{{Short description|none}} {{Hinduism_small}} {{EngvarB|date=April 2015}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2015}} {{Mcn|date=May 2025}} '''Hindu denominations''', '''''sampradayas''''', '''traditions''', '''movements''', and '''sects''' are traditions and sub-traditions within Hinduism centered on one or more gods or goddesses, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti and so on.<ref name=lancenelson/> The term ''sampradaya'' is used for branches with a particular founder-guru with a particular philosophy.{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=377, 398}}
Hinduism has no central doctrinal authority, and many practising Hindus do not claim to belong to any particular denomination or tradition.{{sfn|Werner|1994|p=73}} Four major traditions are, however, used in scholarly studies: ''Vaishnavism'', ''Shaivism'', ''Shaktism'' and ''Smartism''.<ref name=lancenelson>Lance Nelson (2007), An Introductory Dictionary of Theology and Religious Studies (Editors: Orlando O. Espín, James B. Nickoloff), Liturgical Press, {{ISBN|978-0814658567}}, pages 562–563</ref>{{sfn|Bhandarkar|1913|p=}}{{sfn|Tattwananda|n.d.|p=}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=113, 134, 155–161, 167–168}} These are sometimes referred to as the denominations of Hinduism, and they differ in the primary deity at the centre of each tradition.<ref name=sskumar>SS Kumar (2010), Bhakti — the Yoga of Love, LIT Verlag Münster, {{ISBN|978-3643501301}}, pp. 35–36.</ref>
A notable feature of Hindu denominations is that they do not deny other concepts of the divine or deity, and often celebrate the other as henotheistic equivalents.<ref>{{cite book|author=George Lundskow |title=The Sociology of Religion: A Substantive and Transdisciplinary Approach |url={{Google books|5AV1AwAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}} |year=2008|publisher=Sage Publ. |isbn=978-1-4522-4518-8 |pages=252–253}}</ref> The denominations of Hinduism, states Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals practising more than one, and he suggests the term "Hindu polycentrism".{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=371–375}}
Although Hinduism contains many denominations and philosophies, it is linked by shared concepts, recognisable rituals, cosmology, shared textual resources, pilgrimage to sacred sites and the questioning of authority.{{sfn|Frazier|2011|pp=1–15}}
==Etymology== The word ''Hindu'' is an exonym. This word ''Hindu'' is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word ''Sindhu'', which means "a large body of water", covering "river, ocean". It was used as the name of the Indus River and also referred to its tributaries. The actual term 'Hindu' first occurs, states Gavin Flood, as "a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the river Indus (Sanskrit: ''Sindhu'')". Hindus are persons who regard themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. Historically, the term has also been used as a geographical, cultural, and later religious identifier for people living in the Indian subcontinent. In the 18th century, European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as ''Hindus'' until about mid 20th century. Hindus subscribe to a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions, but have no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist.{{sfn|Lipner|2009|p=8|loc=Quote: "(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu."}}<ref>Lester Kurtz (ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict, {{ISBN|978-0123695031}}, Academic Press, 2008.</ref><ref>MK Gandhi, [http://www.mkgandhi.org/ebks/essence_of_hinduism.pdf The Essence of Hinduism], Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."</ref>
==Overview of Denominations== Hinduism, as it is commonly known, can be subdivided into a number of major currents. Of the historical division into six darsanas (philosophies), two schools, Vedanta and Yoga, are currently the most prominent.<ref>{{cite book|title=Development and Religion: Theology and Practice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DIvHQc0-rwgC |author=Matthew Clarke|publisher=Edward Elgar |year=2011|page=28|isbn = 9780857930736}}</ref> Classified by primary deity or deities, four major Hinduism modern currents are Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti) and Smartism (five deities treated as same).{{sfn|Bhandarkar|1913|p=}}{{sfn|Tattwananda|n.d.|p=}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=113, 154}} These deity-centered denominations feature a synthesis of various philosophies such as Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta, as well as shared spiritual concepts such as moksha, dharma, karma, samsara, ethical precepts such as ahimsa, texts (Upanishads, Puranas, Mahabharata, Agamas), ritual grammar and rites of passage.{{sfn|Frazier|2011|pp=1–15}}{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=17–18, 81–82, 183–201, 206–215, 330–331, 371–375}}
===Six generic types (McDaniel)=== McDaniel (2007) distinguishes six generic types of Hinduism, in an attempt to accommodate a variety of views on a rather complex subject:<ref>J. McDaniel ''Hinduism'', in John Corrigan, ''The Oxford Handbook of Religion and Emotion'', (2007) Oxford University Press, 544 pages, pp. 52–53 {{ISBN|0-19-517021-0}}</ref> * Folk Hinduism, based on local traditions and cults of local deities and extending back to prehistoric times, or at least prior to written Vedas. * Shrauta or "Vedic" Hinduism as practised by traditionalist brahmins (Shrautins). * Vedantic Hinduism, including Advaita Vedanta (Smartism), based on the philosophical approach of the Upanishads. * Yogic Hinduism, especially the sect based on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. * "Dharmic" Hinduism or "daily morality", based on Karma and upon societal norms such as Vivāha (Hindu marriage customs). * Bhakti or devotionalist practices
===Sampradaya=== {{Main|Sampradaya}}
In Hinduism, a ''sampradaya'' (IAST ''{{IAST|sampradāya}}''){{efn|Quoted in Böhtlingk's Sanskrit-Sanskrit dictionary, entry ''Sampradaya''.{{sfn|Apte|1965}}}} is a denomination.{{sfn|Lipner|2009|p=398}} These are teaching traditions with autonomous practices and monastic centers, with a guru lineage, with ideas developed and transmitted, redefined and reviewed by each successive generation of followers.{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=375–377, 397–398}} A particular guru lineage is called ''parampara''. By receiving diksha (initiation) into the ''parampara'' of a living guru, one belongs to its proper ''sampradaya''.
==Number of adherents== {| class="wikitable sortable" style="float:right;text-align:center" |+ Demographics of major traditions within Hinduism (World Religion Database, {{As of|2020}})<ref>{{Cite web |last=Preston |first=Charles |title=List of religious populations {{!}} Largest Religions, Smallest Religions, Lists, Data, & Overview {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/List-of-religious-populations |access-date=2025-01-19 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> |- ! cyrus="col" | Tradition ! scope="col" | Followers |- | align="center" | Vaishnavism | align="center" | 399,526,000 |- | align="center" | Shaivism | align="center" | 385,423,000 |- | align="center" |Shaktism | align="center" | 305,643,000 |- | align="center" |Neo-Hinduism | align="center" | 20,300,000 |- | align="center" |Reform Hinduism | align="center" | 5,200,000 |- ! Cumulative ! 1,116,092,000 |} There are no census data available on demographic history or trends for the traditions within Hinduism.<ref>[http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/ The global religious landscape: Hindus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209012719/https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-hindu/ |date=9 February 2020}}, Pew Research (2012)</ref>
Estimates vary on the relative number of adherents in the different traditions of Hinduism. According to a 2020 estimate by The World Religion Database (WRD), hosted at Boston University’s Institute on Culture, Religion and World Affairs (CURA), the Vaishnavism tradition is the largest group with about 399 million Hindus, followed by Shaivism with 385 million Hindus, Shaktism with 305 million Hindus and other traditions including Neo-Hinduism and Reform Hinduism with 25 million Hindus.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Preston |first=Charles |title=List of religious populations {{!}} Largest Religions, Smallest Religions, Lists, Data, & Overview {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/List-of-religious-populations |access-date=2025-01-19 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> In contrast, according to Jones and Ryan, Shaivism is the largest tradition of Hinduism.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=474}}
Shaivism and Shaktism traditions are difficult to separate, as many Shaiva Hindus revere the goddess Shakti regularly.<ref name=flood200shakti>{{cite book|editor=Gavin Flood|title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SKBxa-MNqA8C|year=2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-99868-7|page=200}}, Quote: "it is often impossible to meaningfully distinguish between Shaiva and Sakta traditions".</ref> The denominations of Hinduism, states Julius J. Lipner, are unlike those found in major religions of the world, because Hindu denominations are fuzzy with individuals revering gods and goddesses polycentrically, with many Shaiva and Vaishnava adherents recognizing Sri (Lakshmi), Parvati, Saraswati and other aspects of the goddess Devi. Similarly, Shakta Hindus revere Shiva and goddesses such as Parvati (such as Durga, Radha, Sita and others) and Saraswati important in Shaiva and Vaishnava traditions.{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=40–41, 302–315, 371–375}} ==Main denominations==
===Vaishnavism=== [[File:The God Vishnu in Three Incarnations. Northern India (Mathura), Gupta period, mid-5th century AD. Boston Museum.jpg|thumb|Vaishnavism focuses on Vishnu or one of his avatars, such as his form as a human, lion, or boar.]] {{main|Vaishnavism|Krishnaism}}
Vaishnavism is a devotional stream of Hinduism that worships the god Vishnu as the Supreme Lord (''Svayam Bhagavan''). In addition to Vishnu, adherents worship Vishnu's ten incarnations (i.e., the Dashavatara).{{sfn|Dandekar|1987}} The two most-worshipped incarnations of Vishnu are Krishna—especially within Krishnaism—and Rama,{{sfn|Hardy|1987}} whose stories are told in the ''Mahabharata'' and the ''Ramayana'', respectively. The adherents of Vaishnavism are generally non-ascetic, monastic, and devoted to meditative practice and ecstatic chanting.<ref name="Dubois"/> Vaishnavism is characterised by diverse adherence to a number of saints, temples, and scriptures.<ref name="Himalaya Academy">{{cite web|title=HimalayanAcademy|url=http://www.himalayanacademy.com/readlearn/basics/four-sects|access-date=2014-02-07|archive-date=13 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113071854/https://www.himalayanacademy.com/readlearn/basics/four-sects|url-status=dead}}</ref> Among historical Vishnuism are the Bhagavata, Pancharatra, and Vaikhanasa traditions.
The major extant Vaishnava ''sampradayas'' include:{{sfn|Dandekar|1987}}{{sfn|Tattwananda|n.d.|pp=13–68}} * Sri Vaishnavism, which is associated with the worship of the divine couple Lakshmi Narayana. Adherents of the tradition subscribe to the philosophy of Vishishtadvaita. Its principal acharyas are Ramanujacharya and Vedanta Desikan.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Chopra |first=Omesh K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n8rTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA454 |title=History of Ancient India Revisited, A Vedic-Puranic View. |date=2020-03-02 |publisher=BlueRose Publishers |pages=454 |language=en}}</ref> ** Vadakalai ({{aka}} "the northern school), which is based on the teachings of Vedanta Desikan. ** Tenkalai ({{aka}} "the southern school"), which is based on the teachings of Manavala Mamunigal. The Alvars, the Tamil poet-saints of the Bhakti movement, belonged to and are revered in this tradition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eraly |first=Abraham |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=te1sqTzTxD8C&pg=PA853 |title=The First Spring: The Golden Age of India |date=2011 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=978-0-670-08478-4 |pages=853 |language=en}}</ref> * Ramanandi Sampradaya ({{aka}} the Ramayat Sampradaya or the Ramavat Sampradaya) adheres to the teachings of the Advaita scholar Ramananda. It is the largest monastic group within Hinduism and in Asia, with Vaishnava monks known as ''Ramanandis'', ''Vairagis'' or ''Bairagis''.<ref>Selva Raj and William Harman (2007), Dealing with Deities: The Ritual Vow in South Asia, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791467084}}, pages 165–166</ref><ref>James G Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N–Z, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0823931804}}, pages 553–554</ref>{{sfn|Lamb|2008|pp=317–330}} * Brahma Sampradaya, which adheres to the teachings of Dvaita Vedanta philosopher Madhvacharya. The term "Brahma" (not to be confused with Brahma, the deity) refers to the Supreme Being (i.e., Vishnu), who is revered as the Para Brahman. Its contemporary forms are Haridasa and Sadh Vaishnavism. * Gaudiya Vaishnavism ({{aka}} Chaitanya Sampradaya), which adheres to the teachings of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu and has a number of branches: ** Brahmanic traditional lineages *** Sri Caitanya Prema Samsthana ** Gaudiya Math reform lineages *** Gaudiya Mission *** Gaudiya Vedanta Samiti *** International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON; {{aka}} the Hare Krishna movement) *** ISKCON Revival Movement *** Science of Identity Foundation *** Sri Caitanya Sangha *** Sri Chaitanya Saraswat Math *** Sri Sri Radha Govindaji Trust *** World Vaisnava Association ** Manipuri Vaishnavism, a regional form of Gaudiya Vaishnavism * Nimbarka Sampradaya ({{aka}} Kumara Sampradaya) adheres to the teachings of Nimbarkacharya. This tradition is associated with Four Kumaras, * Rudra Sampradaya. The principal acharya is Vallabhacharya, the founder of Pushtimarg tradition. * Warkari Sampradaya adheres to teaching of prominent bhakti saints of Maharashtra like Namadeva, Jnaneshwara, Eknath, Tukaram as well as Changadeva, Muktabai, Gora Kumbhar, Savata Mali, Narahari Sonar, Janabai, Sena Nhavi and Kanhopatra. The Warkari Sampradaya promotes the worship of god Vithoba, a manifestation of Krishna. * Swaminarayan Sampradya, adheres to the teachings of Sahajanand Swami, otherwise known as Swaminarayan. ** Bochasanwasi Akshar Purushottam Swaminarayan Sanstha (BAPS) Minor and regional Vaishnavite schools and the principal acharyas connected with them are:{{sfn|Tattwananda|n.d.|pp=13–68}} * Balmikism, linked to sage Valmiki. * Bishnoi Panth ** Baul * Ekasarana Dharma (Asomiya Vaishnavism), adheres to the teachings of Srimanta Sankaradeva. * Kapadi Sampradaya * Mahanam Sampradaya, adheres to the teachings of Prabhu Jagadbandu, who is considered to be the incarnation of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. * Mahanubhava panth, adheres to the teachings of Sarvajna Shri Chakradhara. * Odia Vaishnavism (Jagannathism), the regional cult of the god Jagannath as abstract form of Krishna. * Pranami (Pranami Sampradaya), adheres to the teachings of Devachandra Maharaj. * Radha Vallabh Sampradaya, adheres to the teachings of Hith Harivansh Mahaprabhu, emphasizes on the devotion of Radha as the supreme being. * Ramsnehi Sampradaya * Vaishnava-Sahajiya (tantric) * Varkari
===Shaivism === {{main|Shaivism}} thumb|Shaivism focuses on Shiva
Shaivas or Shaivites are those who primarily worship Shiva as the supreme god, both immanent and transcendent. Shaivism embraces at the same time monism (specifically nondualism) and dualism. To Shaivites, Shiva is both with and without form; he is the Supreme Dancer, Nataraja; and is linga, without beginning or end. Shiva is sometimes depicted as the fierce god Bhairava. Shaivists are more attracted to asceticism than devotees of other Hindu sects and may be found wandering India with ashen faces, performing self-purification rituals.<ref name="Dubois"/> They worship in the temple and practice yoga, striving to be one with Shiva within.<ref name="Himalaya Academy"/>
The major schools of Shaivism include:{{sfn|Tattwananda|n.d.|pp=}} * Aghori * Kalamukha * Kapalika * Kashmir Shaivism—adheres to the teachings of Vasugupta and his disciplinic lineage, including Abhinavagupta. * Mantra marga * Nath ** Adinath Sampradaya (Siddha Siddhanta)—adheres to the teachings of Gorakhnatha and Matsyendranatha. ** Inchegeri Sampradaya *Pashupata Shaivism—adheres to the teachings of Lakulisa. *Saiva Siddhanta—adheres to the teachings of Tirumular/Sundaranatha (Nandinatha Sampradaya, the monistic school) or of Meykandadeva (Meykandar Sampradaya, the dualistic school). * Shiva Advaita—adheres to the teachings of Nilakantha (Srikantha) and Appayya Dikshitar. * Veerashaiva
Other branches: * Lingayatism or Veerashaivism is a distinct Shaivite tradition in India, established in the 12th century Basavanna. It departs from mainstream Hinduism and propounds monism through worship centered on Shiva in the form of a linga or ''Ishtalinga''. It also rejects the authority of the Vedas and the caste system.<ref>{{cite book | title = Speaking of Śiva | url = https://archive.org/details/speakingofiva0000rama | url-access = registration | series = UNESCO. Indian translation series. Penguin classics. Religion and mythology | publisher = Penguin India | editor = A. K. Ramanujan | year = 1973 | isbn = 978-0-14-044270-0 | page = [https://archive.org/details/speakingofiva0000rama/page/175 175]}}</ref><ref>"[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/342355/Lingayat Lingayat]." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 09 Jul. 2010.</ref>
[[File:Akkamahadevi Udathadi.JPG|250px|thumb|right|A statue of Akka Mahadevi, a famous Lingayat saint, installed at her birthplace, Udathadi]] * ''Aaiyyanism'' is a religion claiming to be a form of pure Dravidian Hinduism and identifying as a Shaivite branch.
===Shaktism=== {{main|Shaktism}} [[File:3 Shaktism goddesses Devi collage.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Shaktism is a Goddess-centric tradition of Hinduism. From left: Parvati/Durga, Kali and Lakshmi]] Shaktas worship the Mother Goddess as Shakti, in different forms. These forms may include Kali, Parvati/Durga, Lakshmi and Saraswati. The branch of Hinduism that worships the goddess Devi is called Shaktism. Followers of Shaktism recognize Shakti as the supreme power of the universe. Devi is often depicted as Parvati (the consort of Shiva) or as Lakshmi (the consort of Vishnu). She is also depicted in other manifestations, such as the protective Durga or the violent Kali. Shaktism is closely related to Tantric Hinduism, which teaches rituals and practices for the purification of the mind and body.<ref name="Dubois"/>
Animal sacrifice of cockerels, goats, and, to a lesser extent, water buffaloes is practiced by Shakta devotees, mainly at temples of goddesses such as Bhavani or Kali.<ref name="Fuller Christopher John 2004 83">{{cite book|last=Fuller Christopher John|title=The camphor flame: popular Hinduism and society in India|chapter-url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7823.html|edition=Revised and Expanded|year=2004|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-12048-5|page=83|chapter=4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=J. Fuller|first= C.|title=The Camphor Flame: Popular Hinduism and Society in India [Paperback] |edition=Revised|date=26 July 2004|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-12048-X |page=83|chapter=4 Sacrifice |quote=Animal sacrifice is still practiced widely and is an important ritual in popular Hinduism}}</ref>
The main traditions are: * Kalikula; * Srikula.{{sfn|Tattwananda|n.d.|p=}} * Caribbean Shaktism of the Caribbean
The Goddess-centric traditions within Kashmir Shaivism are Trika and Kubjika.
===Smartism=== thumb|right|upright=0.8|Om {{main|Smarta tradition}} Smartas treat all deities as the same, and their temples include five deities (Pancopasana) or Panchadevata as personal ''saguna'' (divine with form) manifestation of the ''nirguna'' (divine without form) Absolute, the Brahman. The nature of God is a matter of individual choice, since different manifestations of God are held to be equivalent. It is nonsectarian as it encourages the worship of any personal god along with others such as Ganesha, Shiva, Shakti, Vishnu, and Surya.<ref name="Dubois">{{cite book|last=Dubois|title=Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies|publisher=Cosimo|page=111|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4zMY2qURR-8C&q=hindu+sects&pg=PA111|isbn=9781602063365|date=2007-04-01}}</ref>
The Smarta Tradition accepts two concepts of Brahman, which are the ''saguna brahman'' – the Brahman with attributes, and ''nirguna brahman'' – the Brahman without attributes.<ref name="dx.doi.org">{{cite journal | doi=10.7825/2164-6279.1250 | title=Heirarchies [sic] in the Nature of God? Questioning the "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta | year=2001 | last1=Rambachan | first1=Anantanand | journal=Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies | volume=14 | doi-access=free }}</ref> The ''nirguna Brahman'' is the unchanging Reality, however, the ''saguna Brahman'' is posited as a means to realizing this ''nirguna Brahman''.<ref name=williamw/> In this tradition, the concept of the ''saguna Brahman'' is considered to be a useful symbolism and means for those who are still on their spiritual journey. However, the saguna concept is abandoned by the fully enlightened once they realize the identity of their own soul with that of the ''nirguna Brahman''.<ref name=williamw>William Wainwright (2012), [http://stanford.library.usyd.edu.au/entries/concepts-god/ Concepts of God], ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', Stanford University</ref> A Smarta may choose any ''saguna'' deity (''istadevata'') such as Vishnu, Shiva, Shakti, Surya, Ganesha or any other, and this is viewed in Smarta Tradition as an interim step towards meditating on Om and true nature of supreme reality, thereby realizing the ''nirguna'' Brahman and its equivalence to one's own Atman, as in Advaita Vedanta.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002|pp=29–30}}
The movement is credited to Shankara, who is regarded as the greatest teacher{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=1017}}{{sfn|Popular Prakashan|2000|p=52}} and reformer of the Smarta.{{sfn|Rosen|2006|p=166}}{{sfn|Popular Prakashan|2000|p=52}} According to Hiltebeitel, Shankara established the nondualist interpretation of the Upanishads as the touchstone of a revived ''smarta'' tradition.{{sfn|Hiltebeitel|2002}} The Sringeri Sharada Peetham in Karnataka, believed by its members to have been founded by Shankara, is still the centre of the Smarta sect for its followers. Smartas follow four other major Mathas, namely, Kanchi Kamakoti Peetham, Puri Govardhan Math, Dwaraka Sharada Peetham, and Jyotir Muth. All Mathas are headed by Sankaracharyas.{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=1017}}{{sfn|Popular Prakashan|2000|p=52}}
The traditions are: * Shanmata
Panchayatana puja, also known as ''Pancha Devi Deva Puja'' is a system of ''puja'' (worship) within the Smarta sampradaya.<ref>{{cite book |first=Gudrun |last=Bühnemann |year=2003 |title=Mandalas and Yantras in the Hindu Traditions |page=60 |publisher=BRILL Academic |isbn=978-9004129023 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kQf2m8VaC_oC&pg=PA60 |via=Google Books}}</ref>
===Overlap=== Halbfass states that, although traditions such as Shaivism and Vaishnavism may be regarded as "self-contained religious constellations",{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=15}} there is a degree of interaction and reference between the "theoreticians and literary representatives"{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=15}} of each tradition which indicates the presence of "a wider sense of identity, a sense of coherence in a shared context and of inclusion in a common framework and horizon".{{sfn|Halbfass|1991|p=15}} It is common to find Hindus revering Shiva, Vishnu, and Shakti, and celebrating festivals related to them at different times of the year. Temples often feature more than one, and Hinduism is better understood as a polycentric theosophy that leaves the choice of deity and ideas to the individual.{{sfn|Lipner|2009|pp=371–375}}
The key concepts and practises of the four major denominations of Hinduism can be compared as follows:
{| class="wikitable sortable" |+Comparison of four major traditions of Hinduism |- ! !! style="background: #ffcc99;"| Shaiva Traditions !! style="background: #ffcc99;"|Vaishnava Traditions !! style="background: #ffcc99;"|Shakti Traditions !! style="background: #ffcc99;" |Smarta Traditions ! style="background: #ffcc99;"| Srauta Traditions || References |- |Scriptural authority || Vedas, Upanishads and Agamas || Vedas, Upanishads and Agamas || Vedas, Upanishads and Agamas ||Vedas and Upanishads |Vedas||{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=474}}<ref name="Dhavamony1999p33">{{cite book|author=Mariasusai Dhavamony |title=Hindu Spirituality |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=58UZWWzqglMC |date=1999 |publisher=Gregorian Press |isbn=978-88-7652-818-7 |pages=32–34}}</ref> |- |Supreme deity || God Shiva || God Vishnu || Goddess Devi || None |None||{{sfn|Gonda|1970|p=}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Christopher Partridge |title=Introduction to World Religions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z3AjAwAAQBAJ |year=2013|publisher=Fortress Press|isbn=978-0-8006-9970-3 |page=182}}</ref> |- |Creator || Shiva || Vishnu || Devi || Brahman principle |Brahman principle||{{sfn|Gonda|1970|p=}}<ref>{{cite book|author=Sanjukta Gupta|title=Advaita Vedanta and Vaisnavism: The Philosophy of Madhusudana Sarasvati|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4AFxluCHsoAC |year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-134-15774-7|pages=65–71}}</ref> |- |Avatar || Major || Key concept || Significant || Minor |Minor||{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=474}}<ref name=laiengavatar>{{cite book|author=Lai Ah Eng |title=Religious Diversity in Singapore |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9MmNaNebFD8C |year=2008|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore|isbn=978-981-230-754-5|page=221}}</ref><ref name="Dhavamony2002p63">{{cite book|author=Mariasusai Dhavamony |title=Hindu-Christian Dialogue: Theological Soundings and Perspectives |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=poUxxH4fPwwC |year=2002|publisher=Rodopi |isbn=90-420-1510-1|page=63}}</ref> |- |Monastic life || Recommends ||Accepts || Accepts || Recommends |Accepts (with exceptions)||{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=474}}<ref>Stephen H Phillips (1995), Classical Indian Metaphysics, Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0812692983}}, p. 332 with note 68.</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Patrick| last=Olivelle|year=1992|title= The Samnyasa Upanisads|publisher= Oxford University Press|isbn= 978-0195070453| pages=4–18}}</ref> |- |Rituals, Bhakti || Affirms{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=162–167}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Shaivas|url=http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/devot/shaiv.html|website=Overview Of World Religions|publisher=Philtar|access-date=13 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Munavalli|first1=Somashekar|title=Lingayat Dharma (Veerashaiva Religion)|date=2007|publisher=Veerashaiva Samaja of North America|page=83|url=http://www.vsna.org/images/publications/lingayat-dharma-april-2007.pdf|access-date=9 July 2018|archive-date=26 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130626074912/http://www.vsna.org/images/publications/lingayat-dharma-april-2007.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> || Affirms || Affirms || Optional<ref>{{cite book|author=Prem Prakash|title=The Yoga of Spiritual Devotion: A Modern Translation of the Narada Bhakti Sutras|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oA7BLTFoOicC|year=1998|publisher=Inner Traditions|isbn=978-0-89281-664-4|pages=56–57}}</ref> |Affirms||<ref>{{cite journal | last=Frazier | first=J. | title=Bhakti in Hindu Cultures | journal=The Journal of Hindu Studies | publisher=Oxford University Press | volume=6 | issue=2 | year=2013 | pages=101–113 | doi=10.1093/jhs/hit028}}</ref> |- |Ahimsa and Vegetarianism || Recommends,{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=162–167}} Optional|| Affirms || Optional || Affirms except for sacrificial occasions |Affirms except for sacrificial occasions|| <ref>{{cite book|author1=Lisa Kemmerer |author2=Anthony J. Nocella |title=Call to Compassion: Reflections on Animal Advocacy from the World's Religions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lq70lgRwlRQC |year=2011|publisher=Lantern |isbn=978-1-59056-281-9|pages=27–36}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Frederick J. Simoons |title=Plants of Life, Plants of Death |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=KEUAbrBoeBAC |year=1998|publisher= University of Wisconsin Press |isbn= 978-0-299-15904-7 |pages=182–183}}</ref> |- |Free will, Maya, Karma || Affirms || Affirms || Affirms || Affirms |Affirms||{{sfn|Gonda|1970|p=}} |- |Metaphysics || Brahman (Shiva), Atman (Soul, Self) || Brahman (Vishnu), Atman || Brahman (Devi), Atman || Brahman, Atman |Brahman, Atman, Karma, Dharma |{{sfn|Gonda|1970|p=}} |- |Epistemology<br>(Pramana) || 1. Perception<br>2. Inference<br>3. Reliable testimony<br>4. Self-evident<ref>{{cite book|author=K. Sivaraman |title=Śaivism in Philosophical Perspective |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I1blW4-yY20C |year=1973|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1771-5 |pages=336–340}}</ref>|| 1. Perception<br>2. Inference<br>3. Reliable testimony || 1. Perception<br>2. Inference<br>3. Reliable testimony || 1. Perception<br>2. Inference<br>3. Comparison and analogy<br>4. Postulation, derivation<br>5. Negative/cognitive proof<br>6. Reliable testimony |1. Perception<br>2. Inference<br>3. Comparison and analogy<br>4. Postulation, derivation<br>5. Negative/cognitive proof<br>6. Reliable testimony||<ref>John A. Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791430675}}, page 238</ref>{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=225}}<ref>Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0815336112}}, pp. 245-248.</ref> |- |Philosophy||Dvaita, qualified advaita, advaita || Dvaita, qualified advaita, advaita || Shakti-advaita || Advaita |Purva Mimamsa||<ref>{{cite book|last= McDaniel |first=June |title=Offering Flowers, Feeding Skulls|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=caeJpIj9SdkC | year =2004| publisher=Oxford University Press| isbn=978-0-19-534713-5| pages=89–91}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Matthew James Clark|title=The Daśanāmī-saṃnyāsīs: The Integration of Ascetic Lineages Into an Order|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g3DXAAAAMAAJ|year=2006|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-15211-3|pages=177–225}}</ref> |- |Salvation<br>(Soteriology) || Jivanmukta,<br>Charya-Kriyā-Yoga-Jnana<ref>{{cite book|last1=Hurley|first1=Leigh|last2=Hurley|first2=Phillip|title=Tantra, Yoga of Ecstasy: the Sadhaka's Guide to Kundalinin and the Left-Hand Path|date=2012|publisher=Maithuna Publications|isbn=9780983784722|page=5|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=0983784728}}</ref> || Videhamukti, Yoga,<br>champions householder life|| Bhakti, Tantra, Yoga || Jivanmukta, Advaita, Yoga,<br>champions monastic life |Videhamukti, Yoga, Dharmic Karma, champions householder life||<ref name="Kim Skoog 1996 63–84, 236–239">{{cite book|author=Kim Skoog |editor1=Andrew O. Fort |editor2=Patricia Y. Mumme |title=Living Liberation in Hindu Thought |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U1EZjyLbxYAC |date= 1996 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn= 978-0-7914-2706-4|pages=63–84, 236–239}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Rajendra Prasad |title=A Conceptual-analytic Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D5Hk8EkmQBcC |year=2008|publisher=Concept |isbn=978-81-8069-544-5 |page=375}}</ref> |- |}
==Other denominations== ===Suryaism / Saurism=== The Suryaites or Sauras are followers of a Hindu denomination that started in Vedic tradition, and worship Surya as the main visible form of the Saguna Brahman. The Saura tradition was influential in South Asia, particularly in the west, north and other regions, with numerous Surya idols and temples built between 800 and 1000 CE.<ref>{{cite book|author=André Wink|title=Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7th–11th Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC |year=2002|publisher=BRILL|isbn=0-391-04173-8|pages=292–293}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Asha Kalia|title=Art of Osian Temples: Socio-economic and Religious Life in India, 8th-12th Centuries A.D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3n-sycLo3XQC |year=1982|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=978-0-391-02558-5|pages=1–7}}</ref> The Konark Sun Temple was built in the mid 13th century.<ref>{{cite book|author=Finbarr Barry Flood|title=Objects of Translation: Material Culture and Medieval "Hindu-Muslim" Encounter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OLNE_li8C10C |year=2009|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-12594-7|page=218}}</ref> During the iconoclasm of Islamic invasions and Hindu–Muslim wars, the temples dedicated to Sun-god were among those desecrated, images smashed and the resident priests of Saura tradition were killed, states André Wink.<ref>{{cite book|author=André Wink|title=Al-Hind the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest : 11th–13th Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=75FlxDhZWpwC |year=1997|publisher=BRILL Academic|isbn=90-04-10236-1|pages=327–329}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Finbarr Barry Flood|title=Objects of Translation: Material Culture and Medieval "Hindu–Muslim" Encounter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OLNE_li8C10C |year=2009|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0-691-12594-7|pages=123–124, 154–156}}</ref> The Surya tradition of Hinduism declined in the 12th and 13th century CE and today remains as a very small movement except in Bihar / Jharkhand and Eastern Uttar Pradesh.{{Citation needed|date=October 2016}} Sun worship has continued to be a dominant practice in Bihar / Jharkhand and Eastern Uttar Pradesh in the form of Chhath Puja which is considered the primary festival of importance in these regions.
===Ganapatism=== {{main|Ganapatya}} Ganapatism is a Hindu denomination in which Ganesha is worshipped as the main form of the Saguna Brahman. This sect was widespread and influential in the past and has remained important in Maharashtra.{{Citation needed|date=October 2016}}
===Indonesian Hinduism=== {{main|Hinduism in Southeast Asia|Hinduism in Indonesia|Balinese Hinduism}}
Hinduism dominated the island of Java and Sumatra until the late 16th century, when a vast majority of the population converted to Islam. Only the Balinese people who formed a majority on the island of Bali, retained this form of Hinduism over the centuries. Theologically, Balinese or Indonesian Hinduism is closer to Shaivism than to other major sects of Hinduism. The adherents consider Acintya the supreme god, and all other gods as his manifestations.
The term "Agama Hindu Dharma", the endonymous Indonesian name for "Indonesian Hinduism" can also refer to the traditional practices in Kalimantan, Sumatra, Sulawesi and other places in Indonesia, where people have started to identify and accept their agamas as Hinduism or Hindu worship has been revived. The revival of Hinduism in Indonesia has given rise to a national organisation, the Parisada Hindu Dharma.
===Shrautism=== {{main|Śrauta}} Shrauta communities are very rare in India, the most well known being the ultra-orthodox Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala. They follow the "Purva-Mimamsa" (earlier portion of Vedas) in contrast to Vedanta followed by other Brahmins. They place importance on the performance of Vedic Sacrifice (Yajna).{{Citation needed|date=October 2016}}
===Kaumaram=== {{main|Kaumaram}} Kaumaram is a sect of Hindus, especially found in South India and Sri Lanka where Kartikeya is worshipped as the Supreme God. The worshippers of Kartikeya are called Kaumaras.{{Citation needed|date=October 2016}}
===Dattatreya Sampradaya=== {{main|Dattatreya|Dattatreya Upanishad}} Dattatreya Sampradaya is a Hindu denomination associated with the worship of Dattatreya as the supreme god. This denomination found in Indian states like Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Goa, Telangana, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Uttarakhand. Dattatreya is often considered as an avatara of three Hindu gods Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, collectively known as the Trimurti. Main traditions linked with Dattatreya Sampradaya are: * Gurucharitra tradition - This tradition is named after the Marathi text Gurucharitra and it is based on the teachings of Nrusinha Saraswati as well as Shripada Shrivallabha.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Larson |first1=Gerald James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TDGFFNYvrokC |title=Theory And Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson |last2=Jacobsen |first2=Knut A. |date=2005 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-14757-7 |language=en}}</ref> This tradition is widespread in Deccan region. * Avadhuta Tradition.
===Sant Mat=== {{main|Sant Mat}} The Sant Mat was a group of reformer poet-sants and their adherents within Hinduism during the 14th–17th centuries who had desire for religious pluralism and non-ritualistic spirituality.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=383}} Due to Kabir's affiliation with Vaishnavite Ramanandi Sampradaya and certain aspects of the creed, the Sant Mat is sometimes seen as part of Vaishnavism.{{sfn|Dandekar|1987}} Among its living traditions are: * Dadupanth * Kabir panth * Ravidassia religion * Sadh * Udasi Sampradaya<ref>{{cite book |first=James G. |last=Lochtefeld |title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism |volume=A-M |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kl0DYIjUPgC&pg=PA61 |year=2002 |publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-8239-3179-8 |pages=61 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Pashaura |last1=Singh |first2=Louis E. |last2=Fenech |name-list-style=amp |year=2014 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Sikh Studies |page=376 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-969930-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8I0NAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA376 |via=Google Books}}</ref> * Nirmala * Nanak Panth
===Newer movements=== {{see also|Hindu reform movements|Neo-Vedanta|Hinduism in the West}} The Hindu new religious movements that arose in the 19th to 20th century include:{{sfn|Farquhar|1915}} * American Meditation Institute * Ananda (Ananda Yoga){{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=33–34}} * Ananda Ashrama{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=29–30}} * Ananda Marga{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=30–31}} * Art of Living Foundation{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=45–46}} * Arya Samaj{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=47–48}} * Ayyavazhi * Brahma Kumaris{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=89–91}} * Brahmoism (Brahmo Samaj){{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=92–93}} ** Adi Dharm ** Sadharan Brahmo Samaj * Chinmaya Mission{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=109–110}} * Datta Yoga{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=121}} * Divine Life Society{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=200–201}} * Hanuman Foundation{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=178}} * Himalayan Institute of Yoga Science and Philosophy{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=183–184}} *International Vedanta Society * Isha Foundation *Kriya Yoga Centers{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=248–249}} * Mahima Dharma * Mata Amritanandamayi Math{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=26–27}} * Matua Mahasangha * Meivazhi * Narayana Dharma * Nilachala Saraswata Sangha * Oneness Movement * Prarthana Samaj * Ramakrishna Mission / Ramakrishna Math (a.k.a. Vedanta Society){{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=483–484}} * Sahaja Yoga * Sathya Sai Baba movement{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=389–390}} * Satsang * Satya Dharma * School of Philosophy and Economic Science * Self-Realization Fellowship / Yogoda Satsanga{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=392–394}} * Shirdi Sai Baba movement * Shri Ram Chandra Mission * Shree Shree Anandamayee Sangha{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=31–33}} * Siddha Yoga{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=108, 431}} * Sivananda Yoga Vedanta Centres{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|p=408}} * Sri Aurobindo Ashram{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=52–54}} * Sri Chinmoy Centres{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=110–11}} * Sri Ramana Ashram{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=351}} ** Neo-Advaita ** Society of Abidance in Truth * Swadhyay Parivar * Transcendental Meditation{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=451–452}} * Virat Hindustan Sangam * Lokhimon, a Vaishnavism movement followed by the Karbi people of Northeast India
===Sarnaism=== {{main|Sarnaism}} '''Sarna''' are sacred groves in the Indian religious traditions of the Chota Nagpur Plateau region in the states of Jharkhand, Bihar, Assam and Chhattisgarh.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Religious Complexity in Northeastern South Asia|url=https://www.geocurrents.info/cultural-geography/religion/religious-complexity-in-northeastern-south-asia|access-date=2021-10-21|website=GeoCurrents|date=29 October 2015 }}</ref> Followers of these rituals primarily belong to the Munda, Bhumij, Kharia, Baiga, Ho, Kurukh and Santal.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}} According to local belief, a ''Gram deoti'' or village deity resides in the sarna, where sacrifice is offered twice a year. Their belief system is called "Sarnaism", "Sarna Dharma" or "Religion of the Holy Woods".<ref>{{harvnb|Minahan|2012}}</ref>
===Kiratism=== {{main|Kiratism}} The practice is also known as ''Kirat Veda'',<ref>p. 56 ''Kiratese at a Glance'' By Gopal Man Tandukar</ref><ref>p. xxv ''A Grammar of Limbu'' By Geordefine sungge van Driem</ref> ''Kirat-Ko Veda''<ref>''Problems of Modern Indian Literature'' by Statistical Pub. Society: distributor, K. P. Bagchi</ref> or ''Kirat Ko Ved''.<ref>p. 323 ''Kiratas in Ancient India'' By G. P. Singh, Dhaneswar Kalita, V Sudarsen, M A Kalam</ref> According to some scholars, such as Tom Woodhatch, it is shamanism, animistic religion or blend of shamanism, animism (e.g., ancestor worshiping of Yuma Sammang/Tagera Ningwaphumang and Paruhang/Sumnima),<ref>"History and Culture of the Kirat" by I.S.Chemjong</ref> and Shaivism.<ref name="p. 535 Nepal By Tom Woodhatch">p. 535 ''Nepal'' By Tom Woodhatch</ref>
==Related denominations== ===Kalash and Nuristani religion=== {{main|Kalash people}} The Indo-Aryan Kalash people in Pakistan traditionally practice an indigenous religion which some authors characterise as an archaic form of ancient Indo-Aryan religion.<ref>{{cite book |surname=Michael |given=Witzel |author-link=Michael Witzel |chapter=Kalash Religion (extract from 'The Ṛgvedic Religious System and its Central Asian and Hindukush Antecedents') |editor1=A. Griffiths |editor2=J. E. M. Houben |title=The Vedas: Texts, Language and Ritual |location=Groningen |publisher=Forsten |year=2004 |pages=581–636 |chapter-url=http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/KalashaReligion.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |surname=West |given=Barbara A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA357 |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |year=2010 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=9781438119137 |page=357 |quote=The Kalasha ... religion is a form of Hinduism that recognizes many gods and spirits and has been related to the religion of the Ancient Greeks, who mythology says are the ancestors of the contemporary Kalash... However, it is much more likely, given their Indo-Aryan language, that the religion of the Kalasha is much more closely aligned to the Hinduism of their Indian neighbors that to the religion of Alexander the Great and his armies.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/world/peshawar-hc-orders-government-to-include-kalash-religion-in-census-4599722/ |title=Peshawar HC orders government to include Kalash religion in census |work=The Indian Express |date=April 4, 2017 |access-date=2017-07-12}}</ref> The Nuristanis of Afghanistan and Pakistan until the late 19th century had followed a religion which was described as a form of ancient Hinduism.<ref name="Minahan2014">{{cite book |last=Minahan |first=James B. |title=Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia |date=10 February 2014 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9781610690188 |page=205 |language=en |quote=Living in the high mountain valleys, the Nuristani retained their ancient culture and their religion, a form of ancient Hinduism with many customs and rituals developed locally. Certain deities were revered only by one tribe or community, but one deity was universally worshipped by all Nuristani as the Creator, the Hindu god Yama Raja, called ''imr'o'' or ''imra'' by the Nuristani tribes.}}</ref><ref name="BarringtonKendrick2006">{{cite book |last1=Barrington |first1=Nicholas |title=A Passage to Nuristan: Exploring the Mysterious Afghan Hinterland |last2=Kendrick |first2=Joseph T. |last3=Schlagintweit |first3=Reinhard |date=18 April 2006 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |isbn=9781845111755 |page=111 |language=en |quote=Prominent sites include Hadda, near Jalalabad, but Buddhism never seems to have penetrated the remote valleys of Nuristan, where the people continued to practise an early form of polytheistic Hinduism.}}</ref><ref name="WeissMaurer2012">{{cite book |last1=Weiss |first1=Mitch |title=No Way Out: A Story of Valor in the Mountains of Afghanistan |last2=Maurer |first2=Kevin |date=31 December 2012 |publisher=Berkley Caliber |isbn=9780425253403 |page=299 |language=en |quote=Up until the late nineteenth century, many Nuristanis practised a primitive form of Hinduism. It was the last area in Afghanistan to convert to Islam—and the conversion was accomplished by the sword.}}</ref>
===Contemporary Sant Mat === {{main|Contemporary Sant Mat movements}} {{distinguish|Sant Mat}} The contemporary Sant Mat is a 19th-century origin movement.{{sfn|Jones|Ryan|2007|pp=383–384}} Scholars are divided as to whether to call Radha Soami a 1) Sikh-derived or 2) Hindu–Sikh-synthesed or 3) independent version of the medieval Sant Mat as new universal religion.<ref name="Zoccarelli">{{cite encyclopedia |surname=Zoccarelli |given=Pierluigi |year=2006 |title=Radhasoami movements |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements |editor-surname=Clarke |editor-given=Peter B. |editor-link=Peter B. Clarke |place=London; New York |publisher=Routledge |pages=507–509 |isbn=9-78-0-415-26707-6}}</ref> * Advait Mat * Radha Soami ** Radha Soami Satsang Beas ** Radha Soami Satsang Dayalbagh ** Radha Swami Satsang Dinod ** Ruhani Satsang * Radha Soami-influenced<ref name="Zoccarelli" /> ** Ancient Teachings of the Masters ** Dera Sacha Sauda ** Eckankar ** Elan Vital, formerly Divine Light Mission ** Manavta Mandir ** Movement of Spiritual Inner Awareness ** Science of Spirituality *** Sawan Kirpal Ruhani Mission
===Slavic Vedism === {{main|Peterburgian Vedism}} Slavic, Russian, Peterburgian Vedism or simply Vedism<ref>Michael F. Strmiska. ''Modern Paganism in World Cultures''. ABC-CLIO, 2005. p. 222: "In addition to Ukrainian Paganism, Russian and Pan-Slavic varieties of Paganism and "Slavic Vedism" can also be found in Ukraine."</ref><ref name="religionip.ru">Portal "Religion and Law". [http://religionip.ru/news/monastyr-sobranie-tayn-ili-divya-loka-vtoroe-prishestvie-induizma-v-rossii Монастырь «Собрание тайн» или «Дивья лока»: второе пришествие индуизма в России?] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130602224155/http://religionip.ru/news/monastyr-sobranie-tayn-ili-divya-loka-vtoroe-prishestvie-induizma-v-rossii |date=2 June 2013}}. 2013-04-30</ref> are terms used to describe one of the earliest branch of Slavic Native Faith ("Rodnovery")—contemporary indigenous development of Vedic forms of religion in Russia, especially of Saint Petersburg's communities, other Slavic countries, and generally all the post-Soviet states. The word "Vedism" comes from the verb "to know" (''vedatʼ'')—a semantic root which is shared in Slavic and Sanskrit languages alike.<ref>{{cite book |surname=Aitamurto |given=Kaarina |year=2016 |title=Paganism, Traditionalism, Nationalism: Narratives of Russian Rodnoverie |page=35 |publisher=Routledge |location=London and New York |isbn=9781472460271}}</ref>
Slavic Vedism involves the worship of Vedic gods, characterised by its use of indigenous Slavic rituals and Slavic names for the deities, distinguishing from other groups which have maintained a stronger bond with modern Hinduism, although Krishnaite groups often identify themselves as "Vedic" too. Also some syncretic groups within Slavic Native Faith (Slavic Neopaganism) use the term "Vedism".<ref>Robert A. Saunders, Vlad Strukov. ''Historical Dictionary of the Russian Federation''. The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, 2010. p. 412.</ref>
==Cross-denominational influences== ===Bhakti movement=== {{main|Bhakti movement}}
The Bhakti movement was a theistic devotional trend that originated in the seventh-century Tamil south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards.<ref name=schomer>Schomer and McLeod (1987), The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120802773}}, pp. 1–2.</ref> It swept over east and north India from the fifteenth-century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century CE.<ref name=schomer/><ref name="lorenzen">{{cite book |surname=Lorenzen |given=David N. |author-link=David N. Lorenzen |year=1995 |title=Bhakti Religion in North India: Community Identity and Political Action |place=Albany, NY |publisher=SUNY Press |url={{Google books|rpSxJg_ehnIC|page=|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |isbn=978-0-7914-2025-6}}</ref> The Bhakti movement regionally developed as Hindu denominations around different gods and goddesses, such as Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti goddesses), and Smartism.<ref name="lancenelson"/><ref name="sskumar"/><ref>Wendy Doniger (2009), [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/63933/bhakti Bhakti], Encyclopædia Britannica; [http://www.himalayanacademy.com/readlearn/basics/four-sects The Four Denomination of Hinduism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113071854/https://www.himalayanacademy.com/readlearn/basics/four-sects |date=13 January 2020 }} Himalayan Academy (2013)</ref> The movement was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a wide range of philosophical positions ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta.<ref name=schomer/><ref>Christian Novetzke (2007), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25691067 Bhakti and Its Public], International Journal of Hindu Studies, Vol. 11, No. 3, page 255–272</ref> Scriptures of the Bhakti movement include the Bhagavad Gita, Bhagavata Purana and Padma Purana.<ref>Catherine Robinson (2005), Interpretations of the Bhagavad-Gita and Images of the Hindu Tradition, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415346719}}, pages 28–30</ref><ref name=karen26>Karen Pechilis Prentiss (2014), The Embodiment of Bhakti, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195351903}}, pages 26–32, 217–218</ref>
As part of the legacy of the Alvars, five Vaishnava philosophical traditions (sampradayas) have developed at the later stages.<ref name=Mittal2004>{{cite book | author = Mittal, S. G. R. Thursby | year = 2006 | title = Religions of South Asia: An Introduction | publisher = Routledge }}</ref>
===Philosophical schools=== {{Main|Hindu philosophy}} {{Hindu philosophy}} Hindu philosophy is traditionally divided into six ''{{IAST|āstika}}'' ({{langx|sa|आस्तिक}} "orthodox") schools of thought,<ref>For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see:{{harv|Mādhava Āchārya|1882}}{{harv|Dasgupta|1922–1955|loc=Vol. 1}}{{harv|Radhakrishnan|1927}}</ref> or ''{{IAST|darśanam}}'' (दर्शनम्, "view"), which accept the Vedas as the supreme revealed scriptures. The schools are: #Samkhya, a non theistic and strongly dualist theoretical exposition of consciousness and matter. #Yoga, a school emphasizing meditation, contemplation and liberation. #Nyaya or logic, explores sources of knowledge. ''Nyāya Sūtras''. #Vaisheshika, an empiricist school of atomism #Mimāṃsā, an anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist school of orthopraxy #Vedanta, the last segment of knowledge in the Vedas, or the 'Jnan' (knowledge) 'Kanda' (section).
The nāstika/heterodox schools are (in chronological order): #Cārvāka #Jainism #Ājīvika #Buddhism #Ajñana
However, medieval philosophers like Vidyāraṇya classified Indian philosophy into sixteen schools, where schools belonging to Shaiva, Pāṇini and Raseśvara thought are included with others, and the three Vedantic schools Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita (which had emerged as distinct schools by then) are classified separately.{{sfn|Mādhava Āchārya|1882|p=xii}}
In Hindu history, the distinction of the six orthodox schools was current in the Gupta period "golden age" of Hinduism. With the disappearance of Vaisheshika and Mimamsa, it was obsolete by the later Middle Ages and modern times, when the various sub-schools of Vedanta began to rise to prominence as the main divisions of religious philosophy, as follows:{{sfn|Dasgupta|1922–1955}}{{sfn|Radhakrishnan|1927}} *Advaita Vedanta *Akshar-Purushottam Darshan *Bhedabheda **Achintya Bheda Abheda **Dvaitadvaita *Dvaita Vedanta *Integral yoga *Pratyabhijna *Shaiva Siddhanta *Shiva Advaita *Shuddhadvaita *Vishishtadvaita
Nyaya survived into the 17th century as ''Navya Nyaya'' "Neo-Nyaya", while Samkhya gradually lost its status as an independent school, its tenets absorbed into Yoga and Vedanta.
===Yoga varieties=== {{Main|Yoga}}
*Ananda Yoga *Bhakti yoga *Hatha yoga **Bihar School of Yoga *Integral Yoga *Jivamukti Yoga *Jnana yoga *Karma yoga *Kripalu Yoga *Kriya Yoga *Kundalini yoga *Raja yoga *Sahaja Yoga *Siddha Yoga *Sivananda yoga *Surat Shabd Yoga *Tantric Yoga{{sfn|Lamb|2008|p=}}{{sfn|Singleton|Goldberg|2014}}
==See also== {{Commons category}} * Donyipoloism * Sanamahism * Shanmata * List of Hindu organisations
==References==
===Notes=== {{notelist}}
===Citations=== {{reflist}}
===Sources=== {{refbegin|30em}} *{{cite book|surname=Apte |given=Vaman S. |year=1965 |title=The Student's English-Sanskrit Dictionary |place=Delhi |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=81-208-0300-0}} * {{cite book |surname=Bhandarkar |given=R. G. |author-link=R. G. Bhandarkar |year=1913 |title=Vaiṣṇavism, Śaivism and Minor Religious Systems |series=Grundriss der indo-arischen Philologie und Altertumskunde, 3.6 |publisher=Trübner |place=Strassburg |url=https://archive.org/details/VaishnavismShaivismAndOtherMinorReligiousSystemsR.G.Bhandarkar/page/n1/mode/1up?view=theater }} * {{cite encyclopedia |year=1987 |orig-year=Rev. ed. 2005 |surname=Dandekar |given=R. N. |author-link=Ramchandra Narayan Dandekar |title=Vaiṣṇavism: An Overview |editor=Mircea Eliade |editor-link=Mircea Eliade |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Religion: 16 Volume Set |volume=14 |place=New York |publisher=MacMillan |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse_v8f2 }} * {{cite book |surname=Dasgupta |given=Surendranath |year=1922–1955 |author-link=Surendranath Dasgupta |title=A History of Indian Philosophy |volume=1–5 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |place=London |url=https://www.indianculture.gov.in/reports-proceedings/history-indian-philosophy-vol-i }} [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.96713 Vol. 1] | [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57593 Vol. 2] | [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57392 Vol. 3] | [https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.231099 Vol. 4] | [https://archive.org/details/AHistoryOfIndianPhilosophyVol5/page/n1/mode/2up Vol. 5.] * {{cite encyclopedia | editor-last =Doniger | editor-first =Wendy | editor-link =Wendy Doniger | display-editors =etal | year =1999 | title =Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions | place =Springfield, Ca | publisher =Merriam-Webster | isbn =9780877790440 | url ={{Google books|id=ZP_f9icf2roC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} }} * {{cite book |surname=Farquhar |given=John Nicol |title=Modern religious movements in India |url=http://archive.org/details/modernreligiousm00farquoft |year=1915 |place=New York |publisher=MacMillan }} * {{cite book |surname=Flood |given=Gavin |author-link=Gavin Flood |year=1996 |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |url={{Google books|id=KpIWhKnYmF0C|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231223184710/https://books.google.com/books?id=KpIWhKnYmF0C |archive-date=23 December 2023 |url-status=live |place=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-43878-0 |access-date=28 May 2023 }} * {{cite book |last=Frazier |first=Jessica |title=The Continuum companion to Hindu studies |year=2011 |publisher=Continuum |location=London |isbn=978-0-8264-9966-0}} * {{cite book |surname=Gonda |given=Jan |author-link=Jan Gonda |title=Visnuism and Sivaism: A Comparison |year=1970 |url={{Google books|id=4HGXjgEACAAJ|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-4742-8080-8 }} * {{citation | last =Halbfass | first =Wilhelm | year =1991 | title =Tradition and Reflection | place =Albany, NY | publisher =SUNY Press | isbn =9780791403617 | url ={{Google books|id=5fImMZMqNIC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} }}{{Dead link|date=August 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} * {{cite encyclopedia |year=1987 |surname=Hardy |given=Friedhelm E. |author-link=Friedhelm Hardy |title=Kṛṣṇaism |editor=Mircea Eliade |editor-link=Mircea Eliade |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Religion: 16 Volume Set |volume=8 |pages=387–392 |place=New York |publisher=MacMillan |isbn=978-0-02897-135-3 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/krsnaism |via=Encyclopedia.com }} * {{cite book |surname=Hiltebeitel |given=Alf |author-link=Alf Hiltebeitel |year=2002 |orig-year=1987 |chapter=Hinduism |editor-surname=Kitagawa |editor-given=Joseph M. |editor-link=Joseph Kitagawa |title=The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture |place=London |publisher=RoutledgeCurzon |pages=3–40 |chapter-url={{Google books|id=kfyzAAAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=3|keywords=|text=}} |url={{Google books|id=kfyzAAAAQBAJ|plainurl=y}} |isbn=0-7007-1762-5 }} * {{cite encyclopedia |surname=Johnson |given=W. J. |title=A Dictionary of Hinduism |place=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250 |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-19-861025-0 |ref=None}} * {{cite encyclopedia |surname=Jones |given=Constance A. |surname2=Ryan |given2=James D. |title=Encyclopedia of Hinduism |url={{Google books|id=OgMmceadQ3gC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |year=2007 |place=New York |publisher=Facts On File |isbn=978-0-8160-5458-9 |series=Encyclopedia of World Religions. J. Gordon Melton, Series Editor |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200402211115/https://books.google.com/books?id=OgMmceadQ3gC&pg=PR17 |archive-date=2020-04-02|url-status=live}} * {{citation | last =Knott | first =Kim | year =1998 | title =Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction | publisher =Oxford University Press | isbn =9780191606458 |ref=None | url ={{Google books|id=p4kzNzII3zAC|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} }} * {{cite book |surname=Lamb |given=Ramdas |title=Theory and Practice of Yoga |year=2008 |editor=Knut A. Jacobsen |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |place=Delhi |isbn=978-8120832329}} * {{cite book |surname=Lipner |given=Julius J. |author-link=Julius J. Lipner |year=2009 |title=Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices |edition=2nd |publisher=Routledge |place=London |isbn=978-0-415-45677-7}} * {{cite book |author=Mādhava Āchārya |translator=E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough |year=1882 |title=The Sarva-Darśana-Saṃgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy |series=Trübner's Oriental Series |place=London |publisher=Trübner & Co. |url=https://archive.org/stream/Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha.by.Madhavacharya-Vidyaranya.tr.by.E.B.Cowell }} * {{citation | last =Michaels | first =Axel | author-link = Axel Michaels | year =2004 | title =Hinduism. Past and present | place =Princeton, NJ | publisher =Princeton University Press |ref=None}} * {{cite book |first=James |last=Minahan |title=Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An encyclopedia |series=Ethnic Groups of the World |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-59884-659-1}} * {{cite book |last=Popular Prakashan |year=2000 |title=Students' Britannica India, Volumes 1–5 |publisher=Popular Prakashan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DPP7O3nb3g0C&q=smarta+shankara |isbn=978-0-85229-760-5 }} * {{cite book |year=1927 |surname=Radhakrishnan |given=Sarvepalli |author-link=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan |title=Indian Philosophy |publisher=Oxford University Press |place=Oxford |volume=2 |url=https://archive.org/details/Sarvepalli.Radhakrishnan.Indian.Philosophy.Volume.1-2 }} * {{citation | last =Rosen | first =Steven | author-link = Steven J. Rosen | year =2006 | title =Essential Hinduism | place =Westport | publisher =Praeger Publ.}} * {{cite book |editor-surname=Singleton |editor-given=Mark |editor-surname2=Goldberg |editor-given2=Ellen |title=Gurus of modern yoga |place=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-19-993871-1 |oclc=861692270}} * {{cite book |surname=Tattwananda |given=Swami |title=Vaisnava Sects, Saiva Sects, Mother Worship |place=Calcutta |publisher=Nirmalendra Bikash Sen Gupta |date=n.d. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.128453 }} * {{cite book |surname=Werner |given=Karel |author-link=Karel Werner |title=A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism |place=Surrey |publisher=Curzon Press |year=1994 |edition=1997 rev. |url={{Google books|id=HvuQAgAAQBAJ|plainurl=y|page=|keywords=|text=}} |isbn=0-7007-1049-3 }} {{refend}} ==External links== * {{cite encyclopedia |title=Brill's Encyclopedia of Hinduism Online |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/browse/brill-s-encyclopedia-of-hinduism}} * [http://www.himalayanacademy.com/readlearn/basics/four-sects Overview of the four divisions of Hinduism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113071854/https://www.himalayanacademy.com/readlearn/basics/four-sects |date=13 January 2020 }} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080615194002/http://hinduism.iskcon.com/tradition/1200.htm Description of four denominations]
{{Hindudharma}} {{Hindu reform movements}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hindu Denominations}} Category:Hindu denominations