{{Short description|Indigenous people native to the northern coastal areas of South America}} {{About||the Kalina or Caribs of the Caribbean|Kalinago{{!}}Island Caribs|the resort Galibi in Suriname|Galibi, Suriname}} {{Infobox ethnic group |group = Kalina |image = 250px |image_caption = Kalina schoolchildren from Bigi Poika, Suriname, 2002. |population = 44,741 |region1 = {{flag|Venezuela}} |pop1 = 33,824 (2011) |ref1 = <ref name="socio_pop">{{cite web|url=https://pib.socioambiental.org/en/Povo:Galibi_do_Oiapoque |title=Galibi do Oiapoque|website=Socio Ambiental|access-date=29 March 2021}}</ref> |region2 = {{flag|Suriname}} |pop2 = 3,000 (2002) |ref2 = <ref name="socio_pop"/> |region3 = {{flag|Guyana}} |pop3 = 3,100 (2020) |ref3 = <ref name="joshua">{{cite web|url=https://www.joshuaproject.net/people_groups/11099/GY |title=Carib, Galibi in Guyana|website=Joshua Project|access-date=7 April 2021}}</ref> |region4 = {{flag|French Guiana}} |pop4 = 3,000 (2002) |ref4 = <ref name="socio_pop"/> |region5 = {{flag|Brazil}} |pop5 = 1,817 |ref5 = <ref name="anonby"/> |languages = Carib<br/>Various local languages |religions = Christianity, Native American religions |related = Island Caribs |footnotes = Also known as Kaliʼna, Karina, Kariña, Kaliña, Kalihna, Kalinya. }}
The '''Kalina (Caliña)''', also known as the '''Caribs''' or '''mainland Caribs''' and by several other names, are an Indigenous people native to the northern coastal areas of South America. Today, the Kalina live largely in villages on the rivers and coasts of Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and Brazil. They speak a Cariban language known as Carib.<ref>{{cite book |last= Courtz |first= Henk |date= 2008 |title=A Carib Grammar and Dictionary |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=SY6Exu40z8QC&q=carib+dictionary |publisher= Magoria Books |pages= 1–4|isbn= 978-0978170769 |access-date= May 22, 2014}}</ref> They may be related to the Kalinago of the Caribbean, though their languages are unrelated.
==Name== {{see also|Kalinago#Name|Garifuna#Name}} {{wiktionary|Kari'na|Galibi}} The exonym ''Caribe'' was first recorded by Christopher Columbus.<ref name="Taylor">{{cite book |title=The Black Carib Wars: Freedom, Survival and the Making of the Garifuna |first=Christopher |last=Taylor |series=Caribbean Studies Series |publisher=University Press of Mississippi |year=2012 |jstor=j.ctt24hxr2|isbn=9781617033100 }}</ref>{{rp|vi}} One hypothesis for the origin of ''Carib'' is that it means "brave warrior".<ref name="Taylor"/>{{rp|vi}} However, this is considered a folk etymology, and the name is more likely based on a different (but perhaps related) people's endonym in another Cariban language meaning "person" and deriving from Proto-Cariban ''*karipona'', possibly via a Caribbean Arawakan intermediary such as the Kalinago ("Island Carib" or Iñeri) word ''karifuna'' (which is also the source of the exonym of the Garifuna; compare also Carijona, Karipúna, and similar names), though the source language is uncertain.{{citation needed|date=September 2025}} Its variants, including the English ''Carib'', were then adopted by other European languages.<ref name="Taylor"/>{{rp|vi}} Early Spanish colonizers used the terms ''Arawak'' and ''Caribs'' to distinguish the peoples of the Caribbean, with ''Carib'' reserved for Indigenous groups that they considered hostile and ''Arawak'' for groups that they considered friendly.<ref name="Kim">{{cite journal |first=Julie Chun |last=Kim |title=The Caribs of St. Vincent and Indigenous Resistance during the Age of Revolutions |journal=Early American Studies |volume=11 |issue=1 |year=2013 |pages=117–132 |doi=10.1353/eam.2013.0007 |jstor=23546705|s2cid=144195511 }}</ref>{{rp|121}} The name '''Galibi''', originating as a form of the word ''Caribe'', has also been used since at least the 19th century and is still common in Portuguese and Spanish, possibly making a resurgence in recent times as an autonym used by some Kalina groups and closely related populations, some of whom are of mixed origin and speak a creole language.{{citation needed|date=September 2025}} This is also the source of the place names São José dos Galibi, Santa Maria dos Galibis and the part of Suriname called Galibi. Different Galibi groups are further differentiated based on geography, such as by which river they live near (more information below).
The Kalina call themselves ''Kalina'' or {{wktl|car|karìna|Karìna}} (approximately {{ipa|[kaɽiɁɲa]}} in IPA), spelled variously.<ref name=Courtz1>{{cite book |last= Courtz |first= Henk |date= 2008 |title=A Carib Grammar and Dictionary |url= https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/12578/Thesis.pdf?sequence=1 |publisher= Magoria Books |page= 1|isbn= 978-0978170769 |access-date= May 22, 2014}}</ref> Variants include ''Kaliʼna'', ''Cariña'', ''Kariña'', ''Kalihna'', ''Kalinya''. In their native language ({{wktl|car|karìna auran|Karìna auran}}), it literally means "person". Other native names include '''''Maraworno''''' or '''''Marworno''''', in particular for the Galibi Marworno. Kalina may distinguish themselves as ''Kaliʼna tilewuyu'' ("true Kalina"), partly to differentiate themselves from the mixed Maroon-Kalina inhabitants of Suriname.<ref>{{in lang|nl|fr}} Wim Hoogbergen, ''Origins of the Suriname Kwinti Marrons''; Nieuwe West-Indische Gids, vol. 66 (1 & 2), p. 27-59. 1992. For a similar case of mixed Afro-Caribbean ancestry see the article Garifuna people. Source quoted in Gérard Collomb and Félix Tiouka, [http://www.ibisrouge.fr/livre.php?ref=068 ''Na’na Kali’na - Une histoire des Kali’na en Guyane''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150217001630/http://www.ibisrouge.fr/livre.php?ref=068 |date=2015-02-17 }}; Ibis Rouge Éditions, 2000; {{ISBN|2-84450-068-4}}, henceforth referred to as ''Na'na''.</ref> Use of "Kalina" and related variants has become common practice only recently in publications; many sources continue to use "Caribs" or associated names.<ref name=Courtz1/>
==History== thumb|left|300px|Map indicating the current geographic distribution of the Kaliʼna population
Lacking a written form of language before the arrival of Europeans, Kaliʼna history was passed down orally from one generation to the next through tales of myth and legend.
For a long time, the few Europeans studying the history of the Amerindian people of this area did not distinguish between the various Caribbean tribes. Once the period of exploration was over, interest in the study of these people diminished greatly and did not re-emerge until the end of the 20th century, when a few French expatriates, notably Gérard Collomb, became interested in the Kaliʼna, and the Kaliʼna themselves began to relate their history, in particular Félix Tiouka, president of the Association of Amerindians of French Guiana (AAGF), and his son Alexis.
For the reasons given, historical information regarding the Kaliʼna is rare and incomplete.
===Pre-Columbian era=== thumb|200px|Drawing of a Kaliʼna ritual.
Making up for lack of written records, archaeologists have to date uncovered 273 Amerindian archeological sites on only 310 km<sup>2</sup> of the land recovered from the Sinnamary River by the Petit-Saut Dam. Some date back as far as two thousand years, establishing the antiquity of the Amerindian presence in this area.<ref>{{in lang|fr}} Stéphane Vacher, Sylvie Jérémie, Jérôme Briand; ''Amérindiens du Sinnamary (Guyane), Archéologie en forêt équatoriale''; Documents d’Archéologie française, Éditions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, Paris, 1998.</ref><sup>,</sup><ref>''Na'na'', p. 35.</ref>
The weak historical clues available indicate that before 1492, the Kaliʼna inhabited the coast (from the mouth of the Amazon River to that of the Orinoco), dividing their territory with the Arawak, against whom they fought during their expansion toward the east and the Amazon River.<ref>''Na’na'', p. 45.</ref><sup>,</sup><ref>''Na’na'', p. 41.</ref>
They were prolific travelers even though they weren't nomads. They often traveled by land and by sea as far as the area around the Orinoco river to visit family, trade, and marry.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Na'na Kaliʼna : une histoire des Kaliʼna en Guyane|last=Collomb, Gérard.|date=2000|publisher=Ibis rouge|isbn=2844500684|oclc=937751323}}</ref> They often went to the area surrounding the Essequibo river (now in Guyana) to collect pebbles of red porphyry (''takuwa''), which Kaliʼna women prized for polishing their pottery.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Nouvelle relation de la France equinoxiale, contenant la description des cotes de la Guiane.|last=Barrere, Pierre|date=1743|publisher=Piget etc|oclc=880789716}}</ref> The term ''takuwa'' also refers to jade, which was often traded in the Americas in general.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Gifts of the Amazons: "green stones", pendants and beads as items of ceremonial exchange in Amazonia and the Caribbean|last=Boomert|first=Arie|publisher=Antropologica|year=1987|location=Caracas}}</ref>
===Colonization===
====The ''Palanakiłi'' arrive==== Kaliʼna weapons and tools.|thumb|200px
In their first contact with Europeans, the Kaliʼna thought they were dealing with the spirits of the sea, Palanakiłi, a name they use to this day when referring to whites.<ref>''Na’na'', p. 31.</ref><ref>There is also a river version of these spirits, ''Tunakiłi'', which appeared in the form of a young woman who overturned canoes and drowned people.</ref>
One of the first consequences of the arrival of Europeans, as in the case of many other Native American peoples, was a decrease in population due to violence inflicted by European soldiers genocide, and diseases brought over by the Europeans. The Kaliʼna quickly succumbed in large numbers, because their immune systems were not adapted to the viruses and bacteria of the Old World.
{{cquote|At that time, the Kaliʼna knew only stone axes and hardwood machetes. These men brought with them axes and machetes of iron, they showed that they cut much better ... This time, the Palanakiłi had brought good things.<ref>{{in lang|fr}} Oral history of the Kali’na, ''Na’na'', p. 32.</ref>}}
====Amerindians in Paris==== thumb|left|200px|Kaliʼna man in Paris in 1892 holding a ''putu'', or wooden club.
The second half of the nineteenth century saw the heyday of World's Fairs, in which European countries were displaying their wealth with colonial "villages" representing the colonized cultures. Although the World's Fairs of Paris did not have "Amerindian villages", public curiosity was such that Kaliʼna were sent to the capital twice - once in 1882 and again in 1892 - to be exhibited as oddities at the Jardin d'Acclimatation.<ref name="Pau:wa">{{in lang|fr}} Gérard Collomb, Félix Tiouka et M.P. Jean-Louis, ''Pau:wa Itiosan:bola : Des Galibi à Paris en 1892'', décembre 1991.</ref><sup>,</sup><ref>{{in lang|fr}} Il y eut aussi des Kali’na et des Arawak du centre du Suriname dans l’Exposition universelle d’Amsterdam en 1883, ainsi que des Noirs Marrons Saramaca et des Créoles.</ref>
=====1882===== thumb|250px|Portrait of the Kaliʼna exhibited at the Jardin d’Acclimatation in Paris in 1892.
Fifteen Kali’na, all members of one family living in Sinnamary and Iracoubo, were sent to ''Pau:wa'' ("The Land of the Whites") in July 1882.<ref name="Pau:wa"/> Almost nothing is known about them, except their names<ref>{{in lang|fr}} L. Manouvrier, ''Sur les Galibis du Jardin d’acclimatation'', Bulletin de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris, 1882, p. 602-640. Cité dans ''Pau:wa''.</ref> and that they were housed in huts on the lawn of the Jardin d'Acclimatation. The trip lasted four months, including three in Paris and a month's journey by boat (round trip). They were accompanied by a Creole who acted as intermediary and, presumably, interpreter.<ref>{{in lang|fr}} J. Noutous, ''Les Galibis du Jardin d’Acclimatation'', ''La vie moderne'', quotidien, Paris, 12 août 1882. Cité dans ''Pau:wa''.</ref> There are several portraits of them, taken by photographer Pierre Petit.<ref>{{in lang|fr}} Faisant partie de la Collection de la Société de Géographie de Paris, elles peuvent être consultées à la Bibliothèque nationale de France, Département Cartes et Plans.</ref>
==The Kaliʼna today== {{unreferenced section|date=December 2025}} The part of South America where the Kaliʼna live is very sparsely populated. However, the people of this ethnic group are such an extreme minority in all of the countries in which they are well established that locally they are a majority only in certain very secluded areas. Their current geographic distribution covers only a small fraction of their Pre-Columbian territory.
=== Brazil === {{anchor|Marworno}} The Kaliʼnas in Brazil are localized in two groups.<ref name="anonby">{{cite journal|last1=Anonby |first1=Stan|year=2007|title=A report on the creoles of Amapá |journal=Journal of Language Survey Reports|url=https://www.sil.org/resources/archives/9041|pages=7–9 }}</ref> The Galibi do Oiapoque can only be found in São José dos Galibi, a village founded in 1950 on the right bank of the Oyapock River by several families who came from the region of the Mana River.<ref name="socio">{{in lang|pt}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20020209111249/http://www.socioambiental.org/website/epi/g-oiapoque/galibi.htm ''Galibi do Oiapoque'']</ref> The Galibi Marworno or Uaçá Galibi mainly live along the Uaçá River further land inwards. The main settlement is Kumarumã. The Galibi Marworno were originally from French Guiana, but mixed with the Aruã and Marworno Amerindians. The term Galibi Marworno is a recent self-designation of the group.<ref name="anonby"/>
=== French Guiana === {{unreferenced section|date=December 2025}} Still present in significant numbers in their original territory, the region between the Maroni and the Mana rivers (in particular, the communities of Awala-Yalimapo, the only one where they are a majority, Saint-Laurent-du-Maroni, Mana and Iracoubo), and the Amerindian village of Kourou as well as, in fewer numbers, the island of Cayenne.
=== Suriname === thumb|250px|right|Kaliʼna girls in Suriname in the village of Bigi Poika. Kaliʼna are a strong presence on the left bank of the Maroni River and on the banks of the Coppename River. A large proportion of the population lives in the Para District often in villages shared with the Lokono people. The main settlements are Bernharddorp, Wit-Santi, Galibi, Powakka and Bigi Ston.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://vids.sr/about/dorpsbesturen/|title=Dorpen en Dorpsbesturen|website=Vereniging van Inheemse Dorpen en Dorpsbesturen|access-date=29 March 2021|language=nl|archive-date=22 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200622170430/https://vids.sr/about/dorpsbesturen/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Kaliʼna lived in the same area as the colonizers, and have a peace treaty with Suriname since 1686.<ref>{{cite thesis|url=https://repository.ubn.ru.nl/handle/2066/145783|title=Bosneger en overheid in Suriname|last1=Scholtens| first1=Ben|language=nl| date=1994|publisher=Afdeling Cultuurstudies/Minov|website=Radboud University Nijmegen |location=Paramaribo| isbn=9991410155|pages=19–22}}</ref> A Kaliʼna member of the National Assembly, Sylvia Kajoeramari,<ref name=":02">Dagblad De West, [https://fathh.com/suriname/nieuws/14830/ramses-kajoeramari-niet-meer-op-lijst-ndp.html Ramses Kajoeramari niet meer op lijst ndp]{{Dead link|date=March 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, 19 maart 2015</ref> successfully led efforts to recognize the International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples as a public holiday in Suriname.<ref>Waterkant, [https://www.waterkant.net/suriname/2006/07/27/9-augustus-wordt-nationale-dag-inheemsen-suriname/ 9 augustus wordt nationale dag Inheemsen Suriname], 27 juli 2006</ref>
=== Guyana === {{see also|History of Guyana}}In Guyana, Kaliʼna are stereotyped as the most "proud, aggressive, and warlike" of the Amerindian groups. Kalina were paid by plantation owners to capture Indigenous slaves as well as recapture African slaves who escaped.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Edwards|first1=W.|last2=Gibson|first2=K.|date=1979|title=An Ethnohistory of Amerindians in Guyana|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/481091|journal=Ethnohistory|volume=26|issue=2|pages=168|doi=10.2307/481091|jstor=481091|issn=0014-1801|url-access=subscription}}</ref> One of the smaller Indigenous groups in Guyana, Kaliʼna are settled on the Barama and Pomeroon Rivers, and in the Northwest of the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://moipa.gov.gy/amerindian-nations/|title=Indigenous Nations|website=Ministry of Indigenous Peoples’ Affairs|access-date=18 August 2020}}{{Dead link|date=March 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
Malaria has had a detrimental impact on the population of Kalina in Guyana, and is exacerbated by hinterland mining that creates still-water pools that serve as vectors for the disease. Many Kalina are also employed in the mining sector.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Forte|first=Janette|title=The Case of "The Barama River Caribs of Guyana Restudied"|date=1990|editor-last=Adams|editor-first=Kathleen|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27864928|journal=Social and Economic Studies|volume=39|issue=1|pages=203–217|jstor=27864928|issn=0037-7651}}</ref>
=== Venezuela === {{unreferenced section|date=December 2025}} The country where their numbers are the greatest, Kaliʼna can be found in two distinct zones: in the Llanos of the Orinoco river valley and on the Cuyuni River valley part of which is in Guyana. See also Chimire, Venezuela.
== Culture == thumb|200px|Kaliʼna village.Kasiri, a cassava-derived beer, is an important part of traditional Kalina celebrations.<ref name=":0" />
For Kalina of the Guianas, the death of family members initiates a period of mourning that can last for a year or more, and is concluded with a celebration known as ''Epekotono''. Preparations are made by a respected member of the village, and can take several months to assemble. Collecting money is a more contemporary addition to the responsibilities. ''Epekotono'' is a public event that draws attendance from neighboring villages, including body-painting, music, dancing, and symbolic burning of the deceased's belongings to mark their spirit leaving. At the conclusion, mourning ends and normal social behaviors resume, along with the option for widows to remarry. While non-Kalina can attend as guests, the event serves to reinforce the Kalina identity, marked by explicit use of the Kalina language. Nowadays, the ''epekotono'' is the only occasion for such gatherings among the Kalina.<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Collomb |first1=Gérard |title=Rituel, performance, politique : un deuil kaliʼna |journal=Ethnologie française |date=2007 |volume=37 |pages=89–94 |doi=10.3917/ethn.070.0089 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
===Music=== {{unreferenced section|date=December 2025}} They use mostly percussion instruments. Their ''sanpula'' (or ''sambula'') is a large drum with two skins stretched over either end of the shell by hoops pulled together with cord and is played with a mallet. They also have two kinds of maracas, called a ''kalawasi'' (or ''kalawashi'') and a ''malaka''.
Their flute, the ''kuwama'', is still made but is more and more often replaced by the European flute. There is also a terra cotta horn called a ''kuti''.
===Language=== thumb|200px|Kaliʼna boy in a dugout in Paris in 1892.
{{Main|Kaliʼna language}}
They speak Kaliʼna, belonging to the family of Cariban languages, which today is still spoken by above 10,000 people in the coastal strip that stretches from Venezuela (5,000 speakers) to Brazil (100) passing through Guyana (475), Suriname (2,500) and French Guiana (3,000 people).
Thanks to the relatively significant number of speakers, it is one of the most likely Amazonian tongues to survive. Some experiments with written transcription were undertaken in French Guiana.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mounier|first=Nichole|date=September 5, 1997|title=Une aventure éditoriale en Guyane française : créer, publier, diffuser des livres pour enfants. 1988-1997.|url=https://archive.ifla.org/IV/ifla63/63moun.htm|access-date=2021-03-17|website=archive.ifla.org}}</ref> Linguistic standardization of a Kaliʼna writing system however is plagued by the diversity of the many different forms of the written language currently in use, which have been influenced by the languages of the colonists of the countries in which the Kaliʼna live, Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, French and English. Thus, even as far as their ethnonym is concerned, Kaliʼna, there are no fewer than nine different writing systems. Kaliʼna therefore remains a primarily oral language.
==Notable people== * Sylvia Kajoeramari, Surinamese politician * Clara Vidal (born 1983), Venezuelan politician
==See also== *Adaheli, the Sun in the mythology of the Orinoco region *Classification of Indigenous peoples of the Americas
==Notes== {{Reflist|30em}}
==References== *{{in lang|fr}} Gérard Collomb and Félix Tiouka; [http://www.ibisrouge.fr/livre.php?ref=068 ''Na’na Kali’na - Une histoire des Kali’na en Guyane''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150217001630/http://www.ibisrouge.fr/livre.php?ref=068 |date=2015-02-17 }}; Ibis Rouge Éditions, 2000; <small>{{ISBN|978-2-84450-068-7}}</small> *{{in lang|fr}} Gérard Collomb, Félix Tiouka and M.P. Jean-Louis; ''Pau:wa Itiosan:bola : Des Galibi à Paris en 1892''; Awala-Yalimapo, December 1991 *{{in lang|fr}} Gérard Collomb; ''Kaliña. Des Amérindiens à Paris. Photographies du prince Roland Bonaparte.''; Éditions Créaphis, Paris, 1992. *{{in lang|fr}} Jean Hurault; ''Français et indiens en Guyane. 1604-1972''; Paris, 1972; Guyane Presse Diffusion, Cayenne, 1989. *{{in lang|fr}} Jil Silberstein; ''Kali’na : Une famille indienne de Guyane française''; Albin Michel, 2002; <small>{{ISBN|2-226-13300-3}}</small> *{{in lang|fr}} Serge Mam Lam Fouck; [http://www.ibisrouge.fr/livre.php?ref=163 ''Histoire générale de la Guyane française''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081115083511/http://ibisrouge.fr/livre.php?ref=163 |date=2008-11-15 }}, Cayenne, Ibis Rouge Éditions, 1996; <small>{{ISBN|978-2-84450-163-9}}</small> *{{in lang|fr}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20071007152043/http://www.laios.msh-paris.fr/collomb.html Other works of Gérard Collomb], researcher at CNRS and specialist in Kaliʼna culture.
==Further reading== * Magaña, Edmundo et Jara, Fabiola. "The Carib sky". In: ''Journal de la Société des Américanistes''. Tome 68, 1982. pp. 105–132. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/jsa.1982.2212] www.persee.fr/doc/jsa_0037-9174_1982_num_68_1_2212
{{Indigenous peoples of Brazil}} {{Ethnic groups in Guyana}} {{Ethnic groups in Suriname}} {{Ethnic groups in Venezuela}}
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Category:Indigenous peoples in Brazil Category:Indigenous peoples in Suriname Category:Indigenous peoples in French Guiana Category:Indigenous peoples in Venezuela Category:Indigenous peoples of the Guianas Category:Indigenous peoples in Guyana Category:Kalina