Lüshi Chunqiu

{{Short description|Chinese annals compiled in 239 BC}} {{more citations needed|date=February 2016}} {{Infobox book | name = Lüshi Chunqiu | title_orig = {{no italic|呂氏春秋}} | translator = | image = Lüshi Chunqiu, Qing dynasty, Hunan Museum.jpg | caption = An Edo period (1603–1868) edition | author = Lü Buwei | country = China | language = Chinese | genre = Chinese classics | release_date = | english_release_date = | pages = | isbn = }} {{infobox Chinese | title = ''Lǚshì chūnqiū'' | t = {{linktext|呂|氏|春秋}} | s = {{linktext|吕|氏|春秋}} | w = Lü3-shih4 Ch'un1-ch'iu1 | p = Lǚshì chūnqiū | mi = {{IPAc-cmn|l|v|3|shi|4|-|ch|un|1|q|iu|1}} | l = "Mr. Lü's Spring and Autumn [Annals]" | buc = Lṳ̄-sê Chŭng-chiŭ | wuu = Liu-zy Tshen-chieu | poj = Lū-sī Chhun-chhiu | j = Leoi5-si6 Ceon1-cau1 | y = Léuih-sih Chēun-chāu | ci = {{IPAc-yue|l|eoi|5|.|s|i|6|-|c|eon|1|.|c|au|1}} | mc = Ljó-d͡ʒjé tɕʰwin-tsʰjuw | oc-bs = &ast;{{IPA|[r]ˤa k.dəʔ tʰun tsʰiw}} }}

The '''''Lüshi Chunqiu''''' ({{Lang-zh|s=吕氏春秋|t=呂氏春秋|l=Lü's Spring and Autumn}}), abbreviated '''''Lülan''''' 吕览 "Lu Survey",{{Sfn|Carson|Loewe|1993|p=327}}{{sfnm|1a1=Yang|1y=2013|1p=212|2a1=Zhu|2y=2024|2p=129}} also known in English as '''''Master Lü's Spring and Autumn Annals''''',<ref>{{citation |last=Sellman |first=James D. |title=Timing and Rulership in Master Lü's Spring and Autumn Annals |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany |date=2002 }}.</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Sellman |first=James D. |contribution=Lushi Chunqiu |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |doi=10.4324/9780415249126-G057-1 |date=1998 |publisher=Taylor & Francis }}.</ref> is an encyclopedic Chinese classic text compiled around 239{{Nbsp}}BC under the patronage of late pre-imperial Qin Chancellor Lü Buwei. In the evaluation of Michael Loewe, "The ''Lü shih ch'un ch'iu'' is unique among early works in that it is well organized and comprehensive, containing extensive passages on such subjects as music and agriculture, unknown elsewhere." One of the longest early texts, it extends to over 100,000 words.{{Sfn|Carson|Loewe|1993|p=324-324}}

Combining ideas from many different 'schools', it was traditionally classified as 'Syncretist', though there was no school that called itself Syncretist.{{sfn|Liu|1995|p=xvi}}<ref>Lundahl 1992. p130</ref> Almost certainly written for review by Qin authorities, or those who were going to come into a position of authority,{{Sfn|Carson|Loewe|1993|p=324-324}} Yuri Pines considered it more moral leaning than the Strategies of the Warring States.{{sfn|Pines|2009|p=144}}

==Dating== Terminologies in the Lushi Chunqiu still supported a traditional late pre-imperial Warring States period compilation in 2021.{{sfn|Jiang|2021|p=13}}<ref>Tao Jiang names Dao de 道德, Xingming 性命, and Jingshen 精神 as late Warring States terminologies, earlier discussed by Xiaogan Liu 1994: p14. In this case, Xingming is different from the Han Feizi's "form and name" Xingming, though it does have a related ming-shi "name and reality" doctrine: Goldin 2005. p185</ref> Earlier scholarship considered the listed date of circa 239 BCE satisfactory without disagreement,{{sfnm|1a1=Smith|1y=2003|p=132|2a1=Liu|2y=1995|2p=ix}}{{Sfn|Carson|Loewe|1993|p=324}} generally accepting it as a legitimate pre-Qin dynasty text.{{Sfn|Carson|Loewe|1993|p=324}} Alongside Warring States language, it displays Warring States attitudes not considering it possible to disband the army, whereas the Han dynasty came to consider itself superior based on peace.{{sfn|Ryden|1997|p=188 i.e. not counting early troubles and the Xiongnu invasion}}

The earliest and "most instructive" ''direct'' reference to the Lushi Chunqiu is in the early Han Shiji;{{Sfn|Carson|Loewe|1993|p=324-324}} the abbreviated title '''''Lülan''''' also derives from the Shiji (ch.130).{{Sfn|Carson|Loewe|1993|p=327}} The much later Han Gao You is the Lushi Chunqiu's earliest and most well known commentator.{{Sfn|Carson|Loewe|1993|p=327}}

Early linguistic investigations were performed by Richard Wilhelm and Naitō Torajirō,{{Sfn|Carson|Loewe|1993|p=326-327}} with Michael F. Carson (1980) discussing "some characteristic features of grammar and style in a third century b.c. text".{{Sfn|Carson|Loewe|1993|p=327}}

=="Encyclopedic" tradition== The early Han text Huainanzi makes extensive ''use'' of the ''Lushi Chunqiu'',{{sfn|Major|2010|p=26-27}}<ref>As opposed to the Shiji, which references it directly.</ref> leading some early scholars to link them together ideologically. Huainanzi translator John Major links them together with the Guanzi and Shiji more in the sense of forming an "''encyclopedic''" tradition, though not the "true" enormous encyclopedias associated with the Tang dynasty onward.

Intended for rulers, although they do have philosophical bias, the ''Huainanzi'' would arguably represent a compendium of already existing ideas and views. It uses the ''Lushi Chunqiu'' for ideas including topography and the origin of music.{{sfn|Major|1993|p=21,112}} Inasmuch as the Huiananzi reflects early Han dynasty intellectual life,{{sfn|Major|1993|p=3}} it suggests a strong continued relevance for the ''Lushi Chunqiu'' into the early Han dynasty before it was sidelined by Confucian and other classics.{{sfn|Major|1993|p=2-3,5-6}}

The Lushi Chunqiu's ideologically millitarist components in particular would not have remained relevant as the Han dynasty progressed.{{sfn|Smith|2003|p=132}} The Huainanzi otherwise makes more prominent use of the Tao te Ching and Zhuangzi,{{sfn|Major|1993|p=5}} with the Tao te Ching earlier named a classic under Emperor Jing of Han.

==Lu Buwei background== {{Chinese Legalism}} It is not known what part Lu Buwei played in the Lushi Chunqiu's compilation, with most of it "probably" composed by the scholars he is said to have recruited.{{Sfn|Carson|Loewe|1993|p=324}} The postface of the text says that he "succeeded in studying what the Yellow Sovereign used to instruct the Zhuanxu Sovereign";{{sfnm|1a1=Lewis|1y=1999|1p=303|2a1=Ritchie|2y=2010|2p=45 refers back to knoblock translation p.1,16,19}} i.e. that he engaged in study intending to produce a compendium for the upcoming emperor,{{sfn|Ritchie|2010|p=45}} as "instructions in the methods of kingship for a young ruler", most likely as a guide to conduct.(Lewis){{sfn|Lewis|1999|p=303}}

The ''Shiji'' (chap. 85, p. 2510) biography of Lü Buwei has the earliest information about the ''Lüshi Chunqiu''. Lü was a successful merchant from Handan who befriended King Zhuangxiang of Qin. The king's son Zheng, who the ''Shiji'' suggests was actually Lü's son, eventually became the first emperor Qin Shi Huang in 221{{Nbsp}}BC.

When Zhuangxiang died in 247{{Nbsp}}BC, Lü was made regent for the 13-year-old Zheng. In order to establish Qin as the intellectual center of China, Lü "recruited scholars, treating them generously so that his retainers came to number three thousand".<ref>Knoblock and Riegel (2000:13)</ref> In 239{{Nbsp}}BC, he, in the words of the ''Shiji'':<ref>Knoblock and Riegel (2000:14)</ref>

{{blockquote|... ordered that his retainers write down all that they had learned and assemble their theses into a work consisting of eight "Examinations", six "Discourses", and twelve "Almanacs", totaling more than 200,000 words.}}

According to the ''Shiji'', Lü exhibited the completed text at the city gate of Xianyang, capital of Qin, and above it a notice offering a thousand measures of gold to any traveling scholar who could add or subtract even a single word.{{citation needed|date=September 2025}}

The ''Hanshu Yiwenzhi'' listed the ''Lüshi Chunqiu'' as belonging to the ''Zajia'' ({{Lang-zh|s=杂家|t=雜家|labels=no}}; 'mixed school'), within the philosophers' domain ({{Lang|zh-Hant|諸子略}}), or Hundred Schools of Thought. Although this text is frequently characterized as "syncretic", "eclectic", or "miscellaneous", it was a cohesive summary of contemporary philosophical thought, including Legalism, Confucianism, Mohism, and Daoism.

==Contents== The title uses ''chunqiu'' ({{Lang-zh|c=春秋|p=spring and autumn|labels=no}}) to mean 'annals; chronicle' in a reference to the Confucianist ''Spring and Autumn Annals'', which chronicles the State of Lu history from 722–481 BC.

The text comprises 26 ''juan'' ({{Lang-zh|c=卷|l=scrolls; books|labels=no}}) in 160 ''pian'' ({{Lang-zh|c=篇|l=sections|labels=no}}), and is divided into three major parts. #The ''Ji'' ({{Lang-zh|c=紀|l=Almanacs|labels=no}}) comprises books 1{{Endash}}12, which corresponds to the months of the year, and lists appropriate seasonal activities to ensure that the state runs smoothly. This part, which was copied as the ''Liji'' chapter ''Yueling'', takes many passages from other texts, often without attribution. #The ''Lan'' ({{Lang-zh|c=覧|labels=no|l=Examinations}}) comprises books 13{{Endash}}20, which each have 8 sections. This is the longest and most eclectic part, giving quotations from many early texts, some no longer extant. #The ''Lun'' ({{Lang-zh|c=論|labels=no|l=Discourses}}) comprises books 21{{Endash}}26, which mostly deal with rulership, except for the final four sections about agriculture. This part resembles the ''Lan'' in composition.

===Integrity of the text=== The composition's features, measure of completeness (i.e. the veracity of the ''Shiji'' account) and possible corruption of the original ''Annals'' have been subjects of scholarly attention. It has been mentioned that the ''Almanacs'' have much greater integrity and thematic organization than the other two parts of the text.

The ''Yuda'' ({{Lang|zh|諭大}}) chapter of the Examinations, for example, contains text almost identical to the ''Wuda'' (務大) chapter of the Discourses, though in the first case it is ascribed to ''Jizi'' (季子), and in the second to Confucius.

==Major positions== Admitting the difficulties of summarizing the ''Lüshi Chunqiu'', John Knoblock and Jeffrey Riegel list 18 major points: #Affirmation of self-cultivation and impartiality #Rejection of hereditary ruler over the empire #Stupidity as the cause of hereditary rule #Need for government to honor the concerns of the people #The central importance of learning and teachers #Support and admiration for learning as the basis of rule #Non-assertion on the part of the ruler #Primary task for a ruler is to select his ministers #Need for a ruler to trust the expertise of his advisers #Need for a ruler to practice quiescence #The attack on Qin practices #Just warfare #Respect for civil arts #Emphasis on agriculture #Facilitating trade and commerce #Encouraging economy and conservation #Lightening of taxes and duties #Emphasis on filial piety and loyalty.<ref>Knoblock and Riegel (2000:46–54)</ref> The ''Lüshi chunqiu'' is an invaluable compendium of early Chinese thought and civilization.

==Impartialist militarism== While an invaluable compendium "accommodating diverse textual traditions", a militarist section of the work takes a "multiplicity of views" as dangerous to the Qin state if listened to too much, though it withholds judgment of Laozi, Confucius, Mozi, Yang Zhu, or Sun Bin, resorting to a "military model" comparable to the Art of War rather than an ideology. Likely not considering it useful as a comparative, in the early Han, Sima Tan didn't include militarism as a school. But militarism is a major viewpoint of the Qin, that is, its stratocracy.{{sfn|Smith|2003|p=132}}

{{Blockquote| If one listens to the views of the many, then there is no day that the state will be free of danger. How to know who is right? Lao Dan [Laozi) values the soft, Confucius values humanity, Mo Di values the inexpensive, Guan Yin values clarity, Zi Liezi values vacuity, Chen Pian values things equally, Yang Sheng [Yang Zhu] values himself, Sun Bin values strategic configuration, Wang Liao values being ahead, Ni Liang values being behind. To unify the ears [of one's troops], use metal drums. To unify their minds, make standards and commands the same. To unify their intelligence, keep the wise from being crafty and the stupid from being clumsy. To unify their strength, keep the brave from going ahead and the cowardly from lagging behind.}}

While the Lushi Chunqiu considers ''learning'' and teachers of central importance as if its fifth major point, as noted under Major Positions, John Knoblock includes filial piety as its last major point, and wu wei as its seventh. But "Affirmation of self-cultivation and ''impartiality''" is its first position. While the work does encourage the ruler to listen to ministers, its own priorities consist of such mundane positions as facilitating agriculture, trade and commerce, thrift, and reducing taxes.<ref>Knoblock and Riegel (2000:46–54)</ref>

Although Qin's Shang Yang, the Han Feizi or Sima Qian's Li Si in the Shiji are less tolerant, Yuri Pines (Stanford Encyclopedia) analysis of them is similar to Smith, discussing some of the same material. The much earlier Shang Yang was anti-intellectual but did not actually care about the ''content'' of doctrines. Not "adoring" a martial spirit, he was concerned with recruiting farmers and soldiers, inculcating militarist regulations rather than values. Li Si isn't specifically anti-Confucian, so much as he is simply authoritarian. Opposing the "discourses of the former kings" in favor of teaching law in Chapter 49, the Han Feizi's Chapter 50 resorts to simply having the king promulgate and prohibit doctrines, whatever they may be. By comparison, they cared more about state control, but still not doctrinal unity. Despite the later term Chinese Legalism, they do not provide an ''ideological'' alternative.{{sfn|Pines|2023}}{{sfn|Smith|2003|p=133}}

==Daoistic syncretism== While stratocracy represented in the Lush Chunqiu may not specifically favor Laozi, Hansen (Stanford Encyclopedia) argues China's ''officialdom'' as becoming more Huang-Lao "Daoistic", lacking in Zhuangzi influences.{{sfn|Hansen|2025}} Though the Confucian archivists classify the Lushi Chunqiu as Zajia ("Syncretist") rather than Daojia ("Daoism") or Fajia ("Legalism"), in the terms of old scholarship, the work's "Ren Shu" chapter incorporates a "Daoist-Legalist" fusion comparable to Shen Buhai, Shen Dao, Han Fei, Guanzi and the Mawangdui Huangdi sijing, demonstrating that a philosophy promoting the wu wei reduced activity of the ruler goes back to the Warring States period.{{sfnm|1a1=Creel|1y=1982|1p=52|2a1=Lundahl|2y=1992|2p=129-130}}

While the Lushi Chunqiu does incorporate a selection from Shen Buhai's doctrine,{{sfnm|1a1=Goldin|1y=2005|1p=94|2a1=Goldin|2y=2005a|2p=94}} in contrast to Laozi or Zhuangzi, Shen Buhai or the Han Feizi by comparison sometimes only promote that the ruler "act" inactive.{{sfn|Pines|2024|p=70-72,127}} Associating Shen Buhai together with wu wei doctrines of inaction, as the Lushi Chunqiu (or Han Feizi's Laozi commentaries{{sfnm|Hansen|1992|p=360}}) demonstrate,{{sfn|Lundahl|1992|p=129-130}} it seems unlikely that such doctrines were always strictly distinguished.{{sfnm|1a1=Lewis|1y=2024|1p=320-321,324|2a1=Hansen|2y=1992|2p=360}}

Ren shu says:

{{Blockquote| To follow is the method of the ruler; to act is the way of the minister. If (the ruler) acts, he will be troubled, if he follows, he will find peace. To follow the winter when it produces cold and the summer when it produces heat, why should the ruler do anything? Therefore to say: "The way of the ruler is to have no knowledge and no action, but still he is more worthy than those who know and act," that is to get the point."}}

==Correction bounty== The ''Shiji'' tells that after Lü Buwei presented the finished ''Lüshi Chunqiu'' for the public at the gate of Xianyang and announced that anyone could correct the book's content would be awarded 1000 taels of gold for every corrected word. This event lead to the Chinese idiom "One word [is worth] a thousand gold" ({{Lang-zh|c=一��千金|labels=no}}).

None of the contemporary scholars pointed out any mistakes in the work, although later scholars managed to detect a number of them. It is believed that Lü's contemporaries were able to detect the book's inaccuracies, but none dared to openly criticize a powerful figure like him.

==Reception== Scholar Liang Qichao (1873–1929) stated: "This book, through the course of two thousand years, has had no deletions nor corruptions. Moreover, it has the excellent commentary of Gao You. Truly it is the most perfect and easily read work among the ancient books."<ref>Stephen W. Durrant, "The Cloudy Mirror", p.80</ref> Liang's position, mildly criticized afterwards,{{By whom|date=August 2023}} was dictated by the lack of canonical status ascribed to the book.

==Translations== Before John Knoblock and Jeffrey Riegel's translation (2001), Michael Loewe (1993) states that the only complete translation (into a European language) was Richard Wilhelm's (German) translation, "''Frühling und Herbst des Lü Bu we; aus dem Chinesischen verdeutscht und erläutert''; Jena: Eugen Diederichs, 1928; reprinted, with a new preface by Hellmut Wilhelm, 1971."{{Sfn|Carson|Loewe|1993|p=324-324}}

There were also several Japanese translations; "Kokuyaku kambun taisei, no. 20, 1924, edited by Fujita Toyohachi; Kambun sōsho, 1928, edited by Okada Masayuki; Chūgoku koten shinsho, 1976, edited by Uchino Kumaichirō and Nakamura Shōhachi.'{{Sfn|Carson|Loewe|1993|p=329-330}}

==References== ;Footnotes {{reflist|2}}

;Works cited * {{Cite book |last=Creel |first=Herrlee Glessner |author-link=Herrlee G. Creel |date=1982 |orig-year=1970 |title=What Is Taoism?: And Other Studies in Chinese Cultural History |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=9780226120478|via=Google Books |jstor=1397689 |oclc=1256745090 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5p6EBnx4_W0C}} * {{cite book |last=Goldin |first=Paul R. |date=2005 |title=After Confucius: Studies In Early Chinese Philosophy |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |isbn=978-0-8248-2842-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TvLGDwAAQBAJ}} ** {{citation |last=Goldin |first=Paul R. |date=2005a |title=Insidious Syncretism in the Political Philosophy of Huainanzi |journal=University of Hawai'i Press |pages=90–111 |url=https://uplopen.com/chapters/1282/files/b79ba619-4773-4ef5-8d5e-aed00aa8662f.pdf}} * {{cite book |last=Hansen |first=Chad |date=1992 |title=A Daoist Theory of Chinese Thought |isbn=978-0-19-535076-0 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzHmobC0ThsC}} * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Hansen |first=Chad |date=2025 |title=Daoism |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |edition=Summer 2025 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/daoism/ |access-date=7 June 2025 |editor-last1=Zalta |editor-first1=Edward N. |editor-link=Edward N. Zalta |editor-last2=Nodelman |editor-first2=Uri}} * {{cite book |last=Jiang |first=Tao |author-link= |title=Origins of Moral-political Philosophy in Early China |date=2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-760347-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qXo_EAAAQBAJ}} * {{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Mark Edward |author-link=Mark Edward Lewis |date=1999 |title=Writing and Authority in Early China |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-4114-5 |doi=10.1353/pew.2001.0006}} * {{cite book |surname=Liu |given=Xiaogan |author-mask= Liu Xiaogan |date=1995 |title=Classifying the Zhuangzi Chapters |publisher=University of Michigan Press |place=Ann Arbor |isbn=9780472901340 | doi=10.3998/mpub.19186 | series= Michigan Monographs in Chinese Studies, vol. 65 | doi-access =free}} * {{cite book |last=Lundahl |first=Bertil |editor=Lundahl, Bertil |date=1992 |title=Han Fei Zi: The Man and the Work |publisher=Institute of Oriental Languages, Stockholm University |isbn=9789171530790}} * {{cite book |last=Major |first=John S. |year=1993 |title=Heaven and Earth in Early Han Thought: Chapters Three, Four and Five of the Huainanzi |location=Albany |publisher=State University of New York Press}} * {{cite book | first1 = Michael | last1 = Carson | first2 = Michael | last2 = Loewe | authorlink2=Michael Loewe | chapter=''Lü shih ch'un ch'iu'' 呂氏春秋 | editor-first=Michael | editor-last=Loewe | title=Early Chinese Texts: A Bibliographical Guide | url = https://archive.org/details/earlychinesetext00loew | url-access = limited | pages=[https://archive.org/details/earlychinesetext00loew/page/n337 324]–30 | year=1993 | publisher=Society for the Study of Early China; Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California Berkeley | location=Berkeley | isbn=1-55729-043-1 }} * Knoblock, John and Riegel, Jeffrey. 2000. 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==External links== *[http://ctext.org/lv-shi-chun-qiu/zh 呂氏春秋], complete text in Chinese *[http://www.chinaknowledge.de/Literature/Daoists/lueshichunqiu.html Lüshi chunqiu 呂氏春秋], ChinaKnowledge entry

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lushi Chunqiu}} Category:Chinese classic texts Category:Chinese chronicles Category:Ancient Chinese philosophical literature Category:3rd-century BC history books Category:Encyclopedias in Chinese Category:Leishu