Gender neutrality in languages with gendered third-person pronouns

{{Short description|none}} {{Redirect-multi|2|S/he|He/she|the music album|S/he (album){{!}}''s/he'' (album)|the pornographic term|He-she||He and She (disambiguation)}} {{More citations needed|date=May 2024}} {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}} A third-person pronoun is a pronoun that refers to an entity other than the speaker or listener.<ref name="WALS">{{cite book |last=Siewierska |first=Anna |contribution=Gender Distinctions in Independent Personal Pronouns |editor1=Haspelmath |editor1-first=Martin |editor2-last=Dryer |editor2-first=Matthew S. |editor3-last=Gil |editor3-first=David |editor4-last=Comrie |editor4-first=Bernard |title=The World Atlas of Language Structures |pages=182–185 |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2005 |isbn=0-19-925591-1}}</ref> Some languages, such as Slavic ones, with gender-specific pronouns have them as part of a grammatical gender system, a system of agreement where most or all nouns have a value for this grammatical category. A few languages with gender-specific pronouns, such as English, Afrikaans, Defaka, Khmu, Malayalam, Tamil, and Yazgulyam, lack grammatical gender; in such languages, gender usually adheres to "natural gender", which is often based on biological sex.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Audring |first=Jenny |date=1 October 2008 |title=Gender assignment and gender agreement: Evidence from pronominal gender languages |journal=Morphology |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=93–116 |doi=10.1007/s11525-009-9124-y |issn=1871-5621 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Other languages, including most Austronesian languages, lack gender distinctions in personal pronouns entirely, as well as any system of grammatical gender.<ref name="WALS" />

In languages with pronominal gender, problems of usage may arise in contexts where a person of unspecified or unknown social gender is being referred to but commonly available pronouns are gender-specific. Different solutions to this issue have been proposed and used in various languages.

== Overview of grammar patterns in languages==

=== No gender distinctions in personal pronouns === {{see also|Gender neutrality in genderless languages}}

Many languages of the world (including most Austronesian languages, many East Asian languages, the Quechuan languages, and the Uralic languages<ref name="WALS" />) do not have gender distinctions in personal pronouns, just as most of them lack any system of grammatical gender. In others, such as many of the Niger–Congo languages, there is a system of grammatical gender (or noun classes), but the divisions are based on classifications other than sex, such as animacy, rationality, or countability.<ref>{{cite book |last=Corbett |first=Greville G. |date=2011 |chapter=Sex-based and Non-sex-based Gender Systems |editor1-last=Dryer |editor1-first=Matthew S. |editor2-last=Haspelmath |editor2-first=Martin |title=The World Atlas of Language Structures Online |location=Munich |publisher=Max Planck Digital Library |url= http://wals.info/chapter/31 |access-date=27 April 2013 |archive-date=1 December 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131201091743/http://wals.info/chapter/31 |url-status=live}}</ref> In Swahili, for example, the independent third person pronoun '''''yeye''''' 'she/he' can be used to refer to a female or male being. What matters in this case is that the referent belongs to the animate class (i.e humans or non-human animals) as opposed to an inanimate class.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mpiranya |first=Fidèle |title=Swahili Grammar and Workbook |date=2015 |isbn=978-1-317-61292-6 |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |oclc=892911314}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Corbbett |first=G. |title=Gender |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1991 |isbn=0-521-32939-6 |location=New York |page=49}}</ref> Since pronouns do not distinguish the social gender of the referent, they are considered neutral in this kind of system.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Osoro |first=G. M. |contribution=Gender Construction in Swahili Proverbial Language |editor-first=D. |editor-last=Maganda |title=The Literature of Language and the Language of Literature in Africa and the Diaspora |publisher=Adonis & Abbey Publishers |date=2017 |isbn=978-1-909112-76-6 |page=94}}</ref>

=== Grammatical gender === {{see also|Grammatical gender#Contextual determination of gender|Gender neutrality in languages with grammatical gender}}

In other languages – including most Indo-European and Afro-Asiatic languages – third-person personal pronouns (at least those used to refer to people) intrinsically distinguish male from female. This feature commonly co-exists with a full system of grammatical gender, where all nouns are assigned to classes such as masculine, feminine and neuter.

In languages with grammatical gender, even pronouns which are semantically gender-neutral may be required to take a gender for such purposes as grammatical agreement. Thus in French, for example, the first- and second-person personal pronouns may behave as either masculine or feminine depending on the sex of the referent; and indefinite pronouns such as {{lang|fr|quelqu'un}} ('someone') and {{lang|fr|personne}} ('no one') are treated conventionally as masculine, even though {{lang|fr|personne}} as a noun ('person') is only feminine regardless of the sex of the referent. (See {{slink|Grammatical gender|On pronouns}}.) There are both direct and indirect options for nonbinary referents, although the use of some forms is contested.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Knisely |first=Kris A. |title=Le français non-binaire: Linguistic forms used by non-binary speakers of French |journal=Foreign Language Annals |date=2020 |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=850–876 |doi=10.1111/flan.12500 |s2cid=234510212}}</ref>

'''Example of agreement in a language with grammatical gender'''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gelderen |first=Elly van |title=Third factors in language variation and change |date=16 December 2021 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-83116-1 |oclc=1260132261}}</ref> (1) ''Les '''tomates''', '''elles''' sont encore vert'''es.''''' Formal French 'The tomatoes, they are still green.' FP, (Lambrecht 1981:40, cited by Gelderen, 2022, p. 33)

(2) ''C'est que '''chacun''', '''il''' a sa manière de ...'' Swiss spoken French 'Everyone has his own way of ...' (Fronseca-Greber 2000:338, cited by Gelderen, 2022, p. 33)

=== Gender distinctions only in third-person pronouns ===

A grammatical gender system can erode as observed in languages such as Odia (formerly Oriya), English and Persian.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hellinger |first1=Marlis |last2=Bußmann |first2=Hadumod |chapter=Gender across languages |title=Gender Across Languages: The Linguistic Representation of Women and Men |volume=1 |publisher=John Benjamins |date=2001 |isbn=1-58811-082-6 |location=Amsterdam / Philadelphia |pages=6–7}}</ref> In English, a general system of noun gender has been lost, but gender distinctions are preserved in the third-person singular pronouns. This means that the relation between pronouns and nouns is no longer syntactically motivated in the system at large. Instead, the choice of anaphoric pronouns is controlled by referential gender or social gender.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hellinger |first1=Marlis |last2=Bußmann |first2=Hadumod |chapter=Gender across languages |title=Gender Across Languages: The Linguistic Representation of Women and Men |volume=1 |publisher=John Benjamins |date=2001 |isbn=1-58811-082-6 |location=Amsterdam / Philadelphia |page=14}}</ref>

'''Example of agreement in English'''<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sportiche |first1=Dominique |last2=Koopman |first2=Hilda Judith |last3=Stabler |first3=Edward P. |title=An Introduction to Syntactic Analysis and Theory |date=2014 |isbn=978-1-118-47048-0 |location=Hoboken |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |pages=166, 176 |oclc=861536792}}</ref>

(3) '''''Mary'''''i ''described Bill''j ''to '''herself'''''i''.''

(4) '''''John'''''j ''came in and '''he'''''j ''was wearing a hat.''

=== Issues concerning gender and pronoun usage === Issues concerning gender and pronoun usage commonly arise in situations where it is necessary to choose between gender-specific pronouns, even though the sex of the person or persons being referred to is not known, not specified, or (for plurals) mixed. In English and many other languages, the masculine form has sometimes served as the default or unmarked form; that is, masculine pronouns have been used in cases where the referent or referents are not known to be (all) female.<ref>{{Cite book |page=821 |last1=Garner |first1=Bryan A. |author-link1=Bryan A. Garner |title=Garner's Modern English Usage |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-049148-2}}</ref> This collective masculine is also the case in ancient languages, like Classical Greek and Biblical Hebrew and have influenced the modern forms. This leads to sentences such as (5a) in English, and (6a) in French.

'''Example of gender-neutral masculine: English''' (5) a. ''If '''anybody''' comes, tell '''him'''.'' masculine ''him'' used to refer to a person of unknown sex b. *''If '''anybody''' comes, tell '''her'''.'' feminine ''her'' is not used to refer to a person of unknown sex '''Example of collective masculine: French''' (6) a. Vos '''amis''' sont arrivés — '''Ils''' étaient en avance. 'Your '''friends''' have arrived - '''they''' were early.' Note: plural masculine ''ils'' used if group has men and women b. Vos '''amies''' sont arrivées — '''Elles''' étaient en avance. 'Your '''friends'''FEM have arrivedFEM - '''they'''FEM were early.' Note: plural feminine ''elles'' used if group has only women; noun is feminine (''amies''), as is past participle (''arrivées'')

As early as 1795, dissatisfaction with the convention of the collective masculine led to calls for gender-neutral pronouns, and attempts to invent pronouns for this purpose date back to at least 1850, although the use of singular ''they'' as a natural gender-neutral pronoun in English has persisted since the 14th century.<ref>{{cite web |last=Williams |first=John |date=30 April 2004 |title=History — Modern Neologism |edition=Ver. 0.9.13 |url= http://www.aetherlumina.com/gnp/history.html#net |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061205220746/http://www.aetherlumina.com/gnp/history.html |archive-date=5 December 2006 |work=Gender-Neutral Pronoun FAQ}}</ref>

== Gender-neutral pronouns in modern standard English == {{further|Gender in English|Gender neutrality in English}} The English language has gender-specific personal pronouns in the third-person singular. The masculine pronoun is '''''he''''' (with the related forms '''''him''''', '''''his''''' and '''''himself'''''); the feminine is ''she'' (with the related forms '''''her''''', '''''hers''''' and '''''herself'''''); the neuter is '''''it''''' (with the related forms '''''its''''' and '''''itself'''''). The third-person plural '''''they''''' (and its related forms '''''them''''', '''''their''''', '''''themselves''''') are gender-neutral and can also be used to refer to singular, personal antecedents, as in (7).

(7) ''Where '''a recipient''' of an allowance under section 4 absents '''themself''' from Canada,'' ''payment of the allowance shall'' ...<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 December 2013 |title=Canadian War Veterans Allowance Act (1985) as amended 12 December 2013 |url=http://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/PDF/W-3.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200430035041/https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/PDF/W-3.pdf |archive-date=30 April 2020 |access-date=19 April 2014 |publisher=Government of Canada |page=18 |id=R.S.C., 1985, c. W-3}}</ref>

Generally speaking, '''''he''''' refers to males, and '''''she''''' refers to females. When a person has adopted a persona of a different gender (such as when acting or performing in drag), pronouns with the gender of the persona are used. In gay slang, the gender of pronouns is sometimes reversed (gender transposition).{{citation needed|date=April 2022}}

'''''He''''' and '''''she''''' are normally used for humans; use of '''''it''''' can be dehumanizing, and, more importantly, implies a lack of gender even if one is present, and is usually, thus, inappropriate. '''''It''''' is sometimes used to refer to a baby or a child in a generic sense as in response to the question '''''What is it?''''' when a baby has been born: '''''-It's a girl/boy'''''. However, when talking to parents of intersex babies, some doctors are advised to use '''''your baby''''' instead.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McConnell-Ginet |first=S. |contribution=Gender and its relation to sex: The myth of 'natural' gender |editor-first=G. |editor-last=Corbett |title=The Expression of Gender |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |date=2014 |isbn=978-3-11-030660-6 |page=23}}</ref> '''''It''''' is often used for non-human animals of unknown sex, but '''''he''''' or '''''she''''' is frequently used for a non-human animal with a known sex. '''''He''''' or '''''she''''' are also for a non-human animal who is referred to by a proper name, as in (8) where '''''Fido''''' is understood to be the name of a dog.<ref name="Huddleston 2002 gender">{{Cite book |last1=Huddleston |first1=Rodney |author-link1=Rodney Huddleston |last2=Pullum |first2=Geoffrey |author-link2=Geoffrey K. Pullum |title=The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-43146-8 |pages=488–489}}</ref> At least one grammar states that ''he'' or ''she'' is obligatory for animals referred to by a proper name.<ref name="Huddleston 2002 gender" />

(8) '''''Fido''' adores '''his''' blanket''.

The other English pronouns (the first- and second-person personal pronouns '''''I''''', '''''we''''', '''''you''''', etc.; the third-person plural personal pronoun '''''they'''''; the indefinite pronouns '''''one''''', '''''someone''''', '''''anyone''''', etc.; and others) do not make male–female gender distinctions; that is, they are gender-neutral. The only distinction made is between personal and non-personal reference ('''''someone''''' vs. '''''something''''', '''''anyone''''' vs. '''''anything''''', '''''who''''' vs. '''''what''''', '''''whoever''''' vs. '''''whatever''''', etc.).

'''''She''''' is sometimes used for named ships and countries; this may be considered old-fashioned and is in decline.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} In some local dialects and casual speech '''''she''''' and '''''he''''' are used for various objects and named vehicles (like a personal car). Animate objects like robots and voice assistants are often assumed to have a gender and sometimes have a name with a matching gender. (See {{section link|Gender in English|Metaphorical gender}}.)

For people who are transgender, style guides and associations of journalists and health professionals advise use of the pronoun preferred or considered appropriate by the person in question.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.vanderbilt.edu/styleguide.pdf |title=Style Guide |publisher=Vanderbilt University |access-date=17 September 2013 |author=Division of Public Affairs |page=34 |date=September 2011 |quote=Use the pronoun preferred by the individuals who have acquired the physical characteristics of the opposite sex or present themselves in a way that does not correspond with their sex at birth. |archive-date=17 February 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100217012929/http://www.vanderbilt.edu/styleguide.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |publisher=Associated Press |title=The Associated Press Stylebook 2015 |isbn=978-0-465-09793-7 |date=2015 |chapter=transgender |quote=Use the pronoun preferred by the individuals who have acquired the physical characteristics of the opposite sex or present themselves in a way that does not correspond with their sex at birth. If that preference is not expressed, use the pronoun consistent with the way the individuals live publicly.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ama-assn.org/resources/doc/glbt/tfi-grand-rounds-makadon.ppt |title=Meeting the Health Care Needs of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) People: The End to LGBT Invisibility |publisher=The Fenway Institute |access-date=17 September 2013 |page=24 |format=PowerPoint (.ppt) |quote=Use the pronoun that matches the person's gender identity |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131020025808/http://www.ama-assn.org/resources/doc/glbt/tfi-grand-rounds-makadon.ppt |archive-date=20 October 2013 }}</ref> When dealing with clients or patients, health practitioners are advised to take note of the pronouns used by the individuals themselves,<ref>{{cite journal |title=Working With Transgender Persons |url= http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/gender-issues/working-transgender-persons |publisher=Phychiatric Times |access-date=17 September 2013 |first1=Paul M. III |last1=Elizondo |first2=Willy |last2=Wilkinson |first3=Christopher |last3=Daley |journal=Psychiatric Times |date=13 November 2015 |volume=29 |issue=9 |quote=If you are not sure which pronoun to use, you can ask the patient |archive-date=21 March 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150321011252/http://www.psychiatrictimes.com/gender-issues/working-transgender-persons |url-status=live}}</ref> which may involve using different pronouns at different times.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.fenwayhealth.org/documents/the-fenway-institute/handouts/Handout_7-C_Glossary_of_Gender_and_Transgender_Terms__fi.pdf |title=Glossary of Gender and Transgender Terms |date=January 2010 |publisher=Fenway Health |pages=2 and 5 |access-date=13 November 2015 |quote=listen to your clients – what terms do they use to describe themselves .... Pronoun preference typically varies, including alternately using male or female pronouns using the pronoun that matches the gender presentation at that time. |archive-date=17 November 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151117014410/http://www.fenwayhealth.org/documents/the-fenway-institute/handouts/Handout_7-C_Glossary_of_Gender_and_Transgender_Terms__fi.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Competencies for Counseling with Transgender Clients |url= http://www.counseling.org/Resources/Competencies/ALGBTIC_Competencies.pdf |publisher=Association for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Issues in Counseling |page=3 |date=18 September 2009 |quote=honor the set of pronouns that clients select and use them throughout the counseling process |access-date=17 November 2018 |archive-date=3 May 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190503183246/https://www.counseling.org/Resources/Competencies/ALGBTIC_Competencies.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Stitt">{{Cite book |title=ACT For Gender Identity: The Comprehensive Guide |last=Stitt |first=Alex |date=2020 |publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers |isbn=978-1-78592-799-7 |location=London |oclc=1089850112}}</ref> This is also extended to the name preferred by the person referred to.<ref name="Stitt" /><ref>{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions on Trans Identity |url= http://commonground.richmond.edu/common/pdfs/trans-etiquette.pdf |work=Common Ground – Trans Etiquette |publisher=University of Richmond |access-date=17 September 2013 |quote=Use the correct name and pronoun – Most names and pronouns are gendered. It's important to be considerate of one's gender identity by using the pronouns of the respective gender pronouns{{sic}}, or gender-neutral pronouns, they use |archive-date=22 October 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131022140504/http://commonground.richmond.edu/common/pdfs/trans-etiquette.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Glicksman |first=Eve |title=Transgender terminology: It's complicated |url= http://www.apa.org/monitor/2013/04/complicated.aspx |publisher=American Psychological Association |access-date=17 September 2013 |volume=44 |number=4 |page=39 |date=April 2013 |quote=Use whatever name and gender pronoun the person prefers |archive-date=25 September 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130925130527/http://www.apa.org/monitor/2013/04/complicated.aspx |url-status=live}}</ref> LGBTQ+ advocacy groups also advise using the pronouns and names preferred or considered appropriate by the person referred to.<ref>{{cite web |title=Transgender FAQ |url= http://www.hrc.org/resources/entry/transgender-faq |work=Resources |publisher=Human Rights Campaign |access-date=17 September 2013 |quote=should be identified with their preferred pronoun |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130908194703/http://www.hrc.org/resources/entry/transgender-faq |archive-date=8 September 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref> They further recommend avoiding gender confusion when referring to the background of transgender people, such as using a title or rank to avoid a gendered pronoun or name.<ref>{{cite web |title=Names, Pronoun Usage & Descriptions |url= http://www.glaad.org/reference/transgender |work=GLAAD Media Reference Guide |publisher=GLAAD |access-date=17 September 2013 |page=11 |format=PDF |date=May 2010 |quote=It is usually best to report on transgender people's stories from the present day instead of narrating them from some point or multiple points in the past, thus avoiding confusion and potentially disrespectful use of incorrect pronouns. |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120530061657/http://www.glaad.org/reference/transgender |archive-date=30 May 2012 |url-status=live}}</ref>

For English, there is no universal agreement on a gender-neutral third-person pronoun which could be used for a person whose gender is unknown or who is a non-binary gender identity; various alternatives are described in the following sections.

===Singular ''they'' as a gender-neutral pronoun=== {{Main|Singular they}} Since at least the 14th century, '''''they''''' (including related forms such as '''''them''''', '''''their''''', '''''theirs''''', '''''themselves''''', and '''''themself''''') has been used with a plural verb form to refer to a singular antecedent.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pullum |first=Geoffrey |author-link=Geoffrey K. Pullum |date=13 April 2012 |title=Sweden's gender-neutral third-person singular pronoun |url= http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=3898 |quote=our pronoun ''they'' was originally borrowed into English from the Scandinavian language family ... and since then has been doing useful service in English as the morphosyntactically plural but singular-antecedent-permitting gender-neutral pronoun known to linguists as singular ''they'' |access-date=30 October 2016 |archive-date=8 May 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160508062955/http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=3898 |url-status=live}}</ref> This usage is known as the singular they, as it is equivalent to the corresponding singular form of the pronoun.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fowler |first1=H. W. |author-link=Henry Watson Fowler |editor1-last=Butterfield |editor1-first=Jeremy |title=Fowler's Dictionary of Modern English Usage |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-966135-0 |page=814}}</ref>

(9) ''There's not '''a man''' I meet but doth salute me'' ''As if I were '''their''' well-acquainted friend'' <(William Shakespeare, A Comedy of Errors, 1623)<ref name="Bjorkman 2017" /> instead of: ''As if I were '''his''' well-acquainted friend''

This is the generalized usage in third person. To imply 'his' is incorrect.

(10) '''''Every fool''' can do as '''they're''' bid.'' <(Jonathan Swift, Polite Conversation, 1738)<ref name="Bjorkman 2017" /> instead of: '''''Every fool''' can do as '''he's''' bid.''

(11) ''Both sisters were uncomfortable enough.'' '''''Each''' felt for '''the other''', and of course for '''themselves'''.'' <(Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice, 1813)''<ref name="Bjorkman 2017" />'' instead of: '''''Each''' felt for '''the other''', and of course for '''herself'''.''

Prescription against singular '''''they''''' has historically impacted more formal registers of writing. Conversely, to the present day, singular '''''they''''' continues to be attested in both speech and less formal registers of writing in British and American English.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bodine |first=Anne |title=Androcentrism in prescriptive grammar: Singular they, sex-indefinite he, and he or she |journal=Language in Society |date=1975 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=129–146 |doi=10.1017/S0047404500004607 |jstor=4166805 |s2cid=146362006}}</ref><ref name="Bjorkman 2017">{{Cite journal |last=Bjorkman |first=Bronwyn M. |date=6 September 2017 |title=Singular they and the syntactic representation of gender in English |url= https://www.glossa-journal.org/article/id/4942/ |journal=Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics |volume=2 |issue=1 |doi=10.5334/gjgl.374 |issn=2397-1835 |access-date=8 December 2021 |archive-date=8 December 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211208231352/https://www.glossa-journal.org/article/id/4942/ |url-status=live |doi-access=free}}</ref> Recent corpus data suggest that English dialects in Hong Kong, India, and Singapore use this epicene less than British English.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Núñez-Pertejo |first1=Paloma |last2=Pérez-Guerra |first2=Javier |last3=López-Couso |first3=María José |last4=Méndez-Naya |first4=Belén |chapter=Introduction |date=2020 |title=Crossing Linguistic Boundaries |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |doi=10.5040/9781350053885.0007 |isbn=978-1-350-05388-5 |s2cid=243285248}}</ref> The ''Cambridge Grammar of the English Language'' and the ''Merriam-Webster Dictionary'' include the following examples among the possible uses of singular '''''they''''', which they note is not universally adopted by all speakers. (12) '''''Anyone''' who arrives at the door can let '''themself''' in using this key.''<ref>{{cite book |last1=Huddleston |first1=Rodney |author-link1=Rodney Huddleston |last2=Pullum |first2=Geoffrey K. |author2-link=Geoffrey K. Pullum |title=The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-43146-8 |page=494}}</ref>

(13) ''I knew certain things about ... '''the person''' I was interviewing ...'' '''''They''''' ''had adopted their gender-neutral name a few years ago,'' ''when '''they''' began to consciously identify as nonbinary ...'' (Amy Harmon)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of THEY |url= https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/they |access-date=16 December 2021 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |archive-date=29 June 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200629021839/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/they |url-status=live}}</ref> While many speakers recognize the need for gender neutral pronouns, they nevertheless deem referential singular ''they,'' as in (13), ungrammatical or unfit for the job due to the ambiguity it can create in certain contexts.<ref>{{Cite book |last=McConnell-Ginet |first=S. |chapter=Gender and its relation to sex: The myth of 'natural' gender |editor-first=G. |editor-last=Corbett |title=The Expression of Gender |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |date=2014 |isbn=978-3-11-030660-6 |location=Berlin |pages=3–38 [22]}}</ref> New pronouns such as '''''ve''''' (used in science fiction) and '''''ze'''/'''hir''''' have been proposed in order to avoid the perceived limitations of singular '''''they'''''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Krauthamer |first=H. S. |title=The great pronoun shift: The big impact of little parts of speech |publisher=Routledge |date=2021 |isbn=978-0-367-21017-5 |location=New York |page=95}}</ref> Currently, these new pronouns are only used by a small percentage of speakers while singular '''''they''''' remains the most widely selected option.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Krauthamer |first=H. S. |title=The great pronoun shift: The big impact of little parts of speech |publisher=Routledge |date=2021 |isbn=978-0-367-21017-5 |location=New York |pages=97–98}}</ref>

==== Antecedents for singular ''they'' ==== thumb|380x380px|Syntax tree showing coreference in sentence (14) a

Generally speaking, there are three kinds of antecedents with which the singular '''''they''''' can be used.<ref name="Konnely & Cowper 2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Konnelly |first1=Lex |last2=Cowper |first2=Elizabeth |date=29 April 2020 |title=Gender diversity and morphosyntax: An account of singular they |url= https://www.glossa-journal.org/article/id/5288/ |journal=Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics |volume=5 |issue=1 |doi=10.5334/gjgl.1000 |issn=2397-1835 |s2cid=201083227 |access-date=8 December 2021 |archive-date=8 December 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211208234218/https://www.glossa-journal.org/article/id/5288/ |url-status=live |doi-access=free}}</ref>

* In (14), singular '''''they''''' occurs with a quantified singular antecedent or a singular antecedent of unknown gender. * In (15), singular '''''they''''' occurs with a singular antecedent known to be nonbinary or ungendered. * In (16), singular '''''they''''' occurs with a singular antecedent of any gender, with no restriction on description or name.

In examples (14-16), subscripti indicates coreference; moreover, examples such as (15) and (16) are sometimes referred to as 'referential they'.<ref name="Conrod 2019">{{Cite thesis |last=Conrod |first=Kirby |date=2019 |title=Pronouns raising and emerging |publisher=U of Washington |url= https://linguistics.washington.edu/research/graduate/pronouns-raising-and-emerging |access-date=12 December 2021 |url-status=live |archive-date=12 December 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211212013950/https://linguistics.washington.edu/research/graduate/pronouns-raising-and-emerging}}</ref><ref name="Moulton et al. 2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Moulton |first1=Keir |last2=Han |first2=Chung-hye |last3=Block |first3=Trevor |last4=Gendron |first4=Holly |last5=Nederveen |first5=Sander |date=23 December 2020 |title=Singular they in context |url= https://www.glossa-journal.org/article/id/5370/ |journal=Glossa: A Journal of General Linguistics |volume=5 |issue=1 |doi=10.5334/gjgl.1012 |issn=2397-1835 |s2cid=234453318 |access-date=12 December 2021 |url-status=live |archive-date=12 December 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211212024401/https://www.glossa-journal.org/article/id/5370/ |doi-access=free}}</ref>

(14) a. '''Anyonei''' who thinks '''theyi''' need more time should ask for an extension.<ref name="Konnely & Cowper 2020" /> b. '''The personi''' at the door left before I could see who '''theyi''' were.<ref name="Konnely & Cowper 2020" />

(15) a. '''Kellyi''' said '''theyi''' were leaving early.<ref name="Konnely & Cowper 2020" /> b. '''The strongest studenti''' will present '''theiri''' paper next.<ref name="Konnely & Cowper 2020" />

thumb|380x380px|Syntax tree showing coreference in sentence (16) a (16) a. '''Mariai''' wants to send '''theiri''' students on the field trip.<ref name="Konnely & Cowper 2020" /> b. We heard from '''Arthuri''' that '''theyi''' needed time to think about the idea.<ref name="Konnely & Cowper 2020" /> c. We asked '''[the first girl in line]i''' to introduce '''themself/themselvesi.<ref name="Konnely & Cowper 2020" />''' d. Your '''brotheri''' called to say '''theyi''' would be late.<ref name="Konnely & Cowper 2020" />

==== Speaker variation ==== In the twenty-first century, syntactic research differentiates three groups of English speakers which can be identified, based on their judgments about pronoun usage for (14), (15) and (16).<ref name="Bjorkman 2017" /><ref name="Konnely & Cowper 2020" />

* Group A speakers judge only (14) to be acceptable. Such speakers reject "referential" singular when they know the referent's binary gender, which is taken to indicate that gender features are contrastive in their lexicons. For this group of speakers, usage of singular ''they'' in (14) is acceptable to because the quantified antecedent ''anyone'' and the definite description ''the person'' lack a gender specification. * Group B speakers judge both (14) and (15) to be acceptable. For these speakers, gender is thought to still be contrastive in their lexicons; however, they have created special entries for individuals that use the singular ''they'' pronoun. * Group C speakers judge (14), (15) and (16) to be acceptable. It has been proposed{{by whom|date=July 2024}} that gender is losing its featural contrast in these speakers' lexicons.

{| class="wikitable" |+Speaker variation with singular ''they'' pronoun usage !Antecedent !Group A usage !Group B usage !Group C usage |- |Quantified, or gender is unknown, (14) |yes |yes |yes |- |Nonbinary or ungendered, (15) |no |yes |yes |- |Any gender, (16) |no |no |yes |} A recent study by Kirby Conrod found these speaker groups to be correlated with age and gender identity.<ref name="Conrod 2019" /> Relative to age, participants of all ages accepted the usage in (14), whereas younger participants rated usage of referential ''they'' in (15) and (16) higher than did their older counterparts. Relative to gender identity, non-binary and transgender participants rated referential ''they'' higher than did cisgender participants. Elsewhere, cisgender speakers with at least one trans or non-binary family member have also been found to rate all three cases as acceptable.<ref name="Konnely & Cowper 2020" /> Another study found a correlation between resistance to the second and third uses and prescriptivist attitudes about language.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bradley |first=Evan D. |date=1 March 2020 |title=The influence of linguistic and social attitudes on grammaticality judgments of singular 'they' |url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0388000120300048 |journal=Language Sciences |volume=78 |article-number=101272 |doi=10.1016/j.langsci.2020.101272 |s2cid=213389978 |issn=0388-0001 |access-date=9 December 2021 |archive-date=11 March 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220311164335/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0388000120300048 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Work by Keir Moulton and colleagues, published in 2020, has also found that the presence of a linguistic antecedent — which is the case for examples (14), (15), and (16) — significantly improves the acceptability judgments of singular ''they''. In sentences with a linguistic antecedent, such as (17a), the use of singular ''they'' is judged to be equally acceptable whether or not the hearer knows the (binary) gender of the referent. In sentences where singular ''they'' is purely deictic and has no linguistic antecedent, such as (17b), the use of singular ''they'' is judged to be less acceptable than the use of a singular gendered pronoun (such as he or she) when the hearer knows the referent's (binary) gender. The authors suggest that the use of a gender-neutral antecedent (e.g. server or reporter) may signal the irrelevance of gender in the discourse context, making singular ''they'' more acceptable. Additionally, having a linguistic antecedent clarified that the speaker was referring to a singular antecedent, rather than a plural one. In the deictic case, without a linguistic antecedent, these signals were not overt, and the speakers' judgment depended more on their experience with the pronoun itself.<ref name="Moulton et al. 2020" />

'''Type of antecedent affects acceptability of singular ''their''''' (subscript i denotes coreference)<ref name="Moulton et al. 2020" /> (17) a. ''The '''reporter'''''i ''said that '''their'''''i ''cellphone was recording the whole interview''. Note: judged as more acceptable b. '''''They'''''i ''said that '''their'''''i ''cellphone was recording the whole interview''. Note: judged as less acceptable

Another study found an effect of social distance on speaker judgments of singular they use.<ref name="Camilliere et al. 2019">{{Cite conference |last1=Camilliere |first1=Sadie |first2=Amanda |last2=Izes |first3=Olivia |last3=Leventhal |first4=Daniel |last4=Grodner |date=2019 |title=Pragmatic and grammatical factors that license singular they |conference=XPrag 2019, University of Edinburgh}}</ref> Usage was judged to be more acceptable when the speaker was not personally close with the referent, compared to use for referents with whom the speaker was personally close.<ref name="Camilliere et al. 2019" /> The authors suggested that, in the former case, the referent's gender may be less likely to be known or relevant.<ref name="Camilliere et al. 2019" />

=== Reference to males and females ===

====Generic ''he''==== {{anchor|Generic ''he''|Generic he|Generic "he"}} {{Further|He (pronoun)|She (pronoun)}}{{See also|Male as norm}} Forms of the pronoun ''he'' were used for both males and females during the Middle English and Modern English periods. Susanne Wagner observed that "There was rather an extended period of time in the history of the English language when the choice of a supposedly masculine personal pronoun (''him'') said nothing about the gender or sex of the referent."<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=Gender in English Pronouns: Myth and Reality |first=Susanne |last=Wagner |url= http://www.freidok.uni-freiburg.de/volltexte/1412/pdf/Diss_Freidok.pdf |date=22 July 2004 |publisher=Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg |access-date=17 June 2013 |archive-date=27 November 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141127073353/http://www.freidok.uni-freiburg.de/volltexte/1412/pdf/Diss_Freidok.pdf |url-status=live |type=PhD}}</ref> An early example of prescribing the use of ''he'' to refer to a person of unknown gender is Anne Fisher's 1745 grammar book ''A New Grammar''.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=O'Conner |first1=Patricia T. |author-link=Patricia T. O'Conner |last2=Kellerman |first2=Stewart |date=21 July 2009 |title=All-purpose Pronoun |work=The New York Times |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/26/magazine/26FOB-onlanguage-t.html |access-date=8 February 2017 |archive-date=30 May 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120530024829/http://www.nytimes.com/2009/07/26/magazine/26FOB-onlanguage-t.html?_r=1 |url-status=live}}</ref> Older editions of Fowler also took this view.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fowler |first=H. W. |author-link=Henry Watson Fowler |title=A Dictionary of Modern English Usage |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-958589-2 |pages=648–649 |orig-date=1926}} Reprint of the original 1926 edition, with an introduction and notes by David Crystal.</ref> This usage continues to this day: (18) a. '''''The customer''' brought '''his''' purchases to the cashier for checkout.'' b. ''In a supermarket, '''a customer''' can buy anything '''he''' needs.'' c. ''When '''a customer''' argues, always agree with '''him'''.''

This may be compared to usage of the word ''man'' for humans in general (although that was the original sense of the word "man" in the Germanic languages, much as the Latin word for "human in general", ''homo'', came to mean "male human"—which was ''vir'', in Latin—in most of the Romance languages). (19) a. ''All '''men''' are created equal.''{{efn|See also: United States Declaration of Independence.}} b. '''''Man''''' ''cannot live by bread alone.''{{efn|See also: Matt. 4:4; Deut. 8:3.}}

The use, in formal English, of '''''he''''', '''''him''''' or '''''his''''' as a gender-neutral pronoun has traditionally been considered grammatically correct.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Huddleston |first1=Rodney |author-link1=Rodney Huddleston |last2=Pullum |first2=Geoffrey K. |author-link2=Geoffrey K. Pullum |title=The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2002 |isbn=0-521-43146-8 |page=492}}</ref> For example, William Safire in his "On Language" column in ''The New York Times'' approved of the use of generic '''''he''''', mentioning the mnemonic phrase "the male embraces the female".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Safire |first=William |author-link=William Safire |date=28 April 1985 |title=On Language: You Not Tarzan, Me Not Jane |pages=46–47 |newspaper=The New York Times |url= https://www.nytimes.com/1985/04/28/magazine/on-language-you-not-tarzan-me-not-jane.html |access-date=8 February 2017 |archive-date=7 January 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170107100052/http://www.nytimes.com/1985/04/28/magazine/on-language-you-not-tarzan-me-not-jane.html |url-status=live}}</ref> A reader replied with an example of use of the gender-neutral ''he'', as in (20). Such examples point to the fact indiscriminate use of generic '''''he''''' leads to non-sensical violations of semantic gender agreement.<ref name="Miller & Swift p46">{{cite book |last1=Miller |first1=Casey |last2=Swift |first2=Kate |author-link2=Kate Swift |title=The Handbook of Non-Sexist Writing |publisher=The Women's Press |date=1995 |isbn=0-7043-4442-4 |editor-last=Mosse |editor-first=Kate |edition=3rd British |location=London |pages=46–48 |orig-date=1981}}</ref>

(20) "'''''The average American''' needs the small routines of getting ready for work.'' ''As '''he''' shaves or blow-dries '''his''' hair or pulls on '''his''' panty-hose,'' '''''he''' is easing '''himself''' by small stages into the demands of the day.''" (C. {{not a typo|Badendyck|reason=Digitized version spelling of 'Adendyck' misrepresented the print original 'Badendyck' at https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1985/07/07/104770.html?pageNumber=307}}, ''The New York Times'' (1985);<ref>{{Cite news |last=Adendyck [Badendyck] |first=C. |date=7 July 1985 |title=[Letter commenting on] Hypersexism And the Feds |newspaper=The New York Times |url= https://www.nytimes.com/1985/07/07/magazine/l-hypersexism-and-the-feds-104770.html |access-date=8 February 2017 |archive-date=28 June 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170628052500/http://www.nytimes.com/1985/07/07/magazine/l-hypersexism-and-the-feds-104770.html |url-status=live}}</ref> as quoted by Miller and Swift.<ref name="Miller & Swift p46" />)

The use of generic ''he'' has increasingly been a source of controversy, as it can be perceived as reflecting a positive bias towards men and a male-centric society, and a negative bias against women.<ref>Dale Spender, ''Man Made Language'', Pandora Press, 1998, p. 152.</ref> In some contexts, the use of '''''he''''', '''''him''''' or '''''his''''' as a gender-neutral pronoun may give a jarring or ridiculous impression:

(21) a. "''... '''everyone''' will be able to decide for '''himself''' whether or not to have an abortion.''" (Albert Bleumenthal, N.Y. State Assembly (cited in Longman 1984, as quoted in ''Merriam-Webster's Concise Dictionary of English Usage''<ref name="Penguin">{{Cite book |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877796336/page/735 735] |title=Merriam-Webster's Concise Dictionary of English Usage |date=2002 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-87779-633-6 |url= https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780877796336/page/735}}</ref> b. "''... the ideal that '''every boy and girl''' should be so equipped'' ''that '''he''' shall not be handicapped in '''his''' struggle for social progress''..''."'' (C. C. Fries, ''American English Grammar'' (1940), quoted in ''Reader's Digest'' 1983; as cited in ''Merriam-Webster's Concise Dictionary of English Usage''<ref name="Penguin" /> c. "''... '''She and Louis''' had a game—who could find the ugliest photograph of '''himself.'''''" (Joseph P. Lash, ''Eleanor and Franklin'' (1971), quoted in ''Reader's Digest'' 1983; as cited in ''Merriam-Webster's Concise Dictionary of English Usage'')<ref name="Penguin" />

The use of generic '''''he''''' has also been seen as prejudicial by some, as in the following cases: * The Massachusetts Medical Society effectively blocked membership of female physicians on the grounds that the society's by-laws used the pronoun ''he'' when referring to members.<ref name="Miller & Swift p46" /> * The Persons Case, the legal battle over whether Canadian women counted as legal persons eligible to sit in the Senate, partially turned on use of "he" to refer to a (generic) person qualified to be a senator.<ref>{{cite web |author=Judicial Committee of the Privy Council |title=Reference to Meaning of Word 'Persons' in Section 24 of British North America Act, 1867. ''Edwards v. A.G. of Canada'' [1930] A.C. 124 |url= http://www.chrc-ccdp.ca/en/browseSubjects/edwardspc.asp |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150328051442/http://www.chrc-ccdp.ca/en/browseSubjects/edwardspc.asp |archive-date=28 March 2015 |via=CHRC-CCDP.ca}}</ref> However, these stem from the ignorance of the basic principle that in English, words can have more than one meaning.

Avoidance of the generic '''''he''''' is seen by proponents of non-gendered writing as indicating that the gender-neutral '''''he''''' is in fact not gender-neutral since it "brings a male image to mind".<ref name="Miller & Swift p46" /> {{anchor|Generic ''she''|Generic she|Generic "she"}}The same would apply to the generic '''''she''''', bringing a female image to mind. ''She'' has traditionally been used as a generic pronoun when making generalizations about people belonging to a group when most members of that group are assumed to be female:<ref name="Miller & Swift p46" />

(22) a. '''''A secretary''' should keep '''her''' temper in check.'' b. '''''A nurse''' must always be kind to '''her''' patients.''

==== ''He or she'', ''(s)he'' ==== To disambiguate contexts where a referent encompasses both males and females, periphrasis is used. Though cumbersome, this solution is attested with the full range of English pronouns, include the subject pronouns '''''he or she''''' (23), the object pronouns '''''him or her''''' (24), the possessive pronoun '''''his or hers''''' (25), and the reflective pronouns '''''himself or herself''''' (26). In writing, these periphrastic forms are sometimes abbreviated to '''''he/she''''', '''''(s)he''''', '''''s/he''''', '''''him/her''''', '''''his/her''''', '''''himself/herself''''' and '''''hers/his''''', but are not easily abbreviated in verbal communication.<ref name="Cambridge s/he">{{Cite web |title=s/he |url= https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/s-he |url-status=live |website=Cambridge Dictionary |archive-date=12 November 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201112005200/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/s-he}}</ref> With the exception of '''''(s)he''''' and '''''s/he''''', a writer does in principle have the choice of which pronoun to place first. However, usage indicates that the masculine pronouns is most often mentioned first.

(23) a. ''If '''any employee''' needs to take time off,'' '''''s/he''' should contact the Personnel Department''.<ref name="Cambridge s/he" /> b. ''Talk to '''your doctor''' and see if '''s/he''' knows of any local groups.'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definitione of 's/he' |url= https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/s-he |url-status=live |access-date=31 December 2021 |website=Collins English Dictionary |archive-date=10 October 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20151010074637/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/s-he}}</ref>''''' c. '''''Each employee''' must sign the register when '''she/he''' enters or leaves''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Random House Kernerman Webster's College Dictionary |url= https://www.thefreedictionary.com/she%2Fhe |url-status=live |access-date=31 December 2021 |website=The Free Dictionary |publisher=Random House |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211231212741/https://www.thefreedictionary.com/she%2Fhe}}</ref> d. ''Read to children and let them participate from time to time by telling them what'' ''they think '''the author''' would add if '''she or he''' was present with them''.''<ref name="Dubois & Crouch 1987">{{Cite book |last1=Dubois |first1=Betty Lou |contribution=Linguistic Disruption: He/She, S/He, He or She, He-She |last2=Crouch |first2=Isabel |publisher=State University of New York Press |date=1987 |isbn=978-0-88706-485-2 |editor-last=Penfield |editor-first=Joyce |title=Women and Language in Transition |volume=10 |location=Albany |page=30}}</ref>''

(24) a. ''How often do you perform small acts of kindness for '''your partner''''' (''like making '''him or her''' coffee in the mornin''g)?.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Parker-Pope |first=Tara |date=16 July 2019 |title=Do You Have a Generous Relationship? |work=The New York Times |url= https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/07/16/well/generous-relationship-quiz.html |access-date=31 December 2021 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211231215402/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/07/16/well/generous-relationship-quiz.html |url-status=live}}</ref> b. ''Clearly, no one in the entire United States simply meets '''someone''','' ''talks with '''him or her''' a while, and falls in love any more.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Schneller |first=Johanna |date=5 April 2002 |title=Whatever happened to 'boy meets girl'? |work=The Globe and Mail |url= https://www.theglobeandmail.com/arts/whatever-happened-to-boy-meets-girl/article1335459/ |access-date=31 December 2021 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211231215404/https://www.theglobeandmail.com/arts/whatever-happened-to-boy-meets-girl/article1335459/ |url-status=live}}</ref>''

(25) a. ''We must fight the tradition that forces '''the actor''' to accept poverty'' ''as a precondition of '''his or her''' profession''.<ref name="Dubois & Crouch 1987" /> b. '''''Everyone''' will improve him/herself in '''his'''/'''her''' area'' ...<ref name="Ates 2012 4092–4096">{{Cite journal |last=Ates |first=Haydar |date=2012 |title=The Importance of Lifelong Learning has been Increasing |journal=Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences |volume=46 |pages=4092–4096 |doi=10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.06.205 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

(26) a. ''... at the collegiate level '''the student''' must advocate for '''himself''' '''or''' '''herself'''.''<ref>{{Cite conference |last=Delp |first=Deana R. |date=2021 |title=WIP: Practical Applications for Students With Autism Spectrum Disorders in the Freshman Engineering Curriculum |url= https://peer.asee.org/38094 |journal=American Study for Engineering Education |conference=2021 ASEE Virtual Annual Conference Content Access, Virtual Conference |access-date=31 December 2021 |archive-date=11 March 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220311164341/https://peer.asee.org/wip-practical-applications-for-students-with-autism-spectrum-disorders-in-the-freshman-engineering-curriculum |url-status=live}}</ref> b. ''... '''no student''', of any background, should be expected at the outset'' ''to recognize '''him or herself''' in it''.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Smith |first=Justin E.H. |date=3 June 2012 |title=The Stone: Philosophy's Western Bias |work=The New York Times |url= https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/06/03/philosophys-western-bias/ |access-date=31 December 2021 |archive-date=31 December 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211231214243/https://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/06/03/philosophys-western-bias/ |url-status=live}}</ref> c. '''''Everyone''' will improve '''him'''/'''herself''' in his/her area'' ...<ref name="Ates 2012 4092–4096"/>

Some observers, such as the linguist James McCawley, suggest that the use of periphrastic forms may promote stereotypes: "'''''he and she''''' [can foster] the standard sexual stereotypes [in that] if you say '''''he or she''''', you imply that women aren't included unless they are specifically mentioned, and you make it easier to talk about cases where only one sex is included than where both are."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Suggestion for gender-based language change |url= https://www.proquest.com/docview/1290254819 |id= {{ProQuest|1290254819}} }}</ref>

====Alternation of ''she'' and ''he''==== Authors sometimes employ rubrics{{according to whom|date=November 2020}} for selecting ''she'' or ''he'' such as: * Use the gender of the primary author. * Alternate between "she" and "he". * Alternate by paragraph or chapter. * Use ''she'' and ''he'' to make distinctions between two groups of people.

=== ''It'' as a gender-neutral pronoun === {{Further|It (pronoun)}}

Old English had grammatical gender, and thus commonly used "it" for people, even where they were clearly female or male:

* {{lang|ang|'''cild'''}} (meaning 'child') had grammatical neuter gender, as did compound words formed from it, e.g. {{lang|ang|'''wæpnedcild'''}} 'male-child' and {{lang|ang|'''wifcild'''}} 'female-child'. All three were pronominalized by the neuter pronoun '''''it''''' ({{transliteration|ang|hit}}). * {{lang|ang|'''wif'''}} (meaning "female", modern "wife") had grammatical neuter gender, and so were pronominalized by the neuter pronoun '''''it''''' "it". When '''''wif''''' was the non-head member of a compound — as with {{transliteration|ang|wifmann}} 'female-person', modern 'woman' — the gender of the compound was determined by the head of the compound, in this case {{lang|ang|mann}}, which had grammatical masculine gender, and so was pronominalized by the masculine pronoun '''''he'''''.<ref>{{cite book |first=John Richard Clark |last=Hall |author-link=John Richard Clark Hall |url= https://people.uwplatt.edu/~ciesield/angd.pdf |title=A Concise Anglo−Saxon Dictionary |date=1916 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |edition=2nd |page=788 |access-date=5 September 2021 |archive-date=30 August 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210830084524/http://people.uwplatt.edu/~ciesield/angd.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

Over time, English gradually developed a system of natural gender (gender based on semantic meaning) which now holds sway in Modern English.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Algeo |first1=John |last2=Pyles |first2=Thomas |url= https://www.margaliti.com/The%20Origins%20and%20Development%20Of%20the%20English%20Languages.pdf |title=The Origins and Development of the English Language |date=2010 |edition=6th |pages=91–92, 167 |access-date=6 September 2021 |archive-date=6 September 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210906042727/https://www.margaliti.com/The%20Origins%20and%20Development%20Of%20the%20English%20Languages.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== For human children ==== In Modern English, pronouns referring to adult humans are typically gendered: feminine ''she'', masculine ''he''. However, in some contexts, children may be referred to with the gender-neutral pronoun ''it''. When not referring specifically to children, ''it'' is not generally applied to people, even in cases where their gender is unknown.

The 1985 edition of the Quirk et al. grammar observes that whereas ''he'' and ''she'' are used for entities treated as people (including anthropomorphized entities), the pronoun ''it'' is normally used for entities not regarded as persons. But the pronoun ''it'' can be used of children in some circumstances, for instance when the sex is indefinite or when the writer has no emotional connection to the child, as in a scientific context lsuch as (26). According to ''The Handbook of Non-Sexist Writing'' (1995), ''it'' is also sometimes the "obvious" choice for children. Examples given include (27a), and the more colloquial (27b). ''It'' may even be used when the child's sex is known: In the passage given in (27c), the characters refer to the boy-child at the center of the narrative as a ''he'', but then the narrator refers to it as an ''it''. In this case, the child has yet to be developed into a character that can communicate with the reader.

(27) a. A '''child''' learns to speak the language of '''its''' environment. (Quirk et al., ''A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language'' (1985), p. 316–317, 342) b. To society, a '''baby''''s sex is second in importance to '''its''' health. (Miller & Swift, ''The Handbook of Non-Sexist Writing'' (1995), p. 58) c. "'''He''' looks like nobody but '''himself'''," said Mrs. Owens, firmly. ... It was then that ... the child opened '''its''' eyes wide in wakefulness. '''It''' stared around '''it''' ... (Neil Gaiman, ''The Graveyard Book'' (2008), p. 25)

====For non-human animals==== The Quirk et al. 1985 grammar states that the use of gendered '''''he''''' or '''''she''''' is optional for non-human animals of known sex.<ref name="Quirk et al. 1985">{{cite book |last1=Quirk |first1=Randolph |author-link1=Randolph Quirk |url=https://archive.org/details/comprehensivegra00quir/page/316 |title=A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language |last2=Greenbaum |first2=Sidney |author-link2=Sidney Greenbaum |last3=Leech |first3=Geoffrey |author-link3=Geoffrey Leech |last4=Svartvik |first4=Jan |date=1985 |publisher=Longman |isbn=978-0-582-51734-9 |location=Harlow |pages=[https://archive.org/details/comprehensivegra00quir/page/316 316–317, 342]}}</ref> It gives the following example, which illustrates the use of both the gender-neutral possessive '''''its''''' and the gendered possessive '''''her''''' to refer to a bird:

(28) ''The robin builds '''its''' nest in a well-chosen position ...'' ''and, after the eggs have hatched, the mother bird feeds '''her''' young there for several weeks ...'' (Quirk et al., A comprehensive grammar of the English language (1985), p. 316–317, 342)

===''One'' as a gender-neutral pronoun=== {{Main|One (pronoun)}} Another gender-neutral pronoun that can be used to refer to people is the impersonal pronoun, ''one''''.'' This can be used in conjunction with the generic ''he'' according to the preference and style of the writer. *''Each student should save '''his''' questions until the end.'' *'''''One''' should save '''one's''' questions until the end.'' *'''''One''' should save '''his''' questions until the end.'' In colloquial speech, generic ''you'' is often used instead of ''one'': *'''''You''' should save '''your''' questions until the end.''

=== Historical, regional, and proposed gender-neutral singular pronouns === {{See also|Neopronoun}}

Historically, there were two gender-neutral pronouns native to English dialects, '''''ou''''' and ''('''h''')'''a'''''.<ref>As with all pronouns beginning in ''h'', the ''h'' is dropped when the word is unstressed. The reduced form ''a'' is pronounced {{IPAc-en|@}}.</ref> According to Dennis Baron's ''Grammar and Gender'':<ref>{{cite web |last=Williams |first=John |title=History - Native-English GNPs |work=Gender-Neutral Pronoun FAQ |date=1990s |url= http://www.aetherlumina.com/gnp/history.html#native |access-date=1 January 2007 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20061205220746/http://www.aetherlumina.com/gnp/history.html |archive-date=5 December 2006}}</ref> {{blockquote|text=In 1789, William H. Marshall records the existence of a dialectal English epicene pronoun, singular "ou": {{"'}}Ou will' expresses either ''he'' will, ''she'' will, or ''it'' will." Marshall traces "ou" to Middle English epicene "a", used by the 14th century English writer John of Trevisa, and both the OED and Wright's ''English Dialect Dictionary'' confirm the use of "a" for ''he'', ''she'', ''it'', ''they'', and even ''I''. This "a" is a reduced form of the Anglo-Saxon ''he'' = "he" and ''heo'' = "she".}}

Relics of these gender-neutral terms survive in some British dialects of Modern English — for example '''''hoo''''' for 'she', in Yorkshire — and sometimes a pronoun of one gender can be applied to a human or non-human animal of the opposite gender.

* '''''hoo''''' is also sometimes used in the West Midlands and south-west England as a common gender pronoun<ref>{{cite OED|hoo}}</ref> * '''''er''''' can be used in place of either ''he'' or ''she'' in some West Country dialects, although only in weak (unstressed) positions such as in tag questions<ref>Arthur Hughes, Peter Trudgill, Dominic Watt, ''English Accents and Dialects: An Introduction to Social and Regional Varieties of English in the British Isles'', 5th edition, Routledge, 2012, p. 35.</ref> * '''''hye''''' could refer to either '''''he'''''<ref>{{Cite OED|he}}</ref> or '''''she'''''<ref>{{Cite OED|she}}</ref> in Essex in the south-east of England, in the Middle English period * '''''yo''''': a 2007 paper reports that in some schools in the city of Baltimore, ''yo'' has come to be used as a gender-neutral pronoun.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stotko |first1=Elaine M. |last2=Troyer |first2=Margaret |date=21 September 2007 |title=A New Gender-Neutral Pronoun in Baltimore, Maryland: A Preliminary Study |url= http://americanspeech.dukejournals.org/content/82/3/262 |journal=American Speech |volume=82 |issue=3 |pages=262–279 |doi=10.1215/00031283-2007-012 |via=americanspeech.dukejournals.org |access-date=26 November 2013 |archive-date=10 March 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160310082515/http://americanspeech.dukejournals.org/content/82/3/262 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Liberman |first=Mark |date=7 January 2008 |title=Language Log: Yo |url= http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/005298.html |website=Itre.cis.upenn.edu |access-date=26 October 2013 |archive-date=21 March 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190321052538/http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/005298.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

Since at least the 19th century, numerous proposals for the use of other non-standard gender-neutral pronouns have been introduced:

* '''''e''''', (''es'', ''em'') is the oldest recorded English gender-neutral (ungendered) pronoun with declension, coined by Francis Augustus Brewster in 1841.<ref name="Baron 2020">{{cite web |last=Baron |first=Dennis |author-link=Dennis Baron |date=2020 |title=The oldest genderless pronouns are lo and zo, for French, and e, es, em, for English |url= https://blogs.illinois.edu/view/25/667453458 |work=The Web of Language |publisher=University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign |access-date=5 January 2024}}</ref> ''E'', ''es'', ''em'', and ''emself'' were also proposed by James Rogers in 1890.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Baron |first=Dennis |author-link=Dennis Baron |journal=American Speech |title=The epicene pronoun: The word that failed |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=83–97 |date=1 January 1981 |doi=10.2307/455007|jstor=455007 }}</ref> The aim was to provide a neutral, ungendered pronoun because the link of pronouns to sex was considered a major flaw. Donald G. MacKay (1980) experimented with the use of ''e'', ''es'', ''em'', and ''eself''.<ref>{{cite journal |last=MacKay |first=Donald G. |journal=American Psychologist |title=Psychology, Prescriptive Grammar, and the Pronoun Problem |volume=35 |issue=5 |date=May 1980|pages=444–449 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.35.5.444 }}</ref> * '''''thon''''', proposed by Charles Crozat Converse in 1884 — other sources date its coinage to 1858<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=5n8pIBF8sggC&pg=PA90 ''Writing about literature: essay and translation skills for university'', p. 90] {{Webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150920115219/https://books.google.com/books?id=5n8pIBF8sggC&pg=PA90 |date=20 September 2015 }}, Judith Woolf, Routledge, 2005</ref> — received the greatest mainstream acceptance. A contraction of 'that one', '''''thon''''' was listed in ''Funk and Wagnall's Standard Dictionary'' from 1898 through to 1964, and was also included in ''Webster's Second New International Dictionary'' (but not in its the first and third editions).<ref>{{Cite book |title=Grammar and Gender |first=Dennis |last=Baron |author-link1=Dennis Baron |chapter=10: The Word That Failed |date=1986 |publisher=Yale University Press |chapter-url= http://www.english.illinois.edu/-people-/faculty/debaron/essays/epicene.htm |page=201 |isbn=0-300-03883-6 |access-date=5 January 2010 |archive-date=9 May 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140509212627/http://www.english.illinois.edu/-people-/faculty/debaron/essays/epicene.htm }}</ref> * '''''co''''' was coined by the feminist writer Mary Orovan in 1970.<ref>{{cite web |last=Baron |first=Dennis |author-link1=Dennis Baron |url= http://www.english.illinois.edu/-people-/faculty/debaron/essays/epicene.htm |title=The Epicene Pronouns |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-date=9 May 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140509212627/http://www.english.illinois.edu/-people-/faculty/debaron/essays/epicene.htm }}</ref> It is in common usage in intentional communities of the Federation of Egalitarian Communities,<ref>{{cite web |last=Kingdon |first=Jim |url= http://www.panix.com/~kingdon/gender.html |title=Gender-free Pronouns in English |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-date=1 July 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100701200438/http://www.panix.com/~kingdon/gender.html |url-status=live}}</ref> appearing in the bylaws of several of these communities.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.skyhousecommunity.org/paperwork/skybylaws.php |publisher=Skyhouse Community |title=Bylaws |website=SkyhouseCommunity.org |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-date=11 July 2009 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090711163800/http://www.skyhousecommunity.org/paperwork/skybylaws.php |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://thefec.org/node/72 |title=Bylaws – Sandhill – 1982 |website=TheFEC.org |publisher=Federation of Egalitarian Communities |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-date=15 April 2013 |archive-url= https://archive.today/20130415224737/http://thefec.org/node/72 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://thefec.org/node/70 |title=Bylaws – East Wind – 1974 |website=TheFEC.org |publisher=Federation of Egalitarian Communities |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-url= https://archive.today/20130415223239/http://thefec.org/node/70 |archive-date=15 April 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://thefec.org/node/73 |title=Bylaws – Twin Oaks |website=TheFEC.org |publisher=Federation of Egalitarian Communities |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-date=13 August 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100813151429/http://www.thefec.org/node/73 |url-status=live}}</ref> In addition to using '''''co''''' when the gender of the antecedent is unknown or indeterminate, some use '''''co''''' as gender-blind language, where '''''co''''' replaces gendered pronouns.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.twinoaks.org/community/visit/guide.html#lingo |website=TwinOaks.org |title=Visitor Guide – Twin Oaks Community: What does all this stuff mean? |access-date=22 June 2010 |archive-date=26 July 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100726162457/http://www.twinoaks.org/community/visit/guide.html#lingo |url-status=live}}</ref> * '''''ze''''' has several variants (see table below) and is used to meet the needs of unspecified gender situations and transgender persons.<ref>{{cite web |website=WOU.edu |url= http://www.wou.edu/wp/safezone/terminology/pronouns/ |title=Pronouns - Safe Zone |publisher=Western Oregon University |access-date=10 May 2018 |archive-date=11 May 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180511081035/http://www.wou.edu/wp/safezone/terminology/pronouns/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite OED|ze}}</ref> Kate Bornstein, an American transgender author, uses the pronoun forms '''''ze''''' and '''''hir''''' in the 1996 book ''Nearly Roadkill: An Infobahn Erotic Adventure''.<ref>{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=QV5bAAAAMAAJ |last1=Sullivan |first1=Caitlin |last2=Bornstein |first2=Kate |author2-link=Kate Bornstein |title=Nearly Roadkill: An Infobahn Erotic Adventure |publisher=High Risk Books |date=1996 |isbn=978-1-85242-418-3 |via=Google Books |access-date=16 September 2017 |archive-date=7 March 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120307174640/http://books.google.com/books?id=QV5bAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> Jeffrey A. Carver, an American science fiction writer, used the pronoun '''''hir''''' in the 1989 novel ''From a Changeling Star'' for a different-gendered nonhuman.

===Table of standard and non-standard third-person singular pronouns=== {{anchor|Neopronouns}} {{More citations needed section|date=May 2024}} {| class="wikitable" |- ! ! Source ! Nominative (subject) ! Oblique (object) ! Independent genitive (possessive) ! Dependent genitive (possessive) ! Reflexive |- ! colspan="7" style="background:#ffdead;" | Standard pronoun usage |- !he | | '''''he''''' is laughing || I called '''''him''''' || '''''his''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''his''''' || he likes '''''himself''''' |- !she | | '''''she''''' is laughing || I called '''''her''''' || '''''her''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''hers''''' || she likes '''''herself''''' |- !they (singular) | |'''''they''''' are laughing |I called '''''them''''' |'''''their''''' eyes gleam |that is '''''theirs''''' |they like '''''themself''''' |- !it | | '''''it''''' is laughing || I called '''''it''''' || '''''its''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''its''''' || it likes '''''itself''''' |- !one | | '''''one''''' is laughing || I called '''''one''''' || '''''one's''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''one's''''' || one likes '''''oneself''''' |- !they (plural) | | '''''they''''' are laughing || I called '''''them''''' || '''''their''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''theirs''''' || they like '''''themselves''''' |- !'em | | – || I called '''''<nowiki/>'em''''' || – || – || – |- ! colspan="7" style="background:#ffdead;" | Orthographic conventions for gender-neutral pronouns |- !she/he | | '''''she'''/'''he''''' is laughing || I called '''''him'''/'''her''''' || '''''her'''/'''his''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''his'''/'''hers''''' || she/he likes '''''her'''/'''himself''''' |- !s/he | | '''''s'''/'''he''''' is laughing || I called '''''him'''/'''r'''''{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}} || '''''her'''/'''is''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''hers'''/'''is''''' || s/he likes '''''her'''/'''himself''''' |- ! colspan="7" style="background:#ffdead;" | Artificial and proposed epicene pronouns |- !e |Brewster, 1841<ref name="Baron 2020" /> |'''''e''''' is laughing|| I called '''''em''''' || '''''es''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''es''''' || e likes '''''emself''''' |- !thon |Converse, 1884<ref>proposed in 1884 by American lawyer Charles Crozat Converse. Reference: {{cite web |date=12 August 1998 |title=Epicene |url= http://www.randomhouse.com/wotd/index.pperl?date=19980812 |access-date=20 December 2006 |work=The Mavens' Word of the Day |publisher=Random House |archive-date=8 March 2007 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070308233329/http://www.randomhouse.com/wotd/index.pperl?date=19980812 |url-status=live}}</ref> | '''''thon''''' is laughing || I called '''''thon''''' || '''''thons''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''thons''''' || thon likes '''''thonself''''' |- !e |Rogers, 1890<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Rogers |first=James |date=January 1890 |title=That Impersonal Pronoun |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=QQQ-AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA312 |magazine=The Writer |location=Boston |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=12–13 |access-date=29 August 2019 |archive-date=29 September 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200929155857/https://books.google.com/books?id=QQQ-AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA312 |url-status=live}}</ref> |'''''e''''' is laughing|| I called '''''em''''' || '''''es''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''es''''' || e likes '''''emself''''' |- !ae |Lindsay, 1920{{Citation needed|date=August 2023|reason=Wikipedia is not a source (see WP:UGC)}} | '''''ae''''' is laughing || I called '''''aer''''' || '''''aer''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''aers''''' || ae likes '''''aerself''''' |- !tey |Miller and Swift, 1971<ref>{{cite web |last=Baron |first=Dennis |date=28 February 2020 |title=From they to tey to te: pronoun mansplaining in the 1970s |url= https://blogs.illinois.edu/view/25/806764 |access-date=13 June 2025|publisher=The Web of Language}}</ref> | '''''tey''''' is laughing || I called '''''tem''''' || '''''ter''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''ters''''' || tey likes '''''temself''''' |- !xe |Rickter, {{Circa|1973}}<ref>{{cite web |first1=J. |last1=Blackburn |first2=K. |last2=Gottschewski |first3=Elsa |last3=George |first4=Niki |last4=L |url= http://archive.autistics.org/library/AE2000-ToM.html |title=A Discussion about Theory of Mind: From an Autistic Perspective |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304082825/http://archive.autistics.org/library/AE2000-ToM.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |work=Proceedings of Autism Europe's 6th International Congress, Glasgow, 19–21 May 2000 |date=May 2000 |via=Austistics.org}} A paper that uses and defines these pronouns.</ref> | '''''xe''''' is laughing || I called '''''xem'''/'''xim''''' || '''''xyr'''/'''xis''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''xyrs'''/'''xis''''' || xe likes '''''xemself'''/'''ximself''''' |- !te |Farrell, 1974<ref> {{cite book |last=Farrell |first=Warren |date=1974 |title=The Liberated Man |page=15 |url= https://archive.org/details/liberatedman00farr/page/14/mode/2up?q=%22te%22 |publisher=Berkeley Books|isbn=978-0-425-13680-5 }} </ref> | '''''te''''' is laughing || I called '''''tir''''' || '''''tes''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''tes''''' || te likes '''''tirself''''' |- !ey |Elverson, 1975<ref>{{cite news |last=Black |first=Judie |date=23 August 1975 |title=Ey Has a Word for it |page=12 |newspaper=Chicago Tribune}}</ref> | '''''ey''''' is laughing || I called '''''em''''' || '''''eir''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''eirs''''' || ey likes '''''emself''''' |- !per |Piercy, 1979<ref>In Marge Piercy's ''Woman on the Edge of Time'' (1979), the people of the future (year 2137) use "per" or "person" as their sole singular third-person pronoun.</ref> | '''''per''''' is laughing || I called '''''per''''' || '''''pers''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''pers''''' || per likes '''''perself''''' |- !ve |Hulme, {{Circa|1980}}<ref>Proposed by New Zealand writer Keri Hulme some time in the 1980s. Also used by writer Greg Egan for non-gendered artificial intelligences and "asex" humans. {{Cite book |last=Egan |first=Greg |author-link=Greg Egan |title=Diaspora |date=July 1998  |publisher=Gollancz |isbn=0-7528-0925-3}} {{Cite book |last=Egan |first=Greg |author-link=Greg Egan |title=Distress |date=1996 |publisher=Phoenix |isbn=1-85799-484-1}}</ref> | '''''ve''''' is laughing || I called '''''ver''''' || '''''vis''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''vis''''' || ve likes '''''verself''''' |- !hu |Newborn, 1982<ref>Used in several college humanities texts published by Bandanna Books. Originated by editor Sasha Newborn in 1982.</ref>{{Nonspecific|date=August 2023}} | '''''hu''''' is laughing || I called '''''hum''''' || '''''hus''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''hus''''' || hu likes '''''humself''''' |- !E |Spivak, 1983<ref>Capitalized ''E, Eir, Eirs, Em''. The change from ''ey'' to ''E'' means that, in speech, the Spivak subject pronoun would often be pronounced the same as ''he'', since the ''h'' of ''he'' is not pronounced in unstressed positions.</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Williams |first=John |url= http://www.aetherlumina.com/gnp/technical.html#declensiongnp |title=Technical: 5.2. Declension of the Major Gender-neutral Pronouns |work=Gender-Neutral Pronoun FAQ |via=Aetherlumina.org |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131006153632/http://www.aetherlumina.com/gnp/technical.html |archive-date=6 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beeton |first1=Barbara |date=2021 |title=Michael D. Spivak, 1940–2020 |journal=TUGboat |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=226–227 |doi=10.47397/tb/42-3/tb132beeton-spivak |s2cid=244121636 |issn=0896-3207}}</ref> |'''''e''''' is laughing|| I called '''''em''''' || '''''eir''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''eirs''''' || e likes '''''emself''''' |- !hes |Ching Hai, 1989<ref>{{Cite book |last=Supreme Master Ching Hai |author-link=Ching Hai |url=https://smchbooks.com/ebook/data/english/E-SB-2024.pdf |title=The Key of Immediate Enlightenment—Sample Booklet |publisher=The Supreme Master Ching Hai International Association Publishing Co., Ltd. |year=1989 |edition=43rd |location=Taiwan |page=5 |language=EN}}</ref> |'''''hes''''' is laughing |I called '''''hirm''''' |'''''hiers''''' eyes gleam |that is '''''hiers''''' |hes likes '''''hirmself''''' |- !ze, mer |Creel, 1997<ref>{{cite web |last=Creel |first=Richard |date=1997 |title=Ze, Zer, Mer |url= http://www.apa.udel.edu/apa/archive/newsletters/v97n1/teaching/ze.asp |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060512060324/http://www.apa.udel.edu/apa/archive/newsletters/v97n1/teaching/ze.asp |archive-date=12 May 2006 |access-date=15 May 2006 |work=APA Newsletters |publisher=American Philosophical Association}}</ref> | '''''ze''''' is laughing || I called '''''mer''''' || '''''zer''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''zers''''' || ze likes '''''zemself''''' |- ! ze, hir |Bornstein, 1998<ref>Example: {{Cite book |last=Bornstein |first=Kate |author-link=Kate Bornstein |url= https://archive.org/details/mygenderworkbook00kate |title=My Gender Workbook |date=1998 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=0-415-91673-9 |url-access=registration}}</ref> | '''''ze''''' is laughing || I called '''''hir''''' || '''''hir''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''hirs''''' || ze likes '''''hirself''''' |- !sie, hir |Hyde, 2001<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Hyde |first=Martin |date=2001 |url= https://open.library.ubc.ca/collections/ubctheses/831/items/1.0055498 |chapter=Appendix 1 – Use of gender-neutral pronouns |pages=144–146 |title=Democracy Education and the Canadian Voting Age |type=PhD |doi=10.14288/1.0055498 |access-date=20 February 2020 |archive-date=11 March 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220311164340/https://open.library.ubc.ca/soa/cIRcle/collections/ubctheses/831/items/1.0055498 |url-status=live |publisher=University of British Columbia}}</ref> | '''''sie''''' is laughing || I called '''''hir''''' || '''''hir''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''hirs''''' || sie likes '''''hirself''''' |- ! sey, seir, sem |Rogerson, 2013<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rogerson |first=Mark |url= https://books.friesenpress.com/store/title/119734000011043227 |title=This Moonless Sky |date=2013 |publisher=FriesenPress |isbn=978-1-4602-2197-6 |url-access=registration |access-date=8 October 2021 |archive-date=8 October 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211008180744/https://books.friesenpress.com/store/title/119734000011043227 |url-status=live}}</ref> | '''''sey''''' is laughing || I called '''''sem''''' || '''''seir''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''seirs''''' || sey likes '''''semself''''' |- !fae<ref>{{Cite web |title=Beyond 'he' and 'she': 1 in 4 LGBTQ youths use nonbinary pronouns, survey finds |url= https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out/beyond-he-she-1-4-lgbtq-youths-use-nonbinary-pronouns-n1235204 |access-date=24 August 2020 |website=NBC News |date=30 July 2020 |archive-date=17 August 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200817214710/https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out/beyond-he-she-1-4-lgbtq-youths-use-nonbinary-pronouns-n1235204 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=30 July 2020 |title=1 in 4 LGBTQ+ Youth Use Gender Neutral Pronouns, New Study Shows |url= https://www.pride.com/news/2020/7/30/1-4-lgbtq-youth-use-gender-neutral-pronouns-new-study-shows |access-date=24 August 2020 |website=Pride.com |archive-date=7 August 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200807024106/https://www.pride.com/news/2020/7/30/1-4-lgbtq-youth-use-gender-neutral-pronouns-new-study-shows |url-status=live}}</ref> | |'''''fae''''' is laughing |I called '''''faer''''' |'''''faer''''' eyes gleam |that is '''''faers''''' |fae likes '''''faerself''''' |- !eh |Steinbach, 2018<ref>Named in domain ehshehe.com.</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Steinbach |first=G. |title=eh, she, he, Resolving pronoun conflicts |url= https://weareall.com/pronouns/ |access-date=14 December 2023 |website=weareall.com}}</ref> | '''''eh''''' is laughing || I called '''''ehm''''' || '''''ehs''''' eyes gleam || that is '''''ehs''''' || eh likes '''''ehmself''''' |- !thay |Gori Suture, 2022<ref>{{Cite web |last=Suture |first=Gori |date=November 2022 |title=Regarding third sex/third person singular gender-neutral pronouns |url=http://gorisuture.com/gender%2Dneutral_pronouns.html |access-date=January 22, 2024 |website=Gori Suture's Strange Tomes|archive-date=20 May 2024|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240520230219/http://gorisuture.com/gender-neutral_pronouns.html}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Suture |first=Gori |title=The Taste of Void |publisher=Inside Henry's Head |date=April 2022 |isbn=978-0-359-93894-0}}</ref> |'''''thay''''' are laughing |I called '''''thym''''' |'''''thayr''''' eyes gleam |that is '''''thayrs''''' |thay like '''''thymself''''' |}

== Emergence of gender-neutral pronouns in languages with grammatical gender == {{Further|List of languages by type of grammatical genders|Grammatical gender|Gender neutrality in languages with grammatical gender}}

=== French ''iel'' === {{Main|iel (pronoun)}} In 2021, the French dictionary ''Le Petit Robert de la Langue Française'' added a third-person gender neutral pronoun to its lexicon: {{lang|fr|iel}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=iel - Définitions, synonymes, conjugaison, exemples |work=Dico en ligne Le Robert |url= https://dictionnaire.lerobert.com/definition/iel |access-date=13 December 2021 |language=fr |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211209094225/https://dictionnaire.lerobert.com/definition/iel |url-status=live}}</ref> (plural {{lang|fr|iels}}), though there is no discussion in its entry regarding how the language, which uses a grammatical gender system in which every content word has a gender, should proceed with agreement.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Larocque |first1=Véronique |date=17 November 2021 |title=Le Robert {{!}} L'entrée du pronom " iel " sème la controverse |url= https://www.lapresse.ca/societe/2021-11-17/le-robert/l-entree-du-pronom-iel-seme-la-controverse.php |access-date=15 December 2021 |website=La Presse |language=fr |archive-date=15 December 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211215065006/https://www.lapresse.ca/societe/2021-11-17/le-robert/l-entree-du-pronom-iel-seme-la-controverse.php |url-status=live}}</ref>

As reported in ''The'' ''New York Times'', this merger of the third person masculine pronoun '''''il''''' 'he' and the third person feminine pronoun '''''elle''''' 'she' is used to refer to a person of any gender. It has caused controversy amongst both linguists and politicians who claim that the French language cannot be manipulated.<ref name="Cohen & Gallois 2021">{{Cite news |last1=Cohen |first1=Roger |last2=Gallois |first2=Léontine |date=28 November 2021 |title=In a Nonbinary Pronoun, France Sees a U.S. Attack on the Republic |work=The New York Times |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/28/world/europe/france-nonbinary-pronoun.html |access-date=13 December 2021 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=13 December 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211213165046/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/28/world/europe/france-nonbinary-pronoun.html |url-status=live}}</ref> The dictionary takes the position that it is observing how the French language evolves, adding it as a point of reference. However, the Larousse (a prominent encyclopedia of the French language) disagrees, calling ''iel'' a "pseudo pronoun".<ref name="Cohen & Gallois 2021" />

=== Polish ''onu'' and ''ono'' === {{Main|onu (pronoun)|Dukaisms}}

The Polish language does not have officially recognized and standardized gender-neutral pronoun. The most popular neopronoun, created to address nonbinary people, is {{lang|pl|onu}}. It was originally created by science fiction and fantasy writer Jacek Dukaj, for his 2004 book ''Perfect Imperfection''. From the surname of the author, this, and similar neopronouns created by him, are referred to as dukaisms ({{lang|pl|dukaizmy}}), and after term coined by him, the post-gender pronouns ({{Lang|pl|zaimki postpłciowe}}).<ref name="zaimki1">{{cite web |url= https://zaimki.pl/onu |title=onu/jenu |website=Zaimki.pl |language=pl}}</ref><ref name="zaimki2">{{cite web |url= https://zaimki.pl/ony |title=ony/ich |language=pl |website=Zaimki.pl}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Kinga |last=Dunin |url= https://krytykapolityczna.pl/kultura/czytaj-dalej/kinga-dunin-czyta/maia-kobabe-gender-queer-jezyk-zaimki/ |title=Mów do mnie, jak ci wygodnie. Nie sprowadzajmy problemów osób niebinarnych do zaimków |language=pl |website=KrytykaPolityczna.pl |date=19 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Tomasz |last=Dec |url= https://www.nowewyrazy.pl/haslo/dukaizm.html |title=dukaizm |language=pl |website=Nowewyrazy.pl |date=20 June 2021}}</ref>

Some nonbinary Polish-speakers also use {{Lang|pl|ono}}, which corresponds to the English ''it''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=An overview of Polish nonbinary pronouns • Zaimki.pl |url=https://zaimki.pl/english |access-date=2024-01-17 |website=Zaimki.pl |language=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Nowacka |first=Katarzyna |date=2022-04-27 |title=How to Conjugate: Being Nonbinary in Poland |url=https://www.autostraddle.com/how-to-conjugate-being-nonbinary-in-poland/ |access-date=2024-01-17 |website=Autostraddle |language=en-US}}</ref> The use of {{Lang|pl|ono}} as a gender-neutral pronoun was recommended in a grammar book in 1823.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ono |url=https://zaimki.pl/ono |access-date=2024-01-17 |website=Zaimki.pl |language=pl}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" |+ Pronoun ''onu'' |- ! ! Singular ! Plural |- ! nominative | onu | ony |- ! genitive | jenu / nu / nienu | ich / ich / nich |- !dative |wu |im |- !accusative |nu |ni |- !instrumental |num |nimi |- !locative |num |nich |- | colspan="3" |<ref name="zaimki1" /><ref name="zaimki2" /> |} {| class="wikitable" |+ Suffixes corresponding to ''onu'' |- ! ! Singular ! Plural |- ! first person | -um | –ałuśmy |- ! second person | –uś | –ałuście |- ! third person | –u | –ły |- ! adjectives | –u | -y |- | colspan="3" |<ref name="zaimki1" /><ref name="zaimki2" /> |}

===Swedish ''hen''=== {{main|hen (pronoun)}} The Swedish language has a four-gender distinction for definite singular third-person pronouns:

* masculine singular ''han'' 'he' * feminine singular ''hon'' 'she' * common singular ''den'' 'it' * neuter singular ''det'' 'it'

The indefinite/impersonal third person is gender-neutral, as is the plural third person:

* plural third person ''de'' 'they' * ''man'' 'someone'

As for first-person and second-person pronouns, they are gender-neutral in both the singular and plural

* first person: singular ''jag''; plural ''vi'' * second-person: singular ''du''; plural ''ni''

On nouns, the neuter gender is marked by the definite singular suffixal article -'''''t''''', whereas common gender is marked with the suffix with -'''''n'''''. The same distinction applies to the indefinite adjectival singular forms. For people and animals with specified gender, the masculine or feminine pronouns are used, but the nouns still take either neutral or common articles. There is no gender distinction in the plural.

In Swedish, the word ''hen'' was introduced generally in the 2000s as a complement to the gender-specific {{Lang|sv|hon}} ("she") and {{Lang|sv|han}} ("he"). It can be used when the gender of a person is not known or when it is not desirable to specify them as either a "she" or "he". The word was proposed by Rolf Dunås in 1966 and could be used occasionally, like in a guideline from the Swedish building council from 1980, authored by Rolf Reimers. Its origin may have been a combination of ''han'' and ''hon''.

It was proposed again in 1994, with reference to the Finnish {{Lang|fi|hän}}, similarly pronounced, a personal pronoun that is gender-neutral, since Finnish completely lacks grammatical gender. In 2009 it was included in ''Nationalencyklopedin''. However, it did not receive widespread recognition until around 2010, when it began to be used in some texts, and provoked some media debates and controversy, but is included since 2015 in ''Svenska Akademiens ordlista'', the most authoritative spelling dictionary of the Swedish language, by the Swedish Academy.<ref name="Benaissa">{{cite news |url= http://sverigesradio.se/sida/artikel.aspx?programid=128&artikel=5925135 |title=Svenska Akademiens ordlista inför hen |newspaper=Sveriges Radio |first=Mina |last=Benaissa |date=29 July 2014 |access-date=29 July 2014 |archive-date=6 October 2014 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20141006141007/http://sverigesradio.se/sida/artikel.aspx?programid=128&artikel=5925135 |url-status=live}}</ref>

{{As of|2016}}, Swedish manuals of style treat {{Lang|sv|hen}} as a neologism. Major newspapers like ''Dagens Nyheter'' have recommended against its usage, though some journalists still use it. The Swedish Language Council has not issued any general recommendations against the use of {{Lang|sv|hen}}, but advises against the use of the object form {{Lang|sv|henom}} ("her/him"); it instead recommends using ''{{Lang|sv|hen}}'' as both the subject and object form. ''{{Lang|sv|Hen}}'' has two basic usages: as a way to avoid a stated preference to either gender; or as a way of referring to individuals who are transgender, who prefer to identify themselves as belonging to a third gender or who reject the division of male/female gender roles on ideological grounds. Its entry will cover two definitions: as a reference to an individual's belonging to a third gender, or where the sex is not specified.<ref name="Benaissa" />

Traditionally, Swedish offers other ways of avoiding using gender-specific pronouns; e.g., "vederbörande" ("the referred person") and "man" ("one", as in "Man borde ..."/"One should ...") with its objective form "en" or alternatively "en" as both subjective and objective since "man"/"one" sounds the same as "man"/"male adult" although they are discernible through syntax. "Denna/Denne" ("this one or she/he") may refer to a non-gender-specific referent already or soon-to-be mentioned ("Vederbörande kan, om denne så vill, ..."/"The referent may, if he wishes, ..."). Because "denne" is objectively masculine, the use of the word to refer to anyone irrespective of gender is not recommended. One method is rewriting into the plural, as Swedish – like English – has only gender-neutral pronouns in the plural. Another method is writing the pronoun in the referent's grammatical gender ("Barnet får om ''det'' vill."/"The child is allowed to, if ''it'' wants to." The word "barn"/child is grammatically neuter, thus the use of the third-person neuter pronoun "det"); some nouns retain their traditional pronouns, e.g., "man"/"man" uses "han"/"he", and "kvinna"/"woman" uses "hon"/"she". While grammatically correct, using "den/det" to refer to human beings may sound as if the speaker regards the referenced human beings as objects, so "han"/"hon" is preferred, for example about children or work titles such as "föraren" ("driver") or "rörmokaren" ("plumber").

=== Norwegian ''hen''=== {{More citations needed section|date=May 2024}} As a continuation of earlier discussions along the same lines as well as the continuing uptake, the Language Council of Norway proposes the gender-neutral pronoun {{lang|no|hen}} (from Swedish {{lang|sv|hen}}; compare Finnish {{lang|fi|hän}}) to be recognised officially.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Strzyżyńska |first1=Weronika |title=New gender-neutral pronoun likely to enter Norwegian dictionaries |url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/02/new-gender-neutral-pronoun-norwegian-dictionaries-hen-official-language |access-date=2 February 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=2 February 2022 |archive-date=2 February 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220202125750/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/02/new-gender-neutral-pronoun-norwegian-dictionaries-hen-official-language |url-status=live}}</ref>

Previously, the gender-neutral pronoun {{lang|no|hin}} has been proposed to fill the gap between the third person pronouns {{lang|no|hun}} ('she') and {{lang|no|han}} ('he').{{citation needed|date=November 2020}} However, the usage of {{lang|no|hin}} has not widely embraced, as it is rarely used, and even then only by limited special interest groups.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}} A reason for the marginal interest in a neuter gender word is the constructed nature of the word, together with the fact that the word is homonymous with several older words both in official language and dialectal speech, such as {{lang|no|hin}} ('the other') and {{lang|no|hinsides}} ('beyond').{{citation needed|date=November 2020}} One can also use {{lang|no|man}} or {{lang|no|en}} or {{lang|no|den}} ({{lang|no|en}} means 'one'). These three are considered impersonal.{{citation needed|date=November 2020}}

Amongst LGBT interest groups the word ''hen'' is now in use after the Swedish implementation in 2010.<ref>{{cite news |last=Vindenes |first=Urd |title=Bør vi begynne å si "hen" i tillegg til "hun" og "han" også i Norge? |trans-title=Should we start using "hen" [gender neutral neologism] in addition to "she" and "he" in Norway too? |language=no |url= https://www.aftenposten.no/viten/i/pAm6/boer-vi-begynne-aa-si-hen-i-tillegg-til-hun-og-han-ogsaa-i-norge |access-date=12 April 2016 |newspaper=Aftenposten |date=1 May 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201129134153/https://www.aftenposten.no/viten/i/pAm6/boer-vi-begynne-aa-si-hen-i-tillegg-til-hun-og-han-ogsaa-i-norge |archive-date=29 November 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=November 2020}}

=== Arabic === English-language neopronouns are being translated into Arabic, such as "ze" ({{Langx|ar|زي}}).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tair |first1=Sausan Abu |last2=Haider |first2=Ahmad S. |last3=Obeidat |first3=Mohammed M. |last4=Sahari |first4=Yousef |date=2024-08-10 |title=Challenges in Netflix Arabic subtitling of English nonbinary gender expressions in 'Degrassi: Next Class' and 'One Day at a Time' |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41599-024-03455-x |journal=Humanities and Social Sciences Communications |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |article-number=1027 |doi=10.1057/s41599-024-03455-x |issn=2662-9992}}</ref> Another neopronoun is "huomin" ({{Langx|ar|همنّ}}) a unified pronoun, used in case the gender of the person being spoken to or about is unknown or as a singular pronoun for non-binary people, akin to a singular "they".<ref>{{Cite web |last=أحمد |first=غدير |date=2021-11-09 |title=دليل VICE عربية للهويات الجندرية غير النمطية |url=https://www.vice.com/ar/article/%D8%AF%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84-vice-%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%BA%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%85/ |url-status= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260511103137/https://www.vice.com/ar/article/%D8%AF%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%84-vice-%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%BA%D9%8A%D8%B1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%85/ |archive-date=11 May 2026 |access-date=2025-10-22 |website=VICE |language=ar}}</ref>

=== German === An example of neopronoun in German is {{Lang|de|dey}}, influenced by English they.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=White |first=Jamey Alan |date=2024 |title=@ the crossroads of advocacy and grammar: teaching neopronouns in the German language classroom |hdl=2097/44310 |url=https://hdl.handle.net/2097/44310 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Jäggi |first1=Tiziana |last2=Gygax |first2=Pascal M. |last3=Decock |first3=Sofie |last4=Gabriel |first4=Ute |last5=Hoof |first5=Sarah Van |last6=Verhaegen |first6=Hanne |last7=Vincent |first7=Chloé |date=2025-06-03 |title=Beyond She and He: A Framework for Studying the Cognitive, Psychological and Social Effects of Gender-Neutral Pronouns |journal=Journal of Language and Social Psychology |volume=44 |issue=6 |language=EN |article-number=0261927X251346193 |doi=10.1177/0261927X251346193 |pmid=41141579 |pmc=12548958 |issn=0261-927X}}</ref>

==Emergence of gendered pronouns in languages without grammatical gender==

===Mandarin=== {{further|Chinese pronouns#Personal pronouns}}

==== Lack of gender contrasts in spoken language ==== Traditionally, the third person pronoun in Mandarin is gender-neutral. In spoken standard Mandarin, there is no gender distinction in personal pronouns: '''{{lang|zh-Latn|tā}}''' can mean 'he' or 'she' (or even 'it' for non-human objects). Although it is claimed that when the antecedent of the spoken pronoun {{lang|zh-Latn|tā}} is unclear, native speakers assume it is a male person,<ref name="Ettner">{{Cite book |last=Ettner |first=Charles |contribution=In Chinese, men and women are equal – or – women and men are equal? |title=Gender Across Languages: The Linguistic Representation of Women and Men |volume=1 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |date=2001 |editor1-last=Hellinger |editor1-first=Marlis |editor2-last=Bußmann |editor2-first=Hadumod |page=36}}</ref> no evidence is given to support this claim. Many studies instead demonstrate the opposite: Mandarin speakers do not differentiate pronoun genders in the composition of the preverbal message that guides grammatical encoding during language production.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=董 |first1=燕萍 |last2=李 |first2=倩 |title=中国英语学习者he/she混用错误探源:语信编码中的代词性别信息缺失 |language=zh |url= https://www.cnki.net/kcms/doi/10.13564/j.cnki.issn.1672-9382.2011.03.013.html |journal=中国外语 (Foreign Languages in China) |date=2011 |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=22–29 |doi=10.13564/j.cnki.issn.1672-9382.2011.03.013 |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=24 June 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210624202356/https://www.cnki.net/kcms/doi/10.13564/j.cnki.issn.1672-9382.2011.03.013.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Even proficient bilingual Mandarin-English learners do not process gender information in the conceptualizer.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dong |first1=Yanping |last2=Wen |first2=Yun |last3=Zeng |first3=Xiaomeng |last4=Ji |first4=Yifei |date=1 December 2015 |title=Exploring the Cause of English Pronoun Gender Errors by Chinese Learners of English: Evidence from the Self-paced Reading Paradigm |journal=Journal of Psycholinguistic Research |volume=44 |issue=6 |pages=733–747 |doi=10.1007/s10936-014-9314-6 |issn=1573-6555 |pmid=25178817 |s2cid=11556837}}</ref> As a result, Mandarin speakers often mix up the gendered pronouns of European languages in speech.<ref>{{cite book |last=Robinson |first=Douglas |title=Critical Translation Studies |date=17 February 2017 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-315-38785-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oCglDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 36]}}</ref> Even if they seldom make other types of errors, native Mandarin speakers can make such pronoun errors when speaking in English. This is even the case after they have been living in an immersive environment and after having attained a relatively high English level.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=余 |first=佳颖 |title=海外中国英语学习者口语中代词性别错误研究 |language=zh |journal=武陵学刊 |date=2016 |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=138–142 |doi=10.16514/j.cnki.cn43-1506/c.2016.01.023}}</ref>

==== Emergence of gender contrasts via orthography ==== Although spoken Mandarin remains ungendered, a specific written form for 'she' ({{lang|zh|她}} {{lang|zh-Latn|tā}}) was created in the early twentieth century under the influence of European languages. In today's written Chinese, the same sound is written with different characters: {{lang|zh|他}} ({{lang|zh-Latn|tā}}) for 'he', {{lang|zh|她}} ({{lang|zh-Latn|tā}}) for 'she' and {{lang|zh|它}} ({{lang|zh-Latn|tā}}) for 'it'. However, such distinction did not exist before the late 1910s. There was only {{lang|zh|他}} ({{lang|zh-Latn|tā}}) as a general third person pronoun (he/she/it'), which did not specify gender or humanness.{{Citation needed|date=May 2026}}

In 1917, the influential poet and linguist Liu Bannong borrowed the Old Chinese graph {{lang|zh|她}} ({{lang|zh-Latn|tā}}, with the radical {{lang|zh-Latn|nǚ}} {{lang|zh|女}} which means 'female') into the written language to specifically represent 'she'. As a result, the old character {{lang|zh|他}} ({{lang|zh-Latn|tā}}), which previously could also refer to females, has become sometimes restricted to meaning 'he' only in written texts. The character {{lang|zh|他}} has the radical {{lang|zh-Latn|rén}} ({{lang|zh|人}}) with means 'human', which also shows it originally was a generic term for people in general instead of a term for males, which should take the radical for male, {{lang|zh-Latn|nán}} ({{lang|zh|男}}), like other Chinese characters that represent specifically male concepts.<ref name="Liu">{{Cite book |last=Liu |first=Lydia H. |title=Translingual Practice: Literature, National Culture, and Translated Modernity – China, 1900–1937 |publisher=Stanford University Press |date=1995 |pages=36–38 |isbn=978-0-8047-2535-4}}</ref>

The creation of gendered pronouns in Chinese orthography was part of the May Fourth Movement to modernize Chinese culture, and specifically an attempt to assert sameness between Chinese and European languages, which generally have gendered pronouns.<ref name="Ettner" /> The leaders of the movement also coined other characters, such as {{lang|zh|它}} for objects, {{lang|zh|牠}} (radical: {{lang|zh-Latn|niú}} {{lang|zh|牛}}, "cow") for animals, and {{lang|zh|祂}} (radical: {{lang|zh-Latn|shì}} {{lang|zh|示}}, 'spirit') for gods. Their pronunciations were all {{lang|zh-Latn|tā}}. The latter two have fallen out of use in mainland China.{{Citation needed|date=May 2026}}

Liu and other writers of that period tried to popularize a different pronunciation for the feminine pronoun, including {{lang|zh-Latn|yi}} from the Wu dialect and {{lang|zh-Latn|tuo}} from a literary reading, but these efforts failed, and all forms of the third-person pronoun retain identical pronunciation. (This situation of identical pronunciation with split characters is present not only in Mandarin but also in many other varieties of Chinese.<ref name="Liu" />)

The Cantonese third-person-singular pronoun is {{lang|zh-Latn|keui5}} ({{lang|zh|佢}}), and may refer to people of any gender. For a specifically female pronoun, some writers replace the person radical {{lang|zh-Latn|rén}} ({{lang|zh|亻}}) with the female radical {{lang|zh-Latn|nǚ}} ({{lang|zh|女}}), forming the character {{lang|zh-Latn|keui5}} ({{lang|zh|姖}}). However, this analogous variation to {{lang|zh-Latn|tā}} is neither widely accepted in standard written Cantonese nor grammatically or semantically required. Moreover, while the character {{lang|zh-Latn|keui5}} ({{lang|zh|佢}}) has no meaning in classical Chinese, the character {{lang|zh-Latn|keui5}} ({{lang|zh|姖}}) has a separate meaning unrelated to its dialectic use in standard or classical Chinese.<ref>{{cite web |date=2006 |title=Chinese Character Database: Phonologically Disambiguated According to the Cantonese Dialect |work=Humanum.Arts.CUHK.edu.hk |publisher=Chinese University of Hong Kong |url= http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/lexi-can/ |archive-date=21 February 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110221121712/http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/lexi-can/ |url-status=live |access-date=16 February 2007}} The entry for "{{lang|zh|佢}}" notes its use as a third-person pronoun in Cantonese: {{cite web |title=佢 |work=Humanum.Arts.CUHK.edu.hk |publisher=Chinese University of Hong Kong |url= http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/lexi-can/search.php?q=%CA%5C |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200723062940/http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/lexi-can/search.php?q=%CA%5C |archive-date=23 July 2020}} But the entry for "{{lang|zh|姖}}" does not; it only gives the pronunciation {{lang|zh-Latn|geoi6}} and notes that it is used in place names: {{cite web |title=姖 |work=Humanum.Arts.CUHK.edu.hk |publisher=Chinese University of Hong Kong |url= http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/lexi-can/search.php?q=%CCN |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200722160615/http://humanum.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Lexis/lexi-can/search.php?q=%CCN |archive-date=22 July 2020}}</ref>

As of 2013, there is a recent trend on the Internet for people to write "TA" in Latin script, derived from the pinyin romanization of Chinese, as a gender-neutral pronoun.<ref>{{cite web |last=Mair |first=Victor |author-link=Victor Mair |url= http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=4576 |title=He / she / it / none of the above |work=Language Log |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200630125925/http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=4576 |archive-date=30 June 2020 |date=19 April 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mair |first=Victor |author-link=Victor Mair |date=26 December 2013 |title=A Gender-neutral Pronoun (Re)emerges in China |url= https://slate.com/human-interest/2013/12/mandarin-chinese-a-gender-neutral-pronoun-meaning-he-she-or-it-gains-traction-in-china.html |work=Slate |quote=others – all pronounced tā – are now being replaced by the actual letters 'ta'! |access-date=27 January 2020 |archive-date=30 August 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200830062048/https://slate.com/human-interest/2013/12/mandarin-chinese-a-gender-neutral-pronoun-meaning-he-she-or-it-gains-traction-in-china.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

For second-person pronouns, {{lang|zh|你}} (nǐ) is used for both genders. In addition, the character {{lang|zh|妳}} (nǐ) has sometimes been used as a female second-person pronoun in Taiwan and Hong Kong.{{Citation needed|date=May 2026}}

===Japanese=== {{further|Gender differences in Japanese}}

==== Emergence of gendered third-person forms ==== Pure personal pronouns do not exist in traditional Japanese, as pronouns are generally dropped. In addition, reference to a person is using their name with a suffix such as the gender-neutral {{lang|ja-Latn|san}} added to it. For example:

'She (Ms. Saitō) came' would be {{lang|ja|斎藤さんが来ました}} ({{lang|ja-Latn|Saitō-san ga kimashita}}).

In modern Japanese, {{lang|ja-Latn|kare}} ({{lang|ja|彼}}) is the male and {{lang|ja-Latn|kanojo}} ({{lang|ja|彼女}}) the female third-person pronouns. Historically, {{lang|ja-Latn|kare}} was a word in the demonstrative paradigm (i.e., a system involving demonstrative prefixes, {{lang|ja-Latn|ko-}}, {{lang|ja-Latn|so-}}, {{lang|ja-Latn|a-}} (historical: {{lang|ja-Latn|ka-}}), and {{lang|ja-Latn|do-}}), used to point to an object that is physically far but psychologically near. The feminine counterpart {{lang|ja-Latn|kanojo}}, on the other hand, is a combination of {{lang|ja-Latn|kano}} (adnominal ({{lang|ja-Latn|rentaishi}}) version of {{lang|ja-Latn|ka-}}) and {{lang|ja-Latn|jo}} ('woman'), coined for the translation of its Western equivalents. It was not until the Meiji period that {{lang|ja-Latn|kare}} and {{lang|ja-Latn|kanojo}} were commonly used as the masculine and feminine pronoun in the same way as their Western equivalents. Although their usage as the Western equivalent pronouns tends to be infrequent—because pronouns tend to be dropped—{{lang|ja-Latn|kare-shi}} and {{lang|ja-Latn|kanojo}} are commonly used today to mean 'boyfriend' and 'girlfriend' respectively.<ref>{{cite book |last=Iwasaki |first=Shoichi |title=Japanese |edition=Revised |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=715Wgeae6IcC&dq=japanese+kare+pronoun&pg=PA276 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161201161058/https://books.google.com/books?id=715Wgeae6IcC&pg=PA276&dq=japanese+kare+pronoun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=KPXjU9LzOob8igLyq4H4Cg&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=japanese%20kare%20pronoun&f=false |archive-date=1 December 2016 |location=Philadelphia |publisher=J. Benjamins |date=2002|isbn=90-272-7314-6 }}</ref>

==== Emergence of gendered first-person forms ==== First-person pronouns, {{lang|ja-Latn|ore}}, {{lang|ja-Latn|boku}}, and {{lang|ja-Latn|atashi}}, while not explicitly carrying gender, can strongly imply gender based on inherent levels of politeness or formality as well as hierarchical connotations.<ref name="Okamoto & Shibato Smith 2004">{{cite book |editor-last1=Okamoto |editor-first1=Shigeko |editor-last2=Shibamoto Smith |editor-first2=Janet S. |title=Japanese Language, Gender, and Ideology: Cultural Models and Real People |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=j3J8P7g_O0wC&dq=boku+ore+atashi+gender+connotation&pg=PA265 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150926025428/https://books.google.com/books?id=j3J8P7g_O0wC&pg=PA265&lpg=PA265 |archive-date=26 September 2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2004|isbn=978-0-19-534729-6 }}</ref> While {{lang|ja-Latn|boku}} and {{lang|ja-Latn|ore}} are traditionally characterized as masculine pronouns, {{lang|ja-Latn|atashi}} is characterized as feminine. In addition, of the two masculine-leaning pronouns, {{lang|ja-Latn|boku}} is considered to be less masculine than {{lang|ja-Latn|ore}} and often connote a softer form of masculinity. When wishing to connote a sense of authority and confidence to their interlocutors, male speakers tend to use the first-person form {{lang|ja-Latn|ore}}.<ref name="Okamoto & Shibato Smith 2004" />

==Notes== {{notelist}}

=== Specific languages === *Gender neutrality in English *Gender-neutral pronouns in Esperanto *Gender neutrality in Spanish *Gender neutrality in Portuguese

==References== {{Reflist}}

==Further reading== * {{cite book |title=Gender shifts in the history of English |first=Anne |last=Curzan |date=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-82007-3}} (includes chapters on "she" for ships and generic he)

==External links== {{wiktionary|Appendix:English third-person singular pronouns|Appendix:List of protologisms/third person singular gender neutral pronouns}} *[https://www.bcli.org/publication/gender-free-legal-writing-managing-personal-pronouns-0/?hilite=gender-free Gender-free Legal Writing] *[https://www.jstor.org/stable/455007?seq=1 The Epicene Pronouns: A Chronology of the Word That Failed] (gender-neutral pronoun history) * {{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/31/fashion/pronoun-confusion-sexual-fluidity.html |date=31 January 2016 |newspaper=The New York Times |title=She? Ze? They? What's In a Gender Pronoun |last=Bennett |first=Jessica}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20090222112034/http://www.jinkies.org.uk/footnotes/pronouns.html Footnotes: pronouns] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20031225175200/http://www.japanlink.co.jp/ol/she.html On the Creation of "She " in Japanese] *[http://regender.com/ Regender] can translate webpages to use gender-neutral pronouns. *[https://www.straightdope.com/21341923/is-there-a-gender-neutral-substitute-for-his-or-her Is there a gender-neutral substitute for "his or her"?] *{{cite web |first=Mignon |last=Fogarty |author-link=Mignon Fogarty |title=Yo as Pronoun |work=Grammar Girl: Quick and Dirty tips for Better Writing |url= https://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/yo-as-a-pronoun |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190803152306/https://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/grammar/yo-as-a-pronoun |archive-date=3 August 2019}} *[https://web.archive.org/web/20130530020324/http://homepage.ntlworld.com/jonathan.deboynepollard/FGA/sex-neutral-pronouns.html FGA: "xe", "xem", and "xyr" are sex-neutral pronouns and adjectives]

{{English gender-neutral pronouns|nocat=1}} {{Gender studies}} {{lexical categories|state=collapsed}} {{Language pronouns}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Gender-Neutral Pronoun}} Category:Gender-neutral pronouns Category:Gender-neutral language Category:Grammatical gender Category:Modern English personal pronouns