gap.{{NoteTag|In digital typesetting, this shaping is achieved by inserting a {{Unichar|202f|NARROW NO-BREAK SPACE|nlink=Non-breaking space#Width variation|html=|note=<code>NNBSP</code>}} between the separated letters.}} A maximum of two case suffixes can be added to a stem.<ref name="Poppe1974" />{{Rp|pages=30, 73}}<ref name="Grønbech1993" />{{Rp|page=12}}<ref name="LinguaMnGrammar" />{{Refn|name=Suffixes|{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2017/17036-mongolian-suffix.pdf|title=PROPOSAL Encode Mongolian Suffix Connector (U+180F) To Replace Narrow Non-Breaking Space (U+202F)|website=Unicode.org|access-date=23 August 2017}}}}<ref name="Bilig2011" />{{Rp|page=28}}<ref name="UCCoreSpec" />{{Rp|page=534}}

Such single-letter vowel suffixes appear with the final-shaped forms of ''{{Transliteration|Mong|a}}''/''{{Transliteration|Mong|e}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|i}}'', or ''{{Transliteration|Mong|u}}''/''{{Transliteration|Mong|ü}}'',<ref name="Poppe1974" />{{Rp|page=30}} as in {{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|ᠭᠠᠵᠠᠷ{{nnbsp}}ᠠ|lang=mn|valign=middle}}{{Sup|{{Angbr|?}}}}}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ɣaǰar{{nbh}}a}}'' 'to the country' and {{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|ᠡᠳᠦᠷ{{nnbsp}}ᠡ|lang=mn|valign=middle}}{{Sup|{{Angbr|?}}}}}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|edür{{nbh}}e}}'' 'on the day',<ref name="Poppe1974" />{{Rp|page=39}} or {{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|ᠤᠯᠤᠰ{{nnbsp}}ᠢ|lang=mn|valign=middle}}{{Sup|{{Angbr|?}}}}}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ulus{{nbh}}i}}'' 'the state' etc.<ref name="Poppe1974" />{{Rp|page=23}} Multi-letter suffixes most often start with an initial- (consonants), medial- (vowels), or variant-shaped form. Medial-shaped ''{{Transliteration|Mong|u}}'' in the two-letter suffix {{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|{{nnbsp}}ᠤᠨ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}{{Sup|{{Angbr|?}}}}}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}un}}''/''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}ün}}'' is exemplified in the adjacent newspaper logo.<ref name="Poppe1974" />{{Rp|page=30}}<ref name="UCCoreSpec" />{{Rp|page=27}}

=== Consonant clusters === Two medial consonants are the most that can come together in original Mongolian words. There are however, a few loanwords that can begin or end with two or more.{{NoteTag|Examples of such include: (dotless ''{{Transliteration|Mong|š}}'') ''{{Transliteration|Mong|gšan}}'' 'moment' {{Nowrap|(top|37px)}}, ''{{Transliteration|Mong|gkir}}'' 'dirt' {{Nowrap|(top|17px)}}, or ''{{Transliteration|Mong|bodisdv}}'' 'Bodhisattva' {{Nowrap|(top|54px)}}.<ref name="Poppe1974" />{{Rp|pages=15, 32}}<ref name="Grønbech1993" />{{Rp|page=9}}<ref name="Lessing1960" />{{Rp|page=385}}}}

=== Compound names === In the modern language, proper names can usually join two words into graphic compounds (such as those of {{MongolUnicode|ᠬᠠᠰᠡᠷᠳᠡᠨᠢ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|Qas'erdeni}}'' 'Jasper-jewel' or {{MongolUnicode|ᠬᠥᠬᠡᠬᠣᠲᠠ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|Kökeqota}}'' – the city of Hohhot; as opposed to other compound words). This also allows components of different harmonic classes to be joined together, and vowels of an added suffix will harmonize with those of the latter part of the compound. Orthographic peculiarities are most often retained, as with the short and long ''teeth'' of an initial-shaped {{Nowrap|{{Angbr|{{MongolUnicode|ᠥ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}→{{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠥ{{fvs|2}}{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}}}}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ö}}'' in {{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠤᠤ{{zwj}}{{overline|{{zwj}}ᠥ{{fvs|2}}{{zwj}}}}{{zwj}}ᠬᠢᠨ|lang=mn|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|Muu'<u>ö</u>kin}}'' 'Bad Girl' (protective name). Medial ''{{Transliteration|Mong|t}}'' and ''{{Transliteration|Mong|d}}'', in contrast, are not affected in this way.<ref name="Poppe1974" />{{Rp|page=30}}<ref name="Kara2005">{{Cite book |last=Kara |first=György |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cSlkAAAAMAAJ |title=Books of the Mongolian Nomads: More Than Eight Centuries of Writing Mongolian |year=2005 |publisher=Indiana University, Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies |isbn=978-0-933070-52-3 |language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|page=92}}<ref name="Janhunen2006" />{{Rp|page=44}}<ref name="Janhunen2012">{{Cite book |last=Janhunen |first=Juha A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SAlwcg9ioPMC |title=Mongolian |year=2012 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-90-272-3820-7 |language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|page=88}}

=== Isolate citation forms === Isolate citation forms for syllables containing ''{{Transliteration|Mong|o}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|u}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ö}}'', and ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ü}}'' may in dictionaries appear without a final tail as in {{Nowrap|{{Angbr|{{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠣ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}}}}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|bo}}''/''{{Transliteration|Mong|bu}}'' or {{Nowrap|{{Angbr|{{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠣ{{fvs|1}}|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}}}}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|mo}}''/''{{Transliteration|Mong|mu}}'', and with a vertical tail as in {{Nowrap|{{Angbr|{{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠥ{{fvs|1}}|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}}}}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|bö}}''/''{{Transliteration|Mong|bü}}'' or {{Nowrap|{{Angbr|{{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠥ{{fvs|1}}|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}}}}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|mö}}''/''{{Transliteration|Mong|mü}}'' (as well as in transcriptions of Chinese syllables).<ref name="CJVLang2013" /><ref name="Janhunen2006" />{{Rp|page=39}}

== Flaws == In the traditional Mongolian script, certain letters—such as ''t'' and ''d'', ''o'' and ''u''—were frequently confused, and letter formation varied inconsistently at the beginning, middle, and end of words. The poor legibility between letters and the requirement to memorize each syllable's shape individually increased the learning burden of the script. Additionally, its structural characteristics led to wider line spacing, consuming more space and paper.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mongolian alphabets, pronunciation and language |url=https://www.omniglot.com/writing/mongolian.htm |access-date=2026-04-19 |website=www.omniglot.com}}</ref> For example, in Qing Dynasty texts like the ''Pentaglot Dictionary'', the Manchu and Mongolian sections occupy a larger portion of the page. Moreover, vertical text alignment is ill-suited to modern technologies, which are generally designed with exclusively horizontal writing systems in mind.{{cn|date=May 2026}}

== Letters ==

=== Sort orders === Only in a late form can a definite order of signs be established for the alphabet, but can likely be traced back to an earlier Uyghur model.<ref name="Kara2005" />{{Rp|page=31}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;" |+ Example orders{{NoteTag|Transliterations have been normalized according to this article's letter tables. Loan consonants are shown in parentheses.}} ! South (inner) Mongolian order<ref name="Luvsandorj2008">{{Cite journal |last=Jugder |first=Luvsandorj |year=2008 |editor-last=Vacek |editor-first=Jaroslav |editor2-last=Oberfalzerová |editor2-first=Alena |title=Diacritic marks in the Mongolian script and the 'darkness of confusion of letters' |url=https://uas.ff.cuni.cz/wp-content/uploads/sites/63/2019/05/MongolicaPragensia08-1.pdf |journal=Mongolo-Tibetica Pragensia '08 |publisher=Stanislav Juhaňák – TRITON |publication-place=Prague |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=45–98 |issn=1803-5647 |access-date=2024-08-29 |via=Institute of Asian Studies, Charles University}}</ref>{{Rp|page=53}} | rowspan="3" | {{Transliteration|Mong|a}} || rowspan="3" | {{Transliteration|Mong|e}} || rowspan="3" | {{Transliteration|Mong|i}} || rowspan="3" | {{Transliteration|Mong|o}} || rowspan="3" | {{Transliteration|Mong|u}} || rowspan="3" | {{Transliteration|Mong|ö}} || rowspan="3" | {{Transliteration|Mong|ü}} || rowspan="3" | {{Transliteration|Mong|n}} || rowspan="3" | {{Transliteration|Mong|b}} || {{Transliteration|Mong|p}} || {{Transliteration|Mong|q}} || {{Transliteration|Mong|k}} || {{Transliteration|Mong|ɣ}} || {{Transliteration|Mong|g}} || {{Transliteration|Mong|m}} || {{Transliteration|Mong|l}} || {{Transliteration|Mong|s}} || {{Transliteration|Mong|š}} || {{Transliteration|Mong|t}} || {{Transliteration|Mong|d}} || {{Transliteration|Mong|č}} || {{Transliteration|Mong|ǰ}} || {{Transliteration|Mong|y}} || {{Transliteration|Mong|r}} || {{Transliteration|Mong|v}} || rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|(f)}} || {{Transliteration|Mong|(ž)}} || rowspan="3" | {{Transliteration|Mong|(c)}} || rowspan="3" | {{Transliteration|Mong|(k)}} || rowspan="3" | {{Transliteration|Mong|(h)}} |- !1986 primer, Mongolian Republic<ref name="Sanders2015" />{{Rp|pages=212–214}} | rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|q}} || rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|k}} || rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|ɣ}} || rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|g}} || rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|ǰ}} || rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|y}} || rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|t}} || rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|d}} || rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|m}} || rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|č}} || rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|r}} || rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|s}} || rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|š}} || rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|l}} || rowspan="2" | {{Transliteration|Mong|v}} | {{Transliteration|Mong|(p)}} | {{Transliteration|Mong|(z)}} |- ! Dictionaries after 1924, Mongolian Republic<ref name="Luvsandorj2008" />{{Rp|page=53}} | {{Transliteration|Mong|(f)}} | {{Transliteration|Mong|(p)}} | {{Transliteration|Mong|(ž)}} |}

=== Native Mongolian === {{Further|Mongolian script multigraphs}} thumb|The script represented as a syllabary, 19th century {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;" |+ Native Mongolian ! rowspan="2" |Letters{{br}}<ref name="Poppe1974" />{{Rp|pages=17, 18}}{{Wbr}}<ref name="Daniels1996" />{{Rp|page=546}} ! colspan="3" |Contextual forms ! colspan="3" |Transliteration{{Wbr}}{{NoteTag|name=transl|''Scholarly/Scientific'' transliteration.<ref name="EKIMn2006">{{cite web |url = https://transliteration.eki.ee/pdf/Mongolian.pdf |title = Mongolian transliterations |website = Institute of the Estonian Language }}</ref>}} ! colspan="2" |International Phonetic Alphabet |- ! Initial ! Medial ! Final !Latin ! Mongolian Pinyin !Mong.{{Break}} Cyrillic{{Wbr}}<ref name="Skorodumova2000" /><ref name="EKIMn2006" /> !Khalkha{{Wbr}}<ref name="Svantesson2005" />{{Rp|pages=40–42}} !Chakhar{{Wbr}}<ref name="CJVLang2013" /><ref name="StudyMn2013">{{cite web |title=Writing | Study Mongolian |url=http://www.studymongolian.net/lessons/basics/writing/ |access-date=2017-12-14 |website=www.studymongolian.net |date=August 2013 |language=en-US}}</ref> |- !  ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠠ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠠ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠠ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠠ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}}

{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠠ{{fvs|1}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|a}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|a}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|а}} |{{IPAslink|a}} |{{IPAslink|ɑ}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠡ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠡ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠡ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠡ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}}

{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠡ{{fvs|1}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|e}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|e}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|э}} | colspan="2" |{{IPAslink|ə}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠢ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠢ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠢ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠢ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|i}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|i}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|и}} |{{IPAslink|i}} |{{IPAslink|i}} or {{IPAslink|ɪ}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠣ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠣ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠣ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠣ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|o}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|ô}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|о}} | colspan="2" |{{IPAslink|ɔ}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠤ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠤ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠤ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠤ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|u}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|û}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|у}} | colspan="2" |{{IPAslink|ʊ}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠥ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠥ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠥ{{fvs|1}}{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}}

{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠥ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠥ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|ö}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|o}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|ө}} |{{IPAslink|ɵ}} |{{IPAslink|o}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠦ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠦ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠦ{{fvs|1}}{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}}

{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠦ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠦ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|ü}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|u}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|ү}} | colspan="2" |{{IPAslink|u}} |- ! colspan="9" | |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠨ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠨ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠨ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}}

{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠨ{{fvs|1}}{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠨ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}}

{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠨ{{mvs}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|n}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|n}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|н}} | colspan="2" |{{IPAslink|n}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠩ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |— |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠩ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠩ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|ng}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|ng}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|нг}} | colspan="2" |{{IPAslink|ŋ}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠪ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠪ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠪ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠪ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|b}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|b}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|б}} |{{IPAslink|p}} and {{IPAslink|w}} |{{IPAslink|b}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠫ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠫ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠫ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |— |{{Transliteration|Mong|p}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|p}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|п}} |{{IPAslink|pʰ}} |{{IPAslink|p}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠬ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠬ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}}

frameless|upright=0.12 |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠬ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}}

frameless|upright=0.12 |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠬ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|q}}

{{Transliteration|Mong|k}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|h}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|х}} | colspan="2" |{{IPAslink|x}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}}

frameless|upright=0.12 |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠭ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}}

{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠭ{{fvs|1}}{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}}

frameless|upright=0.12 |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}}

{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠭ{{mvs}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}}

File:3mg g final.png |{{Transliteration|Mong|ɣ}}

{{Transliteration|Mong|g}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|g}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|г}} |{{IPAslink|ɢ}} |{{IPAslink|ɣ}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠮ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠮ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠮ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠮ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|m}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|m}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|м}} | colspan="2" |{{IPAslink|m}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠯ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠯ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠯ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠯ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|l}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|l}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|л}} |{{IPAslink|ɮ}} |{{IPAslink|l}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠰ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠰ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠰ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠰ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|s}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|s}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|с}} | colspan="2" |{{IPAslink|s}} or {{IPAslink|ʃ}} before ''{{Transliteration|Mong|i}}'' |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠱ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠱ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠱ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠱ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|š}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|x}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|ш}} | colspan="2" |{{IPAslink|ʃ}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠲ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠲ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠲ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |— |{{Transliteration|Mong|t}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|t}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|т}} | colspan="2" |{{IPAslink|t}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠳ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠳ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠳ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}}

{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠳ{{fvs|1}}{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠳ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|d}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|d}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|д}} |{{IPAslink|t}} and {{IPAslink|tʰ}} |{{IPAslink|d}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠴ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠴ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠴ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |— |{{Transliteration|Mong|č}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|q}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|ч}} |{{IPAslink|t͡ʃʰ}} and {{IPAslink|t͡sʰ}} |{{IPAslink|t͡ʃ}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠵ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠵ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠵ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |— |{{Transliteration|Mong|ǰ}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|j}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|ж}} |{{IPAslink|d͡ʒ}} and {{IPA link|d͡z}} |{{IPAslink|d͡ʒ}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠶ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠶ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠶ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠶ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|y}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|y}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|й}} | colspan="2" |{{IPAslink|j}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠷ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠷ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠷ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠷ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|r}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|r}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|р}} | colspan="2" |{{IPAslink|r}} |}

=== Galik characters === {{Main|Galik alphabet}}

In 1587, the translator and scholar Ayuush Güüsh created the Galik alphabet ({{Lang|mn-Cyrl|Али-гали}} {{Lang|mn-Latn|Ali-gali}}), inspired by the third Dalai Lama, Sonam Gyatso. It primarily added extra characters for transcribing Tibetan and Sanskrit terms when translating religious texts, and later also from Chinese. Some of those characters are still in use today for writing foreign names (as listed below).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chuluunbaatar |first=Otgonbayar |title=Einführung in die mongolischen Schriften |year=2008 |publisher=Buske |isbn=978-3-87548-500-4 |language=de}}</ref>

In 1917, the politician and linguist Bayantömöriin Khaisan published the rime dictionary ''Mongolian-Han Bilingual Original Sounds of the Five Regions'',{{efn|{{lang-zh|s=《蒙汉合璧五方元音》|t=《蒙漢合璧五方元音》}}}} a bilingual edition of the earlier ''Original Sounds of the Five Regions'',{{efn|{{lang-zh|《五方元音》}}}} to aid Mongolian speakers in learning Mandarin Chinese. To that end, he included transliterations of Mandarin using the Mongolian script, and repurposed three Galik letters to represent the Mandarin retroflex consonants. These letters remain in use in Inner Mongolia for the purpose of transcribing Chinese.<ref>{{cite book|year=2022|last=Wu|first=Jiaye|editor=Nicola McLelland and Hui Zhao|title=Language Standardization and Language Variation in Multilingual Contexts|chapter=Teaching Mandarin Pronunciation to Mongolian Learners in Early Republican Period China: The Case of the Mongolian Han Original Sounds of the Five Regions|publisher=Multilingual Matters |isbn=978-1-80041-155-5}}</ref>

Also Galik alphabet used to create foreign words in Mongolian Script and also Galik Characters were part of Foreign Letters in Mongolian Script.

[[File:Mongolian tibetan scripts primer.jpg|thumb|right|250px|From left to right: Phagspa, Lantsa, Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese and Cyrillic, from 1903 or earlier]]

{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center;" |+ Galik characters ! rowspan="2" |Letters{{Wbr}}<ref name="Poppe1974" />{{Rp|pages=17–18}}{{Wbr}}<ref name="Daniels1996" />{{Rp|page=546}} ! colspan="3" |Contextual forms ! colspan="4" | Transliteration{{NoteTag|name=transl}}{{Wbr}}<ref name="Poppe1974" />{{Rp|pages=27–28}} ! rowspan="2" |IPA{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} |- !Initial !Medial !Final ! Latin ! Mong.{{Break}} Cyrillic{{Wbr}}<ref name="Skorodumova2000" />{{Rp|pages=44–49}}<ref name="EKIMn2006" /> ! Sanskrit ! Tibetan{{Wbr}}<ref name="BabelStone">{{cite web |title=BabelStone: Mongolian and Manchu Resources |url=http://babelstone.co.uk/Mongolian/Resources.html |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=BabelStone |language=zh}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=63–69, 189–194, 243–255}} |- !  ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠧ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠧ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠧ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠧ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|ē/é}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|е}} |{{Lang|sa-Deva|ए}} |<big>{{Bo-textonly|ཨེ}}</big> |{{IPAslink|e}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠸ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠸ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠸ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠸ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|w/v}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|в}} |{{Lang|sa-Deva|व}} |<big>{{Bo-textonly|ཝ}}</big> |{{IPAslink|w}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠹ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠹ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠹ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠹ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|f}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|ф}} |{{Lang|sa-Deva|फ}} |<big>{{Bo-textonly|ཕ}}</big> |{{IPAslink|f}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠺ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠺ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠺ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠺ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|g/k}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|к}} |{{Lang|sa-Deva|ग}} |<big>{{Bo-textonly|ག}}</big> |{{IPAslink|k}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠻ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠻ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠻ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠻ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|k/kh}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|к}} |{{Lang|sa-Deva|ख}} |<big>{{Bo-textonly|ཁ}}</big> |{{IPAslink|kʰ}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠼ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠼ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠼ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠼ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|c}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|ц}} |{{Lang|sa-Deva|छ}} |<big>{{Bo-textonly|ཚ}}</big> |{{IPAslink|t͡s}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠽ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠽ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠽ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠽ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|z}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|з}} |{{Lang|sa-Deva|च}} |<big>{{Bo-textonly|ཙ}}</big>

<big>{{Bo-textonly|ཛ}}</big> |{{IPAslink|d͡z}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠾ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠾ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠾ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠾ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Transliteration|Mong|h}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|х}} |{{Lang|sa-Deva|ह}} |<big>{{Bo-textonly|ཧ}}</big> |{{IPAslink|h}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᠿ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}}{{Break}}{{NoteTag|Used in Inner Mongolia, and always followed by ''i''. Only used to transcribe the Mandarin Chinese retroflex ''r'', as in {{lang-zh|s=日|t=日|hp=rì|labels=no}}: {{MongolUnicode|ᠿᠢ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}}.}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᠿ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |— |— |{{Transliteration|Mong|ž}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|ж}} | |<big>{{Bo-textonly|ཞ}}</big> |{{IPAslink|ʐ}}, {{IPAslink|ɻ}}{{Break}}{{NoteTag|{{Harvp|Lee|Zee|2003}} and {{Harvp|Lin|2007}} transcribe these as approximants, while {{Harvp|Duanmu|2007}} transcribes these as voiced fricatives. The actual pronunciation has been acoustically measured to be more approximant-like.<ref name="StudyMn2013" /><ref>{{Citation |last = Lee-Kim |first = Sang-Im |year = 2014 |title = Revisiting Mandarin 'apical vowels': An articulatory and acoustic study |journal = Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume = 44 |issue = 3 |pages = 261–282 |doi = 10.1017/s0025100314000267 |s2cid = 16432272 }}</ref>|name="voiced continuant"}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᡀ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}}{{Break}}{{NoteTag|Only used in Tibetan loanwords to represent {{Bo-textonly|ལྷ}} syllables, as in {{MongolUnicode|ᡀᠠᠰᠠ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|Lhasa}}'' or {{MongolUnicode|ᠳᠠᡀᠠ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|dalha}}'' 'enemy gods'.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Even |first=Marie-Dominique |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KKAoIBi3NsgC |title=Chants de chamanes mongols |date=1992 |publisher=SEMS |language=fr}}</ref>{{Rp|page=31, 427, 432}}<ref name="Bawden2013" />{{Rp|page=121}} Treated as a separate letter due to representing an independent phoneme, but can be analysed as a digraph of {{MongolUnicode|ᠯ‍|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} (l) and {{MongolUnicode|‍ᠾ‍|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} (h) (noting the latter is in medial position).}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᡀ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᡀ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |— |{{Transliteration|Mong|lh}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|лх}} | |<big>{{Bo-textonly|ལྷ}}</big> |{{IPAslink|ɬ}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᡁ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}}{{Break}}{{NoteTag|Used in Inner Mongolia, and always followed by ''i''. Only used to transcribe the Mandarin Chinese retroflex ''zh'', as in {{lang-zh|s=之|t=之|hp=zhī|labels=no}}: {{MongolUnicode|ᡁᠢ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}}. Takes the form of medial ''h'', but used in initial position.}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᡁ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |— |— |{{Transliteration|Mong|zh}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|з}} | | |{{IPAslink|d͡ʐ}} |- |{{MongolUnicode|ᡂ|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}}{{Break}}{{NoteTag|Used in Inner Mongolia, and always followed by ''i''. Only used to transcribe the Mandarin Chinese retroflex ''ch'', as in {{lang-zh|s=蚩|t=蚩|hp=chī|labels=no}}: {{MongolUnicode|ᡂᠢ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}}.}} |{{MongolUnicode|ᡂ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |— |— |{{Transliteration|Mong|ch}} |{{Script|mn-Cyrl|ч}} | |<big>{{Bo-textonly|ཋ}}</big> |{{IPAslink|t͡ʂ}} |} {{Notelist}}

== Punctuation and numerals ==

=== Punctuation === {{Further|Mongolian Supplement (Unicode block)}} [[File:Pen-written intra-word break.svg|frame|Example of {{Nowrap|word-breaking}} the name ''{{Transliteration|Mong|Oyirad}}'' 'Oirat', 1604 manuscript]]

{{CSS image crop |Image=Stamp Mongolia 1932 1t.jpg |bSize=800 |cWidth=51 |cHeight=85 |oTop=140 |oLeft=150 |Location = right |Description= Abbreviation exemplified with the initial syllable of the Mongolian tögrög {{Nowrap|({{MongolUnicode|ᠲᠥ{{zwj}}᠂|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}})}}}}

When written between words, punctuation marks use space on both sides of them. They can also appear at the very end of a line, regardless of where the preceding word ends.<ref name="Kara2005" />{{Rp|page=99}} Red (cinnabar) ink is used in many manuscripts, to either symbolize emphasis or respect.<ref name="Kara2005" />{{Rp|page=241}} Modern punctuation incorporates Western marks: parentheses; quotation, question, and exclamation marks; including precomposed {{Big|⁈}} and {{Big|⁉}}.<ref name="UCCoreSpec" />{{Rp|pages=535–536}}

{| class="wikitable" |+ Punctuation<ref name="Lessing1960" />{{Rp|pages=106, 168, 203, 1046}}<ref name="Poppe1974" />{{Rp|page=28}}<ref name="Shagdarsueren2001" />{{Rp|page=30}}<ref name="Kara2005" />{{Rp|page=99}}<ref name="EKIMn2006" />{{Rp|page=3}}<ref name="UCCoreSpec" />{{Rp|pages=535–536}}<ref name="MnToli" /> |- !Form(s) !Name ! style="text-align:left;" |Function(s) |- | style="text-align:center;" |{{MongolUnicode|᠀|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} | rowspan="5" |Birga{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠢᠷᠭ{{mvs}}ᠠ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}}{{Sup|{{Angbr|?}}}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|birɣ{{nbh}}a}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|бярга}} {{Transliteration|khk|byarga}})}} | rowspan="5" |Marks start of a book, chapter, passage, or first line |- | style="text-align:center;" |{{MongolUnicode|᠀{{fvs|1}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |- | style="text-align:center;" |{{MongolUnicode|᠀{{fvs|2}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |- | style="text-align:center;" |{{MongolUnicode|᠀{{fvs|3}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |- | style="text-align:center;" |[...] |- | style="text-align:center;" |{{MongolUnicode|᠂|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |'Dot'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠴᠡᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|čeg}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|цэг}} {{Transliteration|khk|tseg}})}} |Comma |- | style="text-align:center;" |{{MongolUnicode|᠃|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |'Double-dot'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠳᠠᠪᠬᠤᠷ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠴᠡᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|dabqur čeg}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|давхар цэг}} {{Transliteration|khk|davkhar tseg}})}} |Period / full stop |- | style="text-align:center;" |{{MongolUnicode|᠅|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |'Four-fold dot'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠳᠥᠷᠪᠡᠯᠵᠢᠨ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠴᠡᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|dörbelǰin čeg}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|дөрвөлжин цэг}} {{Transliteration|khk|dörvöljin tseg}})}} |Marks end of a passage, paragraph, or chapter |- | style="text-align:center;" |{{MongolUnicode|᠁|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |'Dotted line'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠴᠤᠪᠠᠭ{{mvs}}ᠠ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}}/{{MongolUnicode|ᠴᠤᠪᠤᠭ{{mvs}}ᠠ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}}{{Sup|{{Angbr|?}}}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠴᠡᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|čubaɣ{{nbh}}a/čubuɣ{{nbh}}a čeg}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|цуваа цэг}} {{Transliteration|khk|tsuvaa tseg}})}} |Ellipsis |- | style="text-align:center;" |{{MongolUnicode|᠄|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |'Parallel dots'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠵᠡᠷᠭᠡᠴᠡᠭᠡ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠴᠡᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ǰergečege čeg}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|зэрэгцээ цэг}} {{Transliteration|khk|zeregtsee tseg}})}}

'Pair of dots'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠬᠣᠣᠰ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠴᠡᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|qoos čeg}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|хос цэг}} {{Transliteration|khk|khos tseg}})}}{{Citation needed|date=August 2022}} |Colon |- | style="text-align:center;" |{{MongolUnicode|᠆|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} | rowspan="2" |'Spine, backbone'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠨᠢᠷᠤᠭᠤ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|niruɣu}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|нуруу}} {{Transliteration|khk|nuruu}})}} |Mongolian soft hyphen (wikt:᠆) |- | style="text-align:center;" |{{MongolUnicode|᠊|lang=mn|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |Mongolian non-breaking hyphen, or stem extender (wikt:᠊) |}

=== Numerals === {{Main|Mongolian numerals}}

{| class="wikitable floatright" style="text-align: center" |+ ! !Text !Image |- |''{{Transliteration|Mong|15 on}}'' 'year of 15' on a 1925 tögrög coin, with the number written across the baseline.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2006-03-09 |title=Coins |url=http://www.mongolbank.mn/oldcoins.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060309113052/http://www.mongolbank.mn/oldcoins.htm |archive-date=2006-03-09 |access-date=2022-08-31 |website=Bank of Mongolia}}</ref> |{{MongolUnicode|᠑᠕|h|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}{{Break}}{{MongolUnicode|ᠣᠨ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} |{{CSS image crop |Image=Mongolia-1Tukhrik-1925.jpg |bSize=800 |cWidth=56 |cHeight=82 |oTop=248 |oLeft=570}} |- |''89'' (top) written vertically on a hillside, with the number written along the baseline. |{{MongolUnicode|᠘|h|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}{{Break}}{{MongolUnicode|᠙|h|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} |{{CSS image crop |Image=Khoroo 11, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia - panoramio (10).jpg |bSize=180 |cWidth=56 |cHeight=75 |oTop=120 |oLeft=70}} |- |Printed numeral ''3'', written along the baseline and rotated 90 degrees clockwise. |{{MongolUnicode|᠁{{zwj}}ᠤᠢ ᠓ ᠬᠡ{{zwj}}᠁|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} |{{CSS image crop |Image=Traditional Clothing Felt Coat (35670324566).jpg |bSize=3456 |cWidth=56 |cHeight=90 |oTop=299 |oLeft=2674}} |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" !style="width: 20px;|0||style="width: 20px;|1||style="width: 20px;|2||style="width: 20px;|3||style="width: 20px;|4||style="width: 20px;|5||style="width: 20px;|6||style="width: 20px;|7||style="width: 20px;|8||style="width: 20px;|9 |- |{{MongolUnicode|᠐|h|font-size=2em}}||{{MongolUnicode|᠑|h|font-size=2em}}||{{MongolUnicode|᠒|h|font-size=2em}}||{{MongolUnicode|᠓|h|font-size=2em}}||{{MongolUnicode|᠔|h|font-size=2em}}||{{MongolUnicode|᠕|h|font-size=2em}}||{{MongolUnicode|᠖|h|font-size=2em}}||{{MongolUnicode|᠗|h|font-size=2em}}||{{MongolUnicode|᠘|h|font-size=2em}}||{{MongolUnicode|᠙|h|font-size=2em}} |}

Mongolian numerals are either written from left to right, or from top to bottom.<ref name="Poppe1974" />{{Rp|page=54}}<ref name="Skorodumova2000" />{{Rp|page=9}} For typographical reasons, they are rotated 90° in modern books to fit on the line.<ref name="Grønbech1993" />{{Rp|page=56}}

== Components and writing styles ==

=== Components === Listed in the table below are letter components (graphemes){{NoteTag|Mongolian: {{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|ᠵᠢᠷᠤᠯᠭ{{mvs}}ᠠ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}}{{Sup|{{Angbr|?}}}}}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ǰirulɣ{{nbh}}a}}'' / Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|зурлага}} {{Transliteration|khk|zurlaga}}}} commonly used across the script. Some of these are used with several letters, and others to contrast between them. As their forms and usage may differ between writing styles, however, examples of these can be found under this section below.

{| class="wikitable" |+Common components{{Break}}{{Refn|name=Lessing1960|{{Cite book |last=Lessing |first=Ferdinand |url=http://altaica.ru/LIBRARY/mong/Lessing.pdf |title=Mongolian-English Dictionary |year=1960 |publisher=University of California Press |language=en}} Note that this dictionary uses the transliterations ''{{Transliteration|Mong|c}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ø}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|x}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|y}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|z}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ai}}'', and ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ei}}''; instead of ''{{Transliteration|Mong|č}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ö}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|q}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ü}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ǰ}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ayi}}'', and ''{{Transliteration|Mong|eyi}}'';{{Rp|page=xii}} as well as problematically and incorrectly treats {{Em|all}} rounded vowels (''{{Transliteration|Mong|o/u/ö/ü}}'') after the initial syllable as ''{{Transliteration|Mong|u}}'' or ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ü}}''.{{Refn|{{Cite web |title=Mongolian Transliteration & Transcription |url=https://collab.its.virginia.edu/wiki/tibetan-script/Mongolian%20Transliteration%20&%20Transcription.html |access-date=2023-03-26 |website=collab.its.virginia.edu}}}}}}<ref name="Daniels1996" />{{Rp|pages=539–540, 545–546}}<ref name="Skorodumova2000">{{Cite book |last=Skorodumova |first=L. G. |url=http://altaica.ru/manuals/skorodumova_staromong.pdf |title=Vvedenie v staropismenny mongolskiy yazyk |year=2000 |publisher=Muravey-Gayd |isbn=5-8463-0015-4 |language=ru |script-title=ru:Введение в старописьменный монгольский язык}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=4–5}}<ref name="Shagdarsueren2001">{{Cite journal|author=Shagdarsürüng, Tseveliin|title=Study of Mongolian Scripts (Graphic Study or Grammatology). Enl.|journal= Bibliotheca Mongolica: Monograph 1|year= 2001}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=29–30, 205}}<ref name="Sanders2003">{{Cite book |last=Sanders| first=Alan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z5umNthHltQC |title=Historical Dictionary of Mongolia |date=2003-04-09 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-6601-0 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Clauson2005">{{Cite book |last=Clauson |first=Gerard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8O-BAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA111 |title=Studies in Turkic and Mongolic Linguistics |date=2005-11-04 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-43012-3 |language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=111, 115}}<ref name="Kara2005" />{{Rp|pages=82–83, 86, 108–112}}<ref name="Janhunen2006" />{{Rp|page=35–36}}<ref name="Luvsandorj2008" />{{Rp|page=45}}<ref name="LinguaMnScript2011">{{Cite web|title=The Mongolian Script|url=http://www.linguamongolia.com/The%20Mongolian%20Script.pdf|website=Lingua Mongolia|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314045933/http://www.linguamongolia.com/The%20Mongolian%20Script.pdf|archive-date=2015-03-14|access-date=2017-12-29|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mongol Times|date=2012|title=Monggul bichig un job bichihu jui-yin toli|url=https://www.slideshare.net/MongolTimes/monggul-bichig-un-job-bichihu-juiyin-toli |url-access=registration |language=mn}}{{clarify|reason=perportedly a journal but missing {{pipe}}journal=; {{pipe}}url= links to what appears to be a book written in Cyrillic script with a title that doesn't appear to be the same as {{pipe}}title= in this cite;|date=July 2022}}</ref>{{Rp|page=20}}<ref name="Sanders2015">{{Cite book |last1=Bat-Ireedui |first1=Jantsangiyn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbhgCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA211 |title=Colloquial Mongolian: The Complete Course for Beginners |last2=Sanders |first2=Alan J. K. |date=2015-08-14 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-30598-9 |language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=211–212}}<ref name="Bolorsoft2018">{{Cite web|title=Analysis of the graphetic model and improvements to the current model|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2018/18101-mwg2-3-graphetic-analysis.pdf|access-date=2020-08-13|website=www.unicode.org}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=10–11}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://mongol-bichig.dusal.net/49/zurlaga.html|title=Монгол бичгийн зурлага :{{!}}: Монгол бичиг|last=Gehrke|first=Munkho|website=mongol-bichig.dusal.net|language=mn|access-date=2019-04-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mongolfont.com/mn/grammer/jirvlga.html|title=ᠵᠢᠷᠤᠯᠭ{{mvs}}ᠠ ᠪᠠ ᠲᠡᠭᠦᠨ ᠦ ᠨᠡᠷᠡᠢᠳᠦᠯ – ᠮᠤᠩᠭᠤᠯ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ|website=www.mongolfont.com|language=mn|access-date=2019-04-18}}</ref><ref name="MnToli">{{Cite web|url=https://mongoltoli.mn/dictionary/|title=Mongolian State Dictionary|website=mongoltoli.mn|language=mn|access-date=2017-12-14}}</ref> !Form !Name(s) !Use |- | style="text-align: center" |{{MongolUnicode|᠊ᠡ{{zwj}}|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |'Tooth'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠠᠴᠤᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ačuɣ}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|ацаг}} {{Transliteration|khk|atsag}}) or {{MongolUnicode|ᠰᠢᠳᠦ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|sidü}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|шүд}} {{Transliteration|khk|shüd}})}} |A main part of letters '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|a}}'''/'''{{Transliteration|Mong|e}}''''' (from Old Uyghur ''aleph''), '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|n}}''''' (''nun, also'' part of the digraph '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|ng}}'''''), '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|q}}'''/'''{{Transliteration|Mong|ɣ}}''''' (''gimel-heth''), '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|m}}''''' (''mem''), '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|l}}''''' (''hooked resh''), initial '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|t}}'''/'''{{Transliteration|Mong|d}}''''' (''taw''), etc. Historically also part of '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|k}}'''/'''{{Transliteration|Mong|g}}''''' (''kaph''), as well as '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|r}}''''' (''resh''). |- | style="text-align: center" |{{MongolUnicode|ᠡ{{zwj}}|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |'Crown'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠲᠢᠲᠢᠮ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|titim}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|тит(и/э)м}} {{Transliteration|khk|tit(i/e)m}})}} |An exaggerated initial (''swash'') tooth. Used for the leading ''aleph'' of initial vowels ('''''{{Transliteration|Mong|a}}''''', '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|e}}''''', '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|i}}''''', '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|o}}''''', '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|u}}''''', '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|ö}}''''', '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|ü}}''''', '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|ē}}'''''), and with some initial consonants ('''''{{Transliteration|Mong|n}}''''', '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|m}}''''', '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|l}}''''', '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|h}}''''' = ''nun'', ''mem'', ''hooked resh'', ''ha'' etc.). Historically unused. |- | style="text-align: center" |{{MongolUnicode|᠊᠊|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |'Spine, backbone'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠨᠢᠷᠤᠭᠤ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|niruɣu}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|нуруу}} {{Transliteration|khk|nuruu}})}} |The vertical line running through words. |- | style="text-align: center" |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}᠊ᠠ|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |'Tail'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠰᠡᠭᠦᠯ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|segül}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|сүүл}} {{Transliteration|khk|süül}})}} |The swash final of '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|a/e}}''''', '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|n}}''''', '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|d}}''''', etc. |- | style="text-align: center" |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}᠊ᠰ{{fvs|1}}|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |'Short tail'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠪᠣᠭᠤᠨᠢ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠰᠡᠭᠦᠯ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|boɣuni segül}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|богино/богонь сүүл}} {{Transliteration|khk|bogino/bogoni süül}})}} |The swash final of '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|q/ɣ}}''''', '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|m}}''''', and '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|s}}''''' (''samekh-shin'' or ''zayin''). |- | rowspan="2" style="text-align: center" |{{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|{{mvs}}ᠠ|font-size=2em|valign=middle}}{{Sup|{{Angbr|?}}}}}} {{Nowrap|{{Angbr|frameless|upright=0.12}}}} |Crook{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠣᠷᠬᠢᠴᠠ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|orkiča}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|орхиц}} {{Transliteration|khk|orkhits}})}} |The separated final '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|a/e}}'''''. |- |Crook, 'Sprinkling, dusting'{{NoteTag|{{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|ᠴᠠᠴᠤᠯᠭ{{mvs}}ᠠ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}}{{Sup|{{Angbr|?}}}}}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|čačulɣ{{nbh}}a}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|цацлага}} {{Transliteration|khk|tsatslaga}})}} |The connected lower part of final '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|a/e}}'''''; the lower part of final '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|g}}''''' (''kaph''). |- | style="text-align: center" |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᡳ{{fvs|2}}|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |'Hook'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠳᠡᠭᠡᠭᠡ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|degege}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|дэгээ}} {{Transliteration|khk|degee}})}} |The final part of final '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|i}}''''' (after bow-shaped '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|b}}''''', '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|k/g}}''''') and some galik letters. |- | rowspan="3" style="text-align: center" |{{MongolUnicode|ᠵ{{zwj}}|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |'Shin, stick'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|silbi}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|шилбэ}} {{Transliteration|khk|shilbe}})}} | rowspan="3" |A main part of '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|i}}''''', '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|ǰ}}''''', and '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|y}}''''', and final part of initial '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|ö/ü}}''''' (''yodh''). Also the upper part of final '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|g}}''''' (''kaph''). |- |'Straight shin'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠰᠢᠯᠤᠭᠤᠨ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|siluɣun silbi}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|шулуун шилбэ}} {{Transliteration|khk|shuluun shilbe}})}} |- |'Long tooth'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠤᠷᠲᠤ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠰᠢᠳᠦ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|urtu sidü}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|урт шүд}} {{Transliteration|khk|urt shüd}})}} |- | style="text-align: center" |{{MongolUnicode|ᠶ{{zwj}}|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |'Shin with upturn'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠡᠭᠡᠲᠡᠭᠡᠷ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|egeteger silbi}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|э(э)тгэр шилбэ}} {{Transliteration|khk|e(e)tger shilbe}})}} |Initial and medial '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|y}}''''' (''yodh''). |- | style="text-align: center" |{{MongolUnicode|ᠸ{{zwj}}|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |Shin with downturn{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠮᠠᠲᠠᠭᠠᠷ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|mataɣar silbi}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|матгар шилбэ}} {{Transliteration|khk|matgar shilbe}})}} |The letters '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|ē}}''''' and '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|w}}''''' (''bet''). |- | style="text-align: center" |{{MongolUnicode|ᠷ{{zwj}}|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |Horned shin{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠥᠷᠭᠡᠰᠦᠲᠡᠢ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|örgesütei silbi}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|өргөстэй шилбэ}} {{Transliteration|khk|örgöstei shilbe}})}} |The letter '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|r}}''''' (''resh''). Historically also the upper part of final '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|g}}''''' and separated '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|a/e}}'''''. |- | style="text-align: center" |{{MongolUnicode|ᠳ{{fvs|1}}{{zwj}}|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |'Looped shin'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠭᠣᠭᠴᠤᠭᠠᠲᠠᠢ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ɣoɣčuɣatai silbi}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|гогцоотой шилбэ}} {{Transliteration|khk|gogtsootoi shilbe}})}} |A medial '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|t/d}}''''' (''lamedh''). Historically with its enclosed (''counter'') endpoint varying in shape: as open/closed, hook-shaped, pointy/round etc. |- | style="text-align: center" |{{MongolUnicode|ᡁ{{zwj}}|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |'Hollow shin'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠬᠥᠨᠳᠡᠢ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠰᠢᠯᠪᠢ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|köndei silbi}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|хөндий шилбэ}} {{Transliteration|khk|khöndii shilbe}})}} |The letters '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|h}}''''' and '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|zh}}''''' (from the Tibetan script). |- | style="text-align: center" |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠢ|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |'Bow'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠨᠤᠮᠤ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|numu}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|нум}} {{Transliteration|khk|num}})}} |Final '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|i}}''''', '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|o/u/ö/ü}}''''', and '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|r}}'''''; ''{{Transliteration|Mong|n}}'''{{Transliteration|Mong|g}}''''', '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|b}}'''/'''{{Transliteration|Mong|p}}''''' (''pe''), '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|k/g}}''''', etc. |- | style="text-align: center" |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}᠊ᠣ{{zwj}}|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |'Belly, stomach,' loop, contour{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠭᠡᠳᠡᠰᠦ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|gedesü}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|гэдэс}} {{Transliteration|khk|gedes}})}} |The counter of '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|o/u/ö/ü}}''''' (''waw''), '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|b}}''''', '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|p}}''''', initial '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|t/d}}''''', etc. |- | style="text-align: center" |{{MongolUnicode|ᠲ{{zwj}}|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |'Hind-gut'{{NoteTag|{{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|ᠠᠷᠤ{{nnbsp}}ᠶᠢᠨ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠭᠡᠳᠡᠰᠦ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}}{{Sup|{{Angbr|?}}}}}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|aru{{nbh}}yin gedesü}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|арын гэдэс}} {{Transliteration|khk|aryn gedes}})}} |An initial '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|t/d}}''''' (''taw''). |- | style="text-align: center" |{{MongolUnicode|ᠬ|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Gray|'''[...]'''}}{{NoteTag|{{Gray|[...]}} (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|ятгар зартиг}} {{Transliteration|khk|yatgar zartig}})}} |An initial '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|q/ɣ}}''''' (''gimel-heth''). |- | style="text-align: center" |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}᠊ᠮ{{zwj}}|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} | rowspan="2" |'Braid, pigtail'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠭᠡᠵᠢᠭᠡ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|geǰige}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|гэзэг}} {{Transliteration|khk|gezeg}})}} and 'Horn'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠡᠪᠡᠷ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|eber}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|эвэр}} {{Transliteration|khk|ever}})}} | rowspan="2" |The letters '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|m}}''''' (''mem'') and '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|l}}''''' (''hooked resh''). |- | style="text-align: center" |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}᠊ᠯ{{zwj}}|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |- | style="text-align: center" |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}᠊ᠰ{{zwj}}|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |'Corner of the mouth'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠵᠠᠪᠠᠵᠢ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ǰabaǰi}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|зав(и/ь)ж}} {{Transliteration|khk|zavij}})}} |The letters '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|s/š}}''''' (''samekh-shin''). |- | rowspan="2" style="text-align: center" |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠴ{{zwj}}|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Gray|'''[...]'''}}{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠰᠡᠷᠡᠭᠡ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} {{MongolUnicode|ᠡᠪᠡᠷ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|serege eber}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|сэрээ эвэр}} {{Transliteration|khk|seree ever}})}} | rowspan="2" |The letter '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|č}}''''' (angular ''tsade''). |- |'Fork'{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠠᠴᠠ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ača}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|ац}} {{Transliteration|khk|ats}})}} |- | rowspan="2" style="text-align: center" |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠵ{{zwj}}|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |{{Gray|'''[...]'''}}{{NoteTag|{{Gray|[...]}} (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|жалжгар эвэр}} {{Transliteration|khk|jaljgar ever}})}} | rowspan="2" |The letter '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|ǰ}}''''' (smooth ''tsade''). |- |'Tusk, fang'{{NoteTag|{{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|ᠰᠣᠶᠤᠭ{{mvs}}ᠠ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}}{{Sup|{{Angbr|?}}}}}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|soyuɣ{{nbh}}a}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|соёо}} {{Transliteration|khk|soyoo}})}} |- | style="text-align: center" |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}᠊ᠹ{{zwj}}|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} | rowspan="3" |Flaglet, tuft{{NoteTag|{{MongolUnicode|ᠵᠠᠷᠲᠢᠭ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ǰartiɣ}}'' (Khalkha: {{Lang|khk-Cyrl|зартиг}} {{Transliteration|khk|zartig}} {{Bo|w=<nowiki>'</nowiki>jar-thig}})}} | rowspan="2" |The left-side diacritic of '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|f}}''''', '''''{{Transliteration|Mong|z}}''''', etc. These names are only used for such components created for words of foreign origin. |- | style="text-align: center" |{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠽ{{zwj}}|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} |}

=== Writing styles === As exemplified in this section, the shapes of glyphs may vary widely between different styles of writing and choice of medium with which to produce them. The development of written Mongolian can be divided into the three periods of ''pre-classical'' (beginning – 17th century), ''classical'' (16/17th century – 20th century), and ''modern'' (20th century onward):{{Refn|name=Lessing1960}}<ref name="Poppe1974" />{{Rp|pages=2–3, 17, 23, 25–26}}<ref name="Grønbech1993" />{{Rp|pages=58–59}}<ref name="Daniels1996" />{{Rp|pages=539–540, 545–546}}<ref name="Skorodumova2000" />{{Rp|pages=62–63}}<ref name="Clauson2005" />{{Rp|pages=111, 113–114}}<ref name="Svantesson2005" />{{Rp|pages=40–42, 100–101, 117}}<ref name="Janhunen2006" />{{Rp|pages=34–37}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.manuscript-cultures.uni-hamburg.de/cal-details/images/Exploring_Mongolian_Manuscript_Collections_in_Russia_and_Beyond.pdf|title=Exploring Mongolian Manuscript Collections in Russia and Beyond|website=www.manuscript-cultures.uni-hamburg.de|access-date=2019-07-17}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=8–11}}<ref name="Sanders2015" />{{Rp|pages=211–215}}

{{CSS image crop |Image = SanjufiniZij1.jpg |bSize = 1014 |cWidth = 60 |cHeight = 215 |oTop = 121 |oLeft = 919 |Location = right |Description = Cursive sample in (pre-classical) Middle Mongol: ''{{Transliteration|Mong|Uridu maqam{{nbh}}un qaǰiun medekü}}''}}

==== Rounded letterforms ==== * Rounded letterforms tend to be more prevalent with handwritten styles (compare printed and handwritten ''{{Transliteration|Mong|arb'''an'''}}'' 'ten'). {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" ! colspan="2" |Block{{nbh}}printed ! rowspan="2" |1604 Pen-written form{{NoteTag|"Little" ''Altan Tobchi'' 'Golden Summary'<ref name="Kara2005" />{{Rp|page=74}}<ref name="Sanders2010" />{{Rp|page=415}}}} ! rowspan="2" |Modern brush{{nbh}}{{wbr}}written{{wbr}} form ! rowspan="2" |''{{Shy|Trans|lit|er|a|tion(s)}}'' & {{Shy|'trans|la|tion'}} |- !1312 Uyghur Mong. form{{NoteTag|''Bodhicaryāvatāra'' 'The Journey to Enlightenment' commentary<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bosworth |first=Clifford Edmund |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ELrRr0L8UOsC |title=History of Civilizations of Central Asia |date=1992 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-1596-4 |language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|page=394}}<ref name="Kara2005" />{{Rp|page=193}}<ref name="Svantesson2005" />{{Rp|page=126}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=Huíhú shì ménggǔ wén wénxiàn wǎng |script-title=zh:回鹘式蒙古文文献网 |trans-title=Uyghur Mongolian Document Network |url=http://mth-mxsb.com/product_detail-7.html |access-date=2025-03-02 |website=中世纪蒙古文文献网 |language=zh}}</ref>}} !semi-modern forms{{NoteTag|''Suvarṇaprabhāsa-sūtra'' or ''{{Transliteration|Mong|altan gerel kemekü yeke kölgen sudur orošibai}}'' 'The Mahāyāna sūtra called the Golden Ray'<ref name="Poppe1974" />{{Rp|page=125}}}} |- | rowspan="2" |20px |42px | rowspan="2" |File:Pen-written arban.svg | rowspan="2" |24px ! rowspan="2" |''{{Transliteration|Mong|arban}}'' 'ten' |- |22px |}

==== Tail ==== * Final letterforms with a right-pointing tail (such as those of ''{{Transliteration|Mong|a}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|e}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|n}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|q}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ɣ}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|m}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|l}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|s}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|š}}'', and ''{{Transliteration|Mong|d}}'') may have the notch preceding it in printed form, written in a span between two extremes: from as a more or less tapered point, to a fully rounded curve in handwriting. * The long final tails of ''{{Transliteration|Mong|a}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|e}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|n}}'', and ''{{Transliteration|Mong|d}}'' in the texts of pre-classical Mongolian can become elongated vertically to fill up the remainder of a line. Such tails are used consistently for these letters in the earliest 13th to 15th century ''Uyghur Mongolian'' style of texts. {{Multiple image | width = 79 | image1 = Block-printed lengthened -daγan.svg | image2 = Block-printed -daγan.svg | footer = Examples of lengthened letterforms ''{{Transliteration|Mong|d}}'' and ''{{Transliteration|Mong|n}}'' in ''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}daɣan}}'' (left), and their regular equivalents (right) }} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" ! colspan="2" |Block{{nbh}}printed ! rowspan="2" |Pen-written forms ! rowspan="2" |Modern brush{{nbh}}{{wbr}}written{{wbr}} forms ! rowspan="2" |''{{Shy|Trans|lit|er|a|tion(s)}}'' & {{Shy|'trans|la|tion'}} |- !Uyghur Mong. forms !semi-modern forms |- | rowspan="2" |19px |40px | rowspan="2" |File:Pen-written -ača -eče.svg | rowspan="2" |20px ! rowspan="2" |''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}ača}}''/''{{wbr}}{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}eče}}'' |- |18px |- | rowspan="2" |19px |50px | rowspan="2" |File:Pen-written -un -ün.svg | rowspan="2" |24px ! rowspan="2" |''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}un}}''/''{{wbr}}{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}ün}}'' |- |18px |- | rowspan="2" |21px |47px | rowspan="2" |File:Pen-written -ud -üd.svg | rowspan="2" |26px ! rowspan="2" |''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}ud}}''/''{{wbr}}{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}üd}}'' |- |21px |- |19px |42px |File:Pen-written ba.svg |20px !''{{Transliteration|Mong|ba}}'' 'and' |}

==== Yodh ==== * A hooked form of ''yodh'' was borrowed from the Manchu alphabet in the 19th century to distinguish initial ''{{Transliteration|Mong|y}}'' from ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ǰ}}''. The handwritten form of final-shaped ''yodh'' (''{{Transliteration|Mong|i}}, {{Transliteration|Mong|ǰ}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|y}}''), can be greatly shortened in comparison with its initial and medial forms. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" ! colspan="2" |Block{{nbh}}printed ! rowspan="2" |Pen-written forms ! rowspan="2" |Modern brush{{nbh}}{{wbr}}written{{wbr}} forms ! rowspan="2" |''{{Shy|Trans|lit|er|a|tion(s)}}'' & {{Shy|'trans|la|tion'}} |- !Uyghur Mong. forms !semi-modern forms |- | rowspan="2" |21px |17px | rowspan="2" |File:Pen-written -i.svg | rowspan="2" |11px ! rowspan="2" |''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}i}}'' |- |14px |- |18px |17px |File:Pen-written -yi.svg |22px !''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}yi}}'' |- | rowspan="2" |22px |42px | rowspan="2" |File:Pen-written -yin.svg | rowspan="2" |27px ! rowspan="2" |''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}yin}}'' |- |20px |- | rowspan="2" |23px |41px | rowspan="2" |File:Pen-written sayin.svg | rowspan="2" |26px ! rowspan="2" |''{{Transliteration|Mong|sain}}''/''{{Transliteration|Mong|sayin}}'' 'good' |- |19px |- |18px |47px |File:Pen-written yeke.svg |19px !''{{Transliteration|Mong|yeke}}'' 'great' |}

==== Diacritics ==== * The definite status or function of diacritics was not established prior to classical Mongolian. As such, the dotted letters ''{{Transliteration|Mong|n}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ɣ}}'', and ''{{Transliteration|Mong|š}}'', can be found sporadically dotted or altogether lacking them. Additionally, both ''{{Transliteration|Mong|q}}'' and ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ɣ}}'' could be (double-)dotted to identify them regardless of their sound values. Final dotted ''{{Transliteration|Mong|n}}'' is also found in modern Mongolian words. Any diacritical dots of ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ɣ}}'' and ''{{Transliteration|Mong|n}}'' can be offset downward from their respective letters {{Nowrap|(as in {{MongolUnicode|ᠭᠣᠣᠯ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} top|25px ''{{Transliteration|Mong|'''ɣo'''ol}}'' and {{MongolUnicode|ᠭᠦᠨ{{nnbsp}}ᠢ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}}{{Sup|{{Angbr|?}}}} top|27px ''{{Transliteration|Mong|gü'''n{{nbh}}i'''}}'').}}

==== Bow ==== * When a ''bow''-shaped consonant is followed by a vowel in Uyghur style text, said bow can be found to notably overlap it (see ''{{Transliteration|Mong|bi}}''). A final ''{{Transliteration|Mong|b}}'' has, in its final pre-modern form, a bow-less final form as opposed to the common modern one:<ref name="Janhunen2006" />{{Rp|page=39}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" ! colspan="2" |Block{{nbh}}printed ! rowspan="2" |Pen-written forms ! rowspan="2" |Modern brush{{nbh}}{{wbr}}written{{wbr}} forms ! rowspan="2" |''{{Shy|Trans|lit|er|a|tion(s)}}'' & {{Shy|'trans|la|tion'}} |- !Uyghur Mong. forms !semi-modern forms |- |17px |16px |File:Pen-written -u -ü.svg |11px !''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}u}}''/''{{wbr}}{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}ü}}'' |- |22px | rowspan="2" |20px | rowspan="2" |File:Pen-written bi.svg | rowspan="2" |12px ! rowspan="2" |''{{Transliteration|Mong|bi}}'' 'I' |- |24px |- |97px |55px |File:Pen-written ab.svg |34px !''{{Transliteration|Mong|ab}}'' (intensifying particle) |}

==== Gimel-heth and kaph ==== * As in ''{{Transliteration|Mong|'''k'''ü}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|'''k'''öke}}'', ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ǰü'''g'''}}'' and separated ''{{Transliteration|Mong|a}}''/''{{Transliteration|Mong|e}}'', two teeth can also make up the top-left part of a ''kaph'' (''{{Transliteration|Mong|k}}''/''{{Transliteration|Mong|g}}'') or ''aleph'' (''{{Transliteration|Mong|a}}''/''{{Transliteration|Mong|e}}'') in pre-classical texts. In back-vocalic words of Uyghur Mongolian, ''{{Transliteration|Mong|qi}}'' was used in place of ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ki}}'', and can therefore be used to identify this stage of the written language. An example of this appears in the suffix {{Nowrap|top|17px ''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}taqi}}''/''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}daqi}}''.<ref name="Svantesson2005" />{{Rp|pages=100, 117}}}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" ! colspan="2" |Block{{nbh}}printed ! rowspan="2" |Pen-written forms ! rowspan="2" |Modern brush{{nbh}}{{wbr}}written{{wbr}} forms ! rowspan="2" |''{{Shy|Trans|lit|er|a|tion(s)}}'' & {{Shy|'trans|la|tion'}} |- !Uyghur Mong. forms !semi-modern forms |- | rowspan="4" |24px |46px | rowspan="4" |File:Pen-written -a -e.svg | rowspan="4" |34px ! rowspan="4" |''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}a}}''/''{{wbr}}{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}e}}'' |- |45px |- |54px |- |21px |- |17px |44px |File:Pen-written -luγ-a.svg |37px !''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}luɣ{{nbh}}a}}'' |- |20px |18px |File:Pen-written kü.svg |{{Gray|[...]}} !''{{Transliteration|Mong|kü}}'' (emphatic particle) |- | rowspan="2" |20px | rowspan="2" |44px | rowspan="2" |File:Pen-written köke.svg | rowspan="2" |30px !''{{Transliteration|Mong|köke}}'' 'blue' |- !''{{Transliteration|Mong|köge}}'' 'soot' |- |20px |51px |File:Pen-written ǰüg.svg |30px !''{{Transliteration|Mong|ǰüg}}'' 'direction' |}

==== Ligatures ==== * In pre-modern Mongolian, medial ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ml}}'' ({{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠮᠯ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}) forms a ligature: top|31px. frame|The word ''{{Transliteration|Mong|čiɣšabd}}'' 'monastic vow' in a Uyghur Mongolian style: exemplifying a dotted syllable-final ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ɣ}}'', and a final ''{{Transliteration|Mong|bd}}'' ligature.{{NoteTag|Also ''{{Transliteration|Mong|čaɣšbd}}'' or ''{{Transliteration|Mong|čaɣšabad}}''.<ref name="Kara2005" />{{Rp|pages=95, 95}}}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kara |first=Györgi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jt55DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA67 |title=Dictionary of Sonom Gara's Erdeni-yin Sang: A Middle Mongol Version of the Tibetan Sa skya Legs bshad. Mongol - English - Tibetan |date=2009-07-31 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-18224-0 |language=en}}</ref>{{Rp|page=67}}

==== Short tail ==== * A pre-modern variant form for final ''{{Transliteration|Mong|s}}'' appears in the shape of a short final ''{{Transliteration|Mong|n}}'' {{Nowrap|{{Angbr|{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠰ{{fvs|1}}|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}}}}}, derived from Old Uyghur ''zayin'' ({{Lang|oui-Ougr|𐽴}}). It tended to be replaced by the ''mouth''-shaped form and is no longer used. An early example of it is found in the name of Gengis Khan on the Stele of Yisüngge: {{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|ᠴᠢᠩᠭᠢᠰ{{fvs|1}}|lang=mn}}}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|Činggi'''s'''}}''. A zayin-shaped final can also appear as part of final ''{{Transliteration|Mong|m}}'' and ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ɣ}}''. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" ! colspan="2" |Block{{nbh}}printed ! rowspan="2" |Pen-written forms ! rowspan="2" |''{{Shy|Trans|lit|er|a|tion(s)}}'' & {{Shy|'trans|la|tion'}} |- !Uyghur Mong. forms !semi-modern forms |- | rowspan="2" |16px |42px | rowspan="2" |File:Pen-written ese.svg ! rowspan="2" |''{{Transliteration|Mong|es({{nbh}})e}}'' 'not, no', (negation) |- |42px |- | rowspan="2" |24px |19px | rowspan="2" |File:Pen-written ulus.svg ! rowspan="2" |''{{Transliteration|Mong|ulus}}'' 'nation' |- |26px |- |51px |18px |File:Pen-written nom.svg !''{{Transliteration|Mong|nom}}'' 'book' |- |18px |18px | rowspan="2" |File:Pen-written čaγ.svg ! rowspan="2" |''{{Transliteration|Mong|čaɣ}}'' 'time' |- |43px |17px |}

==== Taw and lamedh ==== * Initial ''taw'' (''{{Transliteration|Mong|t}}''/''{{Transliteration|Mong|d}}'') can, akin to final ''mem'' (''{{Transliteration|Mong|m}}''), be found written quite explicitly loopy (as in ''{{Transliteration|Mong|no'''m'''}}'' 'book' and ''{{Transliteration|Mong|'''t'''oli}}'' 'mirror'). The ''lamedh'' (''{{Transliteration|Mong|t}}'' or ''{{Transliteration|Mong|d}}'') may appear simply as an oval loop or looped shin, or as more angular, with an either closed or open counter (as in ''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}'''d'''aki}}''/''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}'''d'''eki}}'' or ''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}'''d'''ur}}''/''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}'''d'''ür}}''). As in ''{{Transliteration|Mong|me'''t'''ü}}'', a Uyghur style word-medial ''{{Transliteration|Mong|t}}'' can sometimes be written with the pre-consonantal form otherwise used for ''{{Transliteration|Mong|d}}''. ''Taw'' was applied to both initial ''{{Transliteration|Mong|t}}'' and ''{{Transliteration|Mong|d}}'' from the outset of the script's adoption. This was done in imitation of Old Uyghur which, however, had lacked the phoneme ''{{Transliteration|Mong|d}}'' in this position. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" ! colspan="2" |Block{{nbh}}printed ! rowspan="2" |Pen-written forms ! rowspan="2" |Modern brush{{nbh}}{{wbr}}written{{wbr}} forms ! rowspan="2" |''{{Shy|Trans|lit|er|a|tion(s)}}'' & {{Shy|'trans|la|tion'}} |- !Uyghur Mong. forms !semi-modern forms |- |19px |19px |{{Gray|[...]}} |18px !''{{Transliteration|Mong|toli}}'' 'mirror' |- |44px |39px |File:Pen-written -taki -teki -daki -deki.svg |{{Gray|[...]}} !''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}daki}}''/''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}deki}}'' |- | rowspan="2" |22px |16px |File:Pen-written -tur -tür.svg |{{Gray|[...]}} !''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}tur}}''/''{{wbr}}{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}tür}}'' |- |50px |File:Pen-written -dur -dür.svg |21px !''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}dur}}''/''{{wbr}}{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}dür}}'' |- |22px |35px |File:Pen-written metü.svg |{{Gray|[...]}} !''{{Transliteration|Mong|metü}}'' 'as' |}

==== Tsade ==== * Following the late classical Mongolian orthography of the 17th and 18th centuries, a smooth and angular ''tsade'' ({{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠵ{{zwj}}|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} and {{MongolUnicode|ᠴ|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}}) has come to represent ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ǰ}}'' and ''{{Transliteration|Mong|č}}'' respectively. The ''tsade'' before this was used for both these phonemes, regardless of graphical variants, as no ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ǰ}}'' had existed in Old Uyghur: {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" ! colspan="2" |Block{{nbh}}printed ! rowspan="2" |''{{Shy|Trans|lit|er|a|tion(s)}}'' & {{Shy|'trans|la|tion'}} |- !Uyghur Mong. form !semi-modern form |- |18px |43px !''{{Transliteration|Mong|čečeg}}'' 'flower' |} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" !Block-printed semi-modern form !Pen-written form !''{{Shy|Trans|lit|er|a|tion(s)}}'' & {{Shy|'trans|la|tion'}} |- |18px| |File:Pen-written qačar γaǰar.svg !''{{Transliteration|Mong|qačar}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|ɣaǰar}}'' 'cheek/place' |}

==== Resh ==== * As in ''{{Transliteration|Mong|sa'''r'''a}}'' and ''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}du'''r'''}}''/''{{Transliteration|Mong|{{nbh}}dü'''r'''}}'', a ''resh'' (of ''{{Transliteration|Mong|r}}'', and sometimes of ''{{Transliteration|Mong|l}}'') can appear as two teeth or crossed shins; adjacent, angled, attached to a shin and/or overlapping. {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" ! colspan="2" |Block{{nbh}}printed ! rowspan="2" |Pen-written form ! rowspan="2" |Modern brush{{nbh}}{{wbr}}written{{wbr}} form ! rowspan="2" |''{{Shy|Trans|lit|er|a|tion(s)}}'' & {{Shy|'trans|la|tion'}} |- !Uyghur Mong. form !semi-modern forms |- | rowspan="2" |20px |36px | rowspan="2" |File:Pen-written sara.svg | rowspan="2" |21px ! rowspan="2" |''{{Transliteration|Mong|sar({{nbh}})a}}'' 'moon/month' |- |45px |}

== Example == {| class="wikitable" |+Wikipedia slogan ! Manuscript ! Type ! Unicode ! Transliteration {{Break}}(first word) |- | rowspan=5 valign="top" | File:Mclassical mimic.jpg | rowspan=5 valign="top" | 76x480px | rowspan=5 valign="top" | {{MongolUnicode|ᠸᠢᠺᠢᠫᠧᠳᠢᠶᠠ᠂ {{Break}}{{Nowrap|ᠴᠢᠯᠦᠭᠡᠲᠦ ᠨᠡᠪᠲᠡᠷᠬᠡᠢ ᠲᠣᠯᠢ ᠪᠢᠴᠢᠭ ᠪᠣᠯᠠᠢ᠃}}|lang=mn|font-size=2em}} | {{MongolUnicode|ᠸᠢ{{zwj}}|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|wi}}/{{wbr}}{{Transliteration|Mong|vi}}'' |- | {{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠺᠢ{{zwj}}|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|gi}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|ki}}'' |- | {{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠫᠧ{{zwj}}|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|pē}}/{{Transliteration|Mong|pé}}'' |- | {{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠳᠢ{{zwj}}|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|di}}'' |- | {{Nowrap|{{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠶ{{mvs}}ᠠ|font-size=2em|valign=middle}}{{Sup|{{Angbr|?}}}}}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|y{{nbh}}a}}'' or {{MongolUnicode|{{zwj}}ᠶᠠ|font-size=2em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ya}}'' |- | colspan=4 |<nowiki /> * Transliteration: {{Transliteration|Mong|Wikipēdiya čilügetü nebterkei toli bičig bolai.}} * Cyrillic: {{Lang|mn-Cyrl|Википедиа чөлөөт нэвтэрхий толь бичиг болой.}} * Transcription: {{Transliteration|Mong|Vikipedia chölööt nevterkhii toli bichig boloi.}} * Translation: Wikipedia is the free encyclopedia. |}

== Gallery == <gallery> Mongolia Biometric Ordinary Passport 2023.jpg|Decorative 'wrapped/folded' letters on a 2023 passport.<ref name="Kara2005" />{{Rp|page=159}}<ref name="Shepherd2013" />{{Rp|page=160}}|alt=Decorative 'wrapped/folded' letters on a 2023 passport.: 159 : 160 File:Mongolian Calligraphy (2).jpg|Mongolian calligraphy of the 13th century work ''Оюун Түлхүүр'' (Key of Intelligence) File:Imperial Seal of Bogd Khan.jpg|Imperial seal of the Bogd Khan, ca 1911. File:Inner Mongolia Museum horse-riding paizi.jpg|Mixed Manchu–Mongolian text on a Paiza. File:Čoyijod Dagini manuscript 01.jpg|Brush-written ''{{Transliteration|Mong|Čoyijod Dagini}}'' manuscript, 19th century File:Book of Jeremiah in Mongolian Script, 1840.jpg|Book of Jeremiah, printed 1840 at Khodon in Siberia. </gallery>

== Unicode == The Mongolian script was added to the Unicode standard in September 1999 with the release of version 3.0. However, several design issues have been pointed out.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/~lisa/mongoliandocs/mwg2-12Currentproblems-LiangHai.pdf|title=Current problems in the Mongolian encoding|last=Liang|first=Hai|date=23 Sep 2017|website=Unicode|access-date=4 June 2019|archive-date=15 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190615151834/https://www.unicode.org/~lisa/mongoliandocs/mwg2-12Currentproblems-LiangHai.pdf}}</ref>

* The 1999 Mongolian script Unicode codes are duplicated and not searchable. For example, a 2016 corpus study found that the homographic misspelling "mun̅g̅g1ul" was more common than "Mon̅g̅gol" 'mongolia' since ''o'' and ''u'' are visually identical but encoded separately.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Boli |last2=Shi |first2=Xiaodong |last3=Chen |first3=Yidong |title=Coping with Problems of Unicoded Traditional Mongolian |journal=The 15th Chinese National Conference on Computational Linguistics (CCL 2016) and the Fourth International Symposium on Natural Language Processing Based on Naturally Annotated Big Data |date=2016 |url=http://www.cips-cl.org/static/anthology/CCL-2016/CCL-16-075.pdf |access-date=29 September 2025}}</ref>

* The 1999 Mongolian script Unicode model has multiple layers of FVS (free variation selectors), MVS, ZWJ, NNBSP, and those variation selections conflict with each other, which create incorrect results.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2018/18314-mongolian-ad-hoc.pdf|title=Mongolian Ad Hoc meeting summary|last=Anderson|first=Debbie|date=22 Sep 2018|website=Unicode}}</ref> Furthermore, different vendors understood the definition of each FVS differently, and developed multiple applications in different standards.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/~lisa/mongolianwg3docs/mwg3-13SummaryOfMWG2GoalsForMWG3R3.pdf|title=Summary of MWG2 Outcomes and Goals for MWG3 Meeting|last=Moore|first=Lisa|date=27 Mar 2019|website=Unicode.Org|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20190615152047/https://www.unicode.org/~lisa/mongolianwg3docs/mwg3-13SummaryOfMWG2GoalsForMWG3R3.pdf|archive-date=2019-06-15}}</ref> * The characters themselves are typed left to right, flowing in lines from top to bottom, instead of the correct direction of up to down, flowing in lines from left to right; as a result, the characters are sometimes rotated 90° counterclockwise when displayed in horizontal lines.

=== Blocks === {{Main|Mongolian (Unicode block)|Mongolian Supplement|l2 = Mongolian Supplement (Unicode block)}}

The Unicode block for Mongolian is U+1800–U+18AF. It includes letters, digits and various punctuation marks for Hudum Mongolian, Todo Mongolian, Xibe (Manchu), Manchu proper, and Ali Gali, as well as extensions for transcribing Sanskrit and Tibetan.

The Mongolian Supplement block (U+11660–U+1167F) was added to the Unicode Standard in June 2016 with the release of version 9.0:

== Keyboard layout == The Windows Mongolian traditional script keyboard layout for personal computers is as follows:<ref>{{Cite web |last=jowilco |title=Windows keyboard layouts - Globalization |url=https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/globalization/windows-keyboard-layouts |access-date=2023-09-02 |website=Windows keyboard layouts |date=22 June 2023 |language=en-us}}</ref>

=== Unshifted layout === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |+ | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |FVS3 | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |1 {{MongolUnicode|᠑|h|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |2 {{MongolUnicode|᠒|h|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |3 {{MongolUnicode|᠓|h|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |4 {{MongolUnicode|᠔|h|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |5 {{MongolUnicode|᠕|h|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |6 {{MongolUnicode|᠖|h|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |7 {{MongolUnicode|᠗|h|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |8 {{MongolUnicode|᠘|h|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |9 {{MongolUnicode|᠙|h|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |0 {{MongolUnicode|᠐|h|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |NNBSP | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |= | colspan="4" |Backspace |- | colspan="4" |Tab | colspan="3" |Q {{MongolUnicode|ᠴ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|č}}'' | colspan="3" |W {{MongolUnicode|ᠣ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|o}}'' | colspan="3" |E {{MongolUnicode|ᠡ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|e}}'' | colspan="3" |R {{MongolUnicode|ᠷ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|r}}'' | colspan="3" |T {{MongolUnicode|ᠲ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|t}}'' | colspan="3" |Y {{MongolUnicode|ᠶ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|y}}'' | colspan="3" |U {{MongolUnicode|ᠦ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ü}}'' | colspan="3" |I {{MongolUnicode|ᠢ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|i}}'' | colspan="3" |O {{MongolUnicode|ᠥ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ö}}'' | colspan="3" |P {{MongolUnicode|ᠫ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|p}}'' | colspan="3" |(...) {{MongolUnicode|〔|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} | colspan="3" |(...) {{MongolUnicode|〕|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} | colspan="3" |(...) {{MongolUnicode|᠁|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} |- | colspan="5" |Caps | colspan="3" |A {{MongolUnicode|ᠠ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|a}}'' | colspan="3" |S {{MongolUnicode|ᠰ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|s}}'' | colspan="3" |D {{MongolUnicode|ᠳ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|d}}'' | colspan="3" |F {{MongolUnicode|ᠹ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|f}}'' | colspan="3" |G {{MongolUnicode|ᠭ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ɣ/g}}'' | colspan="3" |H {{MongolUnicode|ᠬ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|q/k}}'' | colspan="3" |J {{MongolUnicode|ᠵ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ǰ}}'' | colspan="3" |K {{MongolUnicode|ᠺ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|g}}'' | colspan="3" |L {{MongolUnicode|ᠯ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|l}}'' | colspan="3" |; {{MongolUnicode|︔|h|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} | colspan="3" |FVS1 | colspan="5" |Enter |- | colspan="4" |Shift | colspan="3" |\ | colspan="3" |Z {{MongolUnicode|ᠽ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|z}}'' | colspan="3" |X {{MongolUnicode|ᠱ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|š}}'' | colspan="3" |C {{MongolUnicode|ᠼ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|c}}'' | colspan="3" |V {{MongolUnicode|ᠤ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|u}}'' | colspan="3" |B {{MongolUnicode|ᠪ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|b}}'' | colspan="3" |N {{MongolUnicode|ᠨ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|n}}'' | colspan="3" |M {{MongolUnicode|ᠮ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|m}}'' | colspan="3" |,

{{MongolUnicode|᠂|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} | colspan="3" |.

{{MongolUnicode|᠃|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} | colspan="3" |. | colspan="6" |Shift |- | colspan="5" |Ctrl | colspan="6" |Alt | colspan="21" | | colspan="6" |Alt | colspan="5" |Ctrl |}

=== Shifted layout === {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |+ | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |~ | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |1 <nowiki>!</nowiki> | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |2 ⁈ | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |3 ⁉ | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |4 — | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |5 % | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |6 ZWNJ | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |7 {{MongolUnicode|᠊|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |8 ZWJ | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |9 ( | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |0 ) | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" |MVS | colspan="3" style="min-width: 3em" | + | colspan="4" |Backspace |- | colspan="4" |Tab | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" |W {{MongolUnicode|ᠸ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|w}}'' | colspan="3" |E {{MongolUnicode|ᠧ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ē}}'' | colspan="3" |R {{MongolUnicode|ᠿ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ž}}'' | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" |(...) {{MongolUnicode|〈|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} | colspan="3" |(...) {{MongolUnicode|〉|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} | colspan="3" |(...) {{MongolUnicode|{{!}}|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} |- | colspan="5" |Caps | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" |H {{MongolUnicode|ᠾ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|h}}'' | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" |K {{MongolUnicode|ᠻ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|kh}}'' | colspan="3" |L {{MongolUnicode|ᡀ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|lh}}'' | colspan="3" |: {{MongolUnicode|᠄|lang=mn|font-size=1.6em}} | colspan="3" |FVS2 | colspan="5" |Enter |- | colspan="4" |Shift | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" |Z {{MongolUnicode|ᡁ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|zh}}'' | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" |C {{MongolUnicode|ᡂ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ch}}'' | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" |N {{MongolUnicode|ᠩ|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} ''{{Transliteration|Mong|ng}}'' | colspan="3" | | colspan="3" |, {{MongolUnicode|《|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} | colspan="3" |. {{MongolUnicode|》|font-size=1.6em|valign=middle}} | colspan="3" |? | colspan="6" |Shift |- | colspan="5" |Ctrl | colspan="6" |Alt | colspan="21" | | colspan="6" |Alt | colspan="5" |Ctrl |}

== Notes == {{NoteFoot|20em}}

== References == {{Reflist}}

== External links == {{Commons category|Mongolian script}}

=== Keyboards Mongolian script layout online === * [https://www.typingbits.com/keyboard/online-mongolian-keyboard '''''Typingbits'''''] * [https://www.lexilogos.com/keyboard/mongolian_bichig.htm '''''Lexilogos'''''] * [https://www.typingbaba.com/keyboard/online-mongolian-keyboard.php '''''Typingbaba'''''] * [https://www.branah.com/mongolian '''''Branah.com''''']

=== Summaries === * [https://www.istb.univie.ac.at/mongol/grammar/poppe/popindex.htm University of Vienna: Grammar of Written Mongolian by Nicholas POPPE Index] * [http://www.cjvlang.com/Writing/writmongol/mongolalpha.html CJVlang: Making Sense of the Traditional Mongolian Script] * [http://www.studymongolian.net/lessons/basics/writing/ StudyMongolian: Written forms with audio pronunciation] * [http://www.viahistoria.com/SilverHorde/main.html?research/MongolScripts.html The Silver Horde: Mongol Scripts] * [http://www.linguamongolia.com/ Lingua Mongolia: Uighur-script Mongolian Resources] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319200601/http://www.linguamongolia.com/ |date=2022-03-19 }} * [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/mongolian.htm Omniglot: Mongolian Alphabet] (contains several table inaccuracies regarding glyphs and transliterations)

=== Studies === * (fr) Rémusat, Abel [https://books.google.com/books?id=aG5nAAAAcAAJ ''Récherches sur les langues tartares''], Paris, 1820

=== Grammars === * (ru) Schmidt, Isaak Jakob, [https://archive.org/details/grammatikamongol00schm/page/n5/mode/2up ''Грамматика монгольскaго языка (Grammatika mongolʹskago i︠a︡zyka)''], Saint-Petersburg, 1832 * (ru) Bobrovnikov, Aleksieĭ Aleksandrovich [https://books.google.com/books?id=H7c9AAAAYAAJ ''Грамматика монгольско-калмыцкого языка (Grammatika mongolʹsko-kalmyt͡skago i͡azyka)''], Kazan, 1849 * (de) Schmidt, Isaak Jakob, [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_qtMzxWTKkeQC/page/n5/mode/2up''Grammatik der mongolischen Sprache''], St. Petersburg, 1831 * (fr) Soulié, Charles Georges, [https://archive.org/details/lmentsdegrammai00soulgoog/page/n9/mode/2up ''Éléments de grammaire mongole (dialecte ordoss)''], Paris, 1903 * (it) Puini, Carlo, [https://archive.org/details/puini-elementi-della-grammatica-mongolica-1878/page/n7/mode/2up ''Elementi della grammatica mongolica''], Firenze, 1878

=== Dictionaries === * (fr, ru) Kovalevskiĭ, Osip Mikhaĭlovich, [https://www.google.it/search?hl=it&tbo=p&tbm=bks&q=bibliogroup:%22Dictionnaire+mongol-russe-franca%CC%A7is%22 ''Dictionnaire Mongol-Russe-Français''], Volumes 1–3, Kazan 1844-46-49 * [http://www.bolor-toli.com/ Bolor Dictionary] (sometimes uses galik characters for rendering purposes) * [https://mongoltoli.mn/dictionary/ Mongol toli dictionary: state dictionary of Mongolia]

=== Transliteration === * [https://collab.its.virginia.edu/wiki/tibetan-script/Transliteration%20Schemes%20for%20Mongolian%20Vertical%20Script.html University of Virginia: Transliteration Schemes For Mongolian Vertical Script] * [http://www.ushuaia.pl/transliterate/?ln=en Online tool for Mongolian script transliteration] * [http://trans.mglip.com/EnglishC2T.aspx Automatic converter for Traditional Mongolian and Cyrillic Mongolian by the Computer College of Inner Mongolia University] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804060404/http://trans.mglip.com/EnglishC2T.aspx |date=2020-08-04 }}

=== Manuscripts === * [http://www.eurasia.city.yokohama.jp/olonsume/index-E.html Mongolian Manuscripts from Olon Süme – Yokohama Museum of EurAsian Cultures] * [http://www.kb.dk/en/nb/samling/os/central/digcentral.html Digitised Mongolian manuscripts – The Royal Library], National Library of Denmark * [http://turfan.bbaw.de/dta/monght/dta_monght_index.htm Mongolian texts – Digitales Turfan-Archiv], the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities * [https://eap.bl.uk/project/EAP890 Preservation of unique and historic newspapers printed in traditional Mongolian script between 1936–1945 – Endangered Archives Programme, British Library]

=== Other === * [http://mongol.people.com.cn/ Official Mongolian script version of the ''People's Daily Online''] * [https://president.mn/mng/ Office of the President of Mongolia] website in Mongolian script * {{cite web |url = https://www.thetimes.com/world/russia-ukraine-war/article/mongolia-abandons-soviet-past-by-restoring-alphabet-rsvcgqmxd |title = Mongolia abandons Soviet past by restoring alphabet |first = Didi |last = Tang |date = 20 March 2020 |website = The Times |access-date = 21 March 2020 }}

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