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{{Short description|Personification of the Earth in Greek mythology}} {{About|the primordial Greek goddess|the theory of Earth as an organism|Gaia hypothesis|other uses}} {{pp-move}} {{primary sources|date=June 2025}}

{{Infobox deity | type = Greek | name = Gaia | deity_of = Personification of the Earth | image = Pergamonmuseum - Antikensammlung - Pergamonaltar 13 detail.jpg | caption = Gaia pleading for her sons the Gigantes (Giants), detail of the Gigantomachy frieze, Pergamon Altar, Pergamon museum, Berlin | other_names = Ge<br />Gaea<br />Chthon | script_name = Greek | script = {{lang|grc|Γαῖα}}, {{lang|grc|Γῆ}} | consort = Uranus | parents = None (Hesiod)<ref>Hesiod, ''Theogony'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D104 116–122] states that Gaia, Tartarus and Eros come after Chaos, but this does not necessarily mean they are the offspring of Chaos. Gantz, pp. [https://www.academia.edu/29883249/GANTZ_Timothy_Early_Greek_myth_a_guide_to_literary_and_artistic_sources_Johns_Hopkins_University_Press_1993_ 4–5] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230924025153/https://www.academia.edu/29883249/GANTZ_Timothy_Early_Greek_myth_a_guide_to_literary_and_artistic_sources_Johns_Hopkins_University_Press_1993_ |date=2023-09-24 }} writes that, "[w]ith regard to all three of these figures—Gaia, Tartaros, and Eros—we should note that Hesiod does not say they arose ''from'' (as opposed to ''after'') Chaos, although this is often assumed". Hard 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC&pg=PA23 p. 23] says that "[a]lthough it is quite often assumed that all three are born out of Chaos as her offspring, this is not stated by Hesiod nor indeed implied, governed by the same verb ''geneto'' ('came to be'). Gaia, Tartaros and Eros are best regarded as being primal realities like Chaos that came into existence independently of her". Similarly, Caldwell, pp. 3, [https://archive.org/details/hesiodstheogony00hesi/page/34/mode/2up?view=theater 35] says that the ''Theogony'' "begins with the spontaneous appearance of Chaos, Gaia, Tartaros, and Eros (116–122). By their emergence from nothing, without sources or parents, these four are separated from everything that follows."</ref>  | offspring = Uranus, Pontus, the Ourea, the Hecatonchires, the Cyclopes, the Titans, the Gigantes, Nereus, Thaumus, Phorcys, Ceto, Eurybia, Tritopatores, Typhon | Roman_equivalent = Terra | symbol = Fruit }}

In Greek mythology, '''Gaia''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|eɪ|.|ə|,_|ˈ|ɡ|aɪ|.|ə}};<ref name=longman>{{cite book|last=Wells|first=John|author-link=John C. Wells|title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary|publisher=Pearson Longman|edition=3rd|date=3 April 2008|isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0}}</ref> {{langx|grc|{{wikt-lang|grc|Γαῖα}}|{{grc-transl|Γαῖα}}}}, a poetic form of {{wikt-lang|grc|Γῆ}} (''{{grc-transl|Γῆ}}''), meaning 'land' or 'earth'),<ref name="LSJ.gaia">{{LSJ|gh{{=}}|γῆ}}, {{LSJ|ga{{=}}2|γᾶ}}, {{LSJ|gai{{=}}a|γαῖα|ref}}.</ref> also spelled '''Gaea''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|dʒ|iː|.|ə}}),<ref name=longman/> is the personification of Earth.<ref>Smith, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DG%3Aentry+group%3D1%3Aentry%3Dgaea-bio-1 "Gaea"].</ref> She is the mother of Uranus (Sky), with whom she conceived the Titans (themselves parents of many of the Olympian gods), the Cyclopes, and the Giants, as well as of Pontus (Sea), from whose union she bore the primordial sea gods. Her equivalent in the Roman pantheon was Terra.<ref name=Lar>''Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia'', The Book People, Haydock, 1995, p. 215.</ref>

==Etymology== The Greek name {{Lang|grc|Γαῖα}} (''Gaia'' {{IPA|grc|ɡâi̯.a|lang|link=yes}} or {{IPA|el|ɡâj.ja|}}) is a mostly epic, collateral form of Attic {{math|Γῆ}} (''Gē'' {{IPA|el|ɡɛ̂ː|}}), and Doric {{math|Γᾶ}} (''Ga'' {{IPA|el|ɡâː|}}),<ref name="LSJ.gaia"/> perhaps identical to {{math|Δᾶ}} (''Da'' {{IPA|el|dâː|}}),<ref>{{math|{{LSJ|da{{=}}2|δᾶ|shortref}}.}}</ref> both meaning "Earth". Some scholars believe that the word is of uncertain origin.<ref>{{OEtymD|gaia}}</ref> Beekes suggested a probable Pre-Greek origin.<ref name=Beekes>Robert S. P. Beekes, ''Etymological Dictionary of Greek'', Brill, 2009, pp. 269–270 (''s.v.'' "γῆ").</ref> M.L. West derives the name from the Indo-European form ''*dʰéǵʰōm'' (earth). Greek: ''gaia'' (<*gm-ya), ''chamai'' (χαμαί) on the earth, Hittite: ''tekan'', Tocharian: ''tkam'', Phrygian ''zemelo'', Proto-Slavonic:''*zem-yã'', Avestan: ''za'' (locative: ''zemi''), Vedic: ''ksam'', {{Langx|la|hum-us}}, {{langx|sq|dhé}}.<ref>M.L.West (2007). ''Indoeuropean poetry and myth'', pp.173-174 .Oxford University Press, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXrJA_5LKlYC&pg=PA174 p.174]</ref>

In Mycenean Greek ''Ma-ka'' (probably transliterated as ''Ma-ga'', "Mother Gaia") also contains the root ''ga-''.<ref name=Beekes/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.palaeolexicon.com/default.aspx?static=12&wid=346416 |title=Paleolexicon |access-date=21 April 2012}}</ref>

==Description== The Greeks invoked Gaia in their oaths, and she should be aware if one broke his oath. In the Homeric poems she appears usually in forms of oath. In the Iliad, the sacrifice of a black lamb is offered to Gaia and she is invoked in the formula of an oath.<ref>[Sacrifices to the gods as witnesses of an oath:] Bring two lambs : let one be white and the other black for Gaia (Earth) and Helios (Sun). [N.B. Chthonic Gaia receives a black animal, celestial Helios a white one.]:[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hom.+Il.+3.104&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134 Iliad 3.104]</ref><ref name=Hard32>Hard: "The Rootledge handbook of Greek mythology", p.32 [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC&pg=PA32 Hard p.32]</ref> Homer considers her a physical distinct existence not clearly conceived in anthropomorphic form. Gaia does not seem to have any personal activity. In the Iliad, Alpheia beats with her hands the bountiful ("Polyphorbos" = epithet for Gaia) earth, but she calls Hades and Persephone to avenge her against her son.<ref>Iliad 9.568: [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56574/page/5/mode/2up Farnell, Cults III, p.5-6].</ref> In the poems of Hesiod, she is personified. Gaia has a significant role in the evolution of the world.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56574/page/1/mode/5up Farnell, Cults III, p.5-6].</ref> She is the nurse of Zeus, and she has the epithet "Kourotrophos". Kourotrophos was the name of an old goddess who was subordinate to Ge. Dieterich believed that ''Kourotrophos'' and Potnia theron construct precisely the mother goddess. Ge is also personified in the myths of Erichthonius and Pluto.<ref>Nilsson, ''Geschichte'', Vol I, p. 456-457</ref> Erichthonius is early mentioned in the Catalogue of ships. He is born by the Homeric earth which produces fruits and cereals (zeidoros arura). The name of Erichthonius includes chthon which is not the underground kingdom of the dead, but the Homeric earth.<ref>Nilsson,''Geschichte'', Vol. I: 317-318</ref><ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D2%3Acard%3D546 Iliad 2.548]</ref><ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0133%3Abook%3D2%3Acard%3D546 Iliad 2.548]</ref>

In the earliest times, the earth was 'pictured ... as a plane or disk of indefinite expanse; but the true shape of the earth was discovered quite early, certainly by the late fifth century BC'.<ref name=Hard32/> The earth-goddess can be identified with the nymph "Plataia" (broad one) in Plataea of Boeotia as the spouse of Zeus.<ref name=West175>M.L.West (2007). ''Indoeuropean poetry and myth'', pp.174,175,.Oxford University Press [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXrJA_5LKlYC&pg=PA174 p.174]</ref> Homer uses the form "eureia chthon" (broad earth). Hesiod speaks of the broad-breasted earth, ("eurysternos") the sure seat of all immortals.<ref name=West178>M.L.West (2007). ''Indoeuropean poetry and myth'', pp.178,179,.Oxford University Press, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXrJA_5LKlYC&pg=PA178 p.178]</ref> The same epithet appears in her cults at Delphi and Aegae in Achaea. In the Homeric hymn her conception is more clear and detailed. She is the Mother of the Gods, the goddess that brings forth life and blesses men with children. She is called "pammе̄tōr", the all-mother who nourishes everything. This conception is closer to the popular belief.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56574/page/1/mode/2up Farnell, Cults III, p.1-4].</ref><ref name=Hard32/> In the hymn to Apollo she is called "pheresvios" (life giving)<ref>Homeric Hymn to Apollo 3.341 : [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:abo:tlg,0013,003:341&lang=original H.Hymn 3.341]</ref> The "mother of the gods" is a form of Gaia. According to Pausanias an epithet of Ge in Athens is "the Great goddess", which is an appellation of the "Mother of the gods". She is related to the mystery cult of Phlya which seems to be original. At Athens Gaia had the cult-title Themis. In the Ashmolean Museum, a vase shows Pandora (all-giving) rising from the earth and according to some scholars she may be identified with Gaia. "Anesidora" (sending up gifts) on a vase in the British Museum is an epithet of Gaia.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56574/page/25/mode/2up Farnell Cults III, 25-26]</ref><ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:abo:tlg,0019,006:971&lang=original Birds 971]</ref>

Traditionally "gaia" means "earth" and chthon, "under or "beneath the earth" however ''chthon'' has occasionally the same meaning with the earth. Pherecydes uses the name ''Chthonie'' for the primeval goddess who later became Ge and Musaeus the same name for the oracular goddess of Delphi.<ref name=West175/> Homer uses for chthon the epithets "euryodeia" (broad-seated) and "polyvoteira" (all-nourishing) which can also be used for the earth.<ref name=West178/> In some plays of Aeschylus "chthon" is the earth-goddess Gaia.<ref name=West175/><ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:abo:tlg,0085,003:207&lang=original Promitheus 207]</ref><ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:abo:tlg,0085,007:6&lang=original Eumenides 6]</ref>

The tragic poets usually describe Gaia as mother of all, all-nourishing and all-productive who must be honoured. In Aeschylus' Prometheus Unbound, Gaia is the mother of all ("pammetor") and in a fragment of Euripides chthon has the same epithet.<ref>Aesch. Prometheus V88, Euripides Antiope fr.195: Nilsson, ''Geschichte'', Vol I, 460</ref> In Persai of Aeschylus, offerings are recommended to Ge and the spirit of the departed. She is called "pamphoros", (all bearing).<ref name=West178/><ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:abo:tlg,0085,002:618&lang=original Persai 618]</ref> In Choephori, Electra in her prayer describes Gaia as an avenger of wrong.<ref name=Farnell78>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56574/page/7/mode/2up Farnell, Cults III, p.7-8]</ref> Sophocles in Philoctetes calls Gaia "pamvōtis" (all nourishing).<ref name=West178/><ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:abo:tlg,0011,006:391&lang=original Philoktetes 391]</ref> A famous fragment of ''Danaides'' describes the sacred marriage between heaven and earth. Ouranos and Gaia are cosmic powers and natural processes.<ref>Aesch. Danaid. Fr.44 :Nilsson 450</ref> In Chrysippus of Euripides, Gaia is the mother of all in a philosophical poetic thought. "Gaia receives the drops of rain bearing the mortals and bearing food and beasts, therefore she is rightly called 'mother of all'. Aether of Zeus bears men and gods. Everything which is born by the earth returns to the earth, and everything born from aether returns to the sky. Nothing is destroyed, but it is transformed to another form."<ref>Eurip.Chrysip. fr 839: Nilsson, Vol I p.460</ref><ref name=Farnell78/> An inscription on a gravestone in Potidaia mentions: "Aether receives the souls and 'chthon' receives the bodies". According to Plutarch: "The name of Ge is beloved to every Greek and she is traditionally honoured like any other god".<ref name=Farnell78/>

==Mythology== ===Hesiod=== ====Birth of Gaia, Uranus, and the Titans====

Hesiod's ''Theogony'' tells how, after Chaos, "wide-bosomed" Gaia (Earth) arose to be the everlasting seat of the immortals who possess Olympus above.<ref>Hesiod, ''Theogony'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+116&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130:chapter=116&highlight=Earth 116–118]; Hard 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC&pg=PA23 p. 23].</ref> And after Gaia came "dim Tartarus in the depth of the wide-pathed Earth", and next Eros the god of love.<ref>Hesiod, ''Theogony'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+119&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130chapter=119&highlight=Earth 119–120]; Hard 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC&pg=PA23 p. 23].</ref> Hesiod goes on to say that Gaia brought forth her equal Uranus (Heaven, Sky) to "cover her on every side".<ref>Hesiod, ''Theogony'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+126&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130:chapter=126&highlight=Earth 126–128].</ref> Gaia also bore the Ourea (Mountains), and Pontus (Sea), "without sweet union of love" (i.e., with no father).<ref>Hesiod, ''Theogony,'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+129&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130:chapter=129&highlight=Earth 129–132]: Gantz, p. 10; Hard 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC&pg=PA31 p. 31]; Fowler, [https://books.google.com/books?id=scd8AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 p. 5]; Caldwell, p. 6; Grimal, s.v. Gaia; Tripp, s.v. Gaea.</ref>

Afterward, with Uranus, her son, she gave birth to the Titans, as Hesiod tells it:<blockquote>She lay with Heaven and bore deep-swirling Oceanus, Coeus and Crius and Hyperion and Iapetus, Theia and Rhea, Themis, and Mnemosyne and gold-crowned Phoebe and lovely Tethys. After them was born Cronos (Cronus) the wily, youngest, and most terrible of her children, and he hated his lusty sire.<ref>Hesiod, ''Theogony'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+119&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130:chapter=119&highlight=Earth 132–138]; cf. Apollodorus, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Apollod.+1.1.3&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022:book=1:chapter=1&highlight=Earth 1.1.3].</ref></blockquote>

====Other offspring and the castration of Uranus==== According to Hesiod, Gaia conceived further offspring with her son, Uranus, first the giant one-eyed Cyclopes: Brontes ("Thunder"), Steropes ("Lightning"), and Arges ("Bright");<ref>Hesiod, ''Theogony'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+139&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130:chapter=139&highlight=Earth 139–146]; cf. Apollodorus, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Apollod.+1.1.2&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022:book=1:chapter=1&highlight=Earth 1.1.2].</ref> then the Hecatonchires: Cottus, Briareos, and Gyges, each with a hundred arms and fifty heads.<ref>Hesiod, ''Theogony'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+147&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130:chapter=147&highlight=Earth 147–153]; cf. Apollodorus, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Apollod.+1.1.1&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022:book=1:chapter=1&highlight=Earth 1.1.1].</ref> As each of the Cyclopes and Hecatonchires were born, Uranus hid them in a secret place within Gaia, causing her great pain. So Gaia devised a plan. She created a grey flint (or adamantine) sickle. And Cronus used the sickle to castrate his father Uranus as he approached his mother, Gaia, to have sex with her. From Uranus' spilled blood, Gaia produced the Erinyes, the Giants, and the Meliae (ash-tree nymphs). From the testicles of Uranus in the sea came forth Aphrodite.<ref>Hesiod, ''Theogony'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+154&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130:chapter=154&highlight=Earth 154–200].</ref>

By her son, Pontus, Gaia bore the sea-deities Nereus, Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto, and Eurybia.<ref>Hesiod, ''Theogony'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+233&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130:chapter=233&highlight=Earth 233–239]; Gantz, p. 16; Grimal, s.v. Gaia; Smith, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0104:entry=gaea-bio-1&highlight=gaea s.v. Gaea]; Apollodorus, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D2%3Asection%3D6 1.2.6]. For a genealogical table of the descendants of Gaia and Pontus, see Gantz, p. 805.</ref>

====Titanomachy==== Because Cronus had learned from Gaia and Uranus that he was destined to be overthrown by one of his children, he swallowed each of the children born to him by his Titan older sister, Rhea. But when Rhea was pregnant with her youngest child, Zeus, she sought help from Gaia and Uranus. When Zeus was born, Rhea gave Cronus a stone she received from Gaia wrapped in swaddling-clothes in his place, which Cronus swallowed, and Gaia took Zeus into her care.<ref>Hesiod, ''Theogony'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+453&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130:chapter=453&highlight=Earth 453–491]; Hard 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC&pg=PA68 p. 68].</ref>

With the help of Gaia's advice,<ref>Hesiod, ''Theogony'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+626&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130:chapter=626&highlight=Earth 626]; ''Oxford Classical Dictionary'', s.v. Gaia; Hard 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC&pg=PA68 p. 68].</ref> Zeus defeated the Titans. But afterwards, Gaia, in union with Tartarus, bore the youngest of her sons Typhon, who would be the last challenge to the authority of Zeus.<ref>Hesiod, ''Theogony'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+820&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130:chapter=820&highlight=Earth 820–880]; Gantz, p. 48; ''Brill's New Pauly'', s.v. Typhoeus; ''Oxford Classical Dictionary'', s.v. Gaia. Hard 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC&pg=PA84 p. 84]: "Hesiod does not explain why Gaia, who was otherwise well-disposed toward Zeus, should have wished to give birth to this threatening monster, nor does he state that she did so with hostile intent."</ref>

===Other sources=== According to the Roman mythographer Hyginus, Terra (Earth, the Roman equivalent of Gaia), Caelus (Sky, the Roman equivalent of Uranus) and Mare (Sea) are the children of Aether and Dies (Day, the Roman equivalent of Hemera).<ref name=":2">Hyginus, ''Fabulae'' Theogony 2 (Smith and Trzaskoma, [https://books.google.com/books?id=vczTNMWLGdoC&pg=PA95 p. 95]; [https://latin.packhum.org/loc/1263/1/0#0 Latin text]).</ref> With Aether, Terra produces Dolor (Pain), Dolus (Deception), Ira (Anger), Luctus (Mourning), Mendacium (Lying), Iusiurandum (Oath), Vltio (Vengeance), Intemperantia (Self-indulgence), Altercatio (Quarreling), Oblivio (Forgetfulness), Socordia (Sloth), Timor (Fear), Superbia (Arrogance), Incestum (Incest), Pugna (Fighting), Oceanus (Ocean), Themis, Tartarus, Pontus, the Titans, Briareus, Gyges, Steropes, Atlas, Hyperion, Polus, Saturn, Ops, Moneta, Dione, and the Furies (Alecto, Megaera, and Tisiphone).<ref name="p. 95">Hyginus, ''Fabulae'' Theogony 3 (Smith and Trzaskoma, [https://books.google.com/books?id=vczTNMWLGdoC&pg=PA95 p. 95]; [https://latin.packhum.org/loc/1263/1/0#0 Latin text]).</ref> By Tartarus, Terra then becomes the mother of the Giants, which are listed as Enceladus, Coeus, Ophion, Astraeus, Pelorus, Pallas, Emphytus, Rhoecus, Ienios, Agrius, Palaemon, Ephialtes, Eurytus, Theomises, Theodamas, Otos, Typhon, Polybotes, Menephiarus, Abseus, Colophomus, and Iapetus.<ref>Hyginus, ''Fabulae'' Theogony 4 (Smith and Trzaskoma, [https://books.google.com/books?id=vczTNMWLGdoC&pg=PA95 p. 95]; [https://latin.packhum.org/loc/1263/1/0#0 Latin text]). In addition to these figures, there are two Giants listed whose names are unintelligible.</ref> According to the mythographer Apollodorus, however, Gaia and Tartarus were the parents of Echidna.<ref>Apollodorus, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Apollod.+2.1.2&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022:book=2:chapter=1&highlight=Earth 2.1.2]; Smith, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DE%3Aentry+group%3D1%3Aentry%3Dechidna-bio-1 s.v. Echidna].</ref>

Diodorus Siculus recounts a legend that Gaia was a human woman named ''Titaea'', one of the wives of Uranus, who in this telling was also originally a human and the first king of Atlantis. According to this story, Titaea was defied after her death and her name changed to "Gê."<ref>Diodorus Siculus, ''Bibliotheca historica'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/3D*.html#57.1 3.57.1-8]</ref>

The Apples of the Hesperides that Heracles was tasked by Eurystheus to take were a wedding gift by Gaia to Zeus and Hera.<ref>Apollodorus, ''Library'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D2%3Achapter%3D5%3Asection%3D11 2.5.11].</ref>

When Zeus decided to end the Bronze Age with the great deluge, Deucalion and Pyrrha were the only human survivors. Even though he was imprisoned, Prometheus who could see the future and had foreseen the coming of this flood, told Deucalion, to build an ark and, thus, they survived<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Project Gutenberg eBook of Old Greek Stories, by James Baldwin. |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/11582/11582-h/11582-h.htm |access-date=2024-08-23 |website=www.gutenberg.org}}</ref> by landing on Mount Parnassus, the only place spared by the flood. Once the deluge was over and the couple were on land again, Deucalion consulted the oracle of Themis about how to repopulate the earth. He was told to throw the bones of his mother behind his shoulder. Deucalion and Pyrrha understood the "mother" to be Gaia, the mother of all living things, and the "bones" to be rocks. They threw the rocks behind their shoulders, which soon began to lose their hardness and change form. Their mass grew greater, and the beginnings of human form emerged. The parts that were soft and moist became skin, the veins of the rock became people's veins, and the hardest parts of the rocks became bones. The stones thrown by Pyrrha became women; those thrown by Deucalion became men.{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

Gaia resented the way Zeus had treated her children, the Titans, so she brought forth the Gigantes to fight Zeus. It was prophesied that the Gigantes, who were born from Uranus's blood, could not be killed by the gods alone, but they could be killed with the help of a mortal. Hearing this, Gaia sought for a certain plant that would protect the Gigantes even from mortals. Before Gaia or anyone else could get it, Zeus forbade Eos (Dawn), Selene (Moon) and Helios (Sun) to shine, harvested all of the plant himself, and had Athena summon the mortal Heracles, who assisted the Olympians in defeating the Gigantes.<ref>Apollodorus, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D6%3Asection%3D1 1.6.1]</ref>[[File:Birth Erikhthonios Staatliche Antikensammlungen 2413.jpg|thumb|left|220px|Gaia hands her newborn, Erichthonius, to Athena as Hephaestus watches – an Attic red-figure stamnos, 470–460 BC]]The god Hephaestus once attempted to rape Athena, but she pushed him away, causing him to ejaculate on her thigh. Athena wiped off the semen and threw it on the ground, which impregnated Gaia. Gaia then gave birth to Erichthonius of Athens, whom Athena adopted as her own child.<ref>Burkert, [https://archive.org/details/greekreligion0000burk/page/143/mode/2up?view=theater p. 143].</ref>

Nonnus describes a similar myth, in which Aphrodite fled from her lustful father Zeus, who was infatuated with her. As Zeus was unable to catch Aphrodite, he gave up and dropped his semen on the ground, which impregnated Gaia. This resulted in the birth of the Cyprian Centaurs.<ref>Nonnus, ''Dionysiaca'' [https://topostext.org/work/529#14.193 14.193]</ref>

According to little-known myth, Elaea was an accomplished athlete from Attica who was killed by her fellow athletes, because they had grown envious of her and her skills; but Gaia turned her into an olive tree as a reward, for Athena's sake.<ref>{{cite book |last=Forbes Irving |first=Paul M. C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=URvXAAAAMAAJ |title=Metamorphosis in Greek Myths |date=1990 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=0-19-814730-9 |page=278}}</ref> Gaia also turned the young Libanus into rosemary when he was killed by impious people.<ref>Nicolaus Sophista, ''Progymnasmata'' 2.4</ref>

According to Hesiod, in his lost poem ''Astronomia'',<ref>See Gantz, p. 271.</ref> Orion, while hunting with Artemis and her mother Leto, claimed that he would kill every animal on earth. Gaia, angered by his boasting, sent a giant scorpion to kill him, and after his death, he and the scorpion were placed among the stars by Zeus.<ref>Hard 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC&pg=PA564 p. 564]; Gantz, p. 272; Hesiod [https://archive.org/details/diefragmenteder02diel/page/196/mode/2up?view=theater fr. 7 Diels, p. 196] [= Eratosthenes, ''Catasterismi'' 32 (Hard 2015, [https://books.google.com/books?id=7IMSBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA101 p. 101]; Olivieri, [https://archive.org/details/mythographigrae00olivgoog/page/n59/mode/2up?view=theater pp. 37–8])]; cf. Hyginus, ''De Astronomica'' [https://topostext.org/work/207#2.26.2 2.26.2].</ref> According to Ovid, Gaia for some reason sent the scorpion to kill Leto instead, and Orion was killed trying to protect her.<ref>Hard 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC&pg=PA564 p. 564]; Ovid, ''Fasti'' [https://archive.org/details/ovidsfasti00oviduoft/page/298/mode/2up?view=theater 5.537–544].</ref>

When Boreas, the god of the north wind, killed Pitys, an Oread nymph, for rejecting his advances and preferring Pan over him, Gaia pitied the dead girl and transformed her into a pine tree.<ref>Libanius, ''Progymnasmata'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=kRi-If9IAOYC&pg=PA27 1.4]</ref>

Zeus hid Elara, one of his lovers, from Hera by stowing her under the earth. His son by Elara, the giant Tityos, is therefore sometimes said to be a son of Gaia, the earth goddess.<ref>Hard 2004, [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC&pg=PA147 pp. 147–148].</ref>

Gaia made Aristaeus immortal for the benefits he bestowed upon humanity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Floyd |first1=Edwin |title=The Première of Pindar's Third and Ninth Pythian Odes |journal=Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association |volume=99 |date=1968 |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University press |pages=181–202 |jstor=2935839 |doi=10.2307/2935839 }}</ref>

==Cult== It seems that the worship of the "earth" was indigenous in Greece.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56574/page/1/mode/2up Farnell, Cults III, p.1].</ref> However it is doubtful if the mother-religion is rooted to the Pre-Greek population.<ref>Nilsson, ''Geschichte'', Vol I 456-458</ref> In classical times Ge was not an important deity and she didn't have any festivals. She was usually honoured together with other gods or goddesses.<ref name=Hard32/> Local cults of Gaia are rare and only some of them can be mentioned from the existing evidence.

Elements of a primitive cult of Gaia appear at Dodona in Epirus. It seems that in an old religion the earth goddess was worshipped together with the sky-god (Zeus).<ref>"Zeus was and is and will be hail great Zeus. Earth brings forth fruits, wherefore call on mother earth" [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56574/page/8/mode/2up Farnell, Cults III, p.8]</ref> At Thebes there was cult of "Gaia Makaira Telesforos". Telesforos means "bringing fruits to perfection".<ref>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56574/page/8/mode/2up Farnell, Cults III, p.8].</ref> The earth goddess had powers over the ghosts and the dreams which come from the underworld, therefore she acquired oracular powers. These conceptions are evident in her cults at Delphi, Athens and Aigai of Achaea. An inscription "ieron eurysternou" (sanctuary of the broad-bosomed), is mentioned at Delphi by Mnaseas.<ref name=Farnell8>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56574/page/8/mode/2up Farnell, Cults III, 8-10].</ref> A temple of Ge was built to the south of the temple of Apollo. "Eutysternos" is a surname of Ge and it had an earlier use by Hesiod. It was also given to her in her worship at the Achaean Aegai.<ref name=Farnell8/>

In Eumenides, the priestess announced her first prayers to "Gaia the first prophetess". At Aegai there was a very old image of the earth-goddess, and the service was in the hands of a virgin woman. The serpent represented the earth deity and was related to the chthonic oracular cult. This is evident at Delphi. Traditionally the oracle belonged originally to Poseidon and Ge and the serpent Python represents the earth spirit. Ge was probably present at the oracle of Trophonius at Livadeia.<ref name=Farnell8/> The prophecies were usually given by the priestesses and not by the goddess. At Olympia her altar was called "Gaios". The altars were given the name of a deity in primitive stages of religion. At Olympia like in Dodona it seems that she was honoured together with the sky-god Zeus. At Aigai she had an oracular power. According to Pliny the priestess drank a small quantity of the blood of a bull before entering the secret cave. At Patras in the oracle of "Ge", a sacred well was used for predicting the cause of diseases.<ref name=Farnell11>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56574/page/11/mode/2up Farnell, Cults III, 11-14].</ref> At Athens Ge acquired the cult-title Themis. Themis was an oracular goddess related to Ge and she was not originally interpreted as goddess of righteousness.<ref name=Farnell11/>

The cult of Gaia was probably indigenous in Attica. In the cult of Phlya, Pausanias reports that there were altars to Dionysos, certain nymphs and to Ge, whom they called the "great goddess". The Great goddess is interpreted as "Mother of the gods" who is a form of Gaia. It seems that a mystery-cult was related to the Great-goddess.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56574/page/15/mode/15up Farnell, Cults III, 15-16]</ref> An inscription on the Acropolis of Athens refers to the practice of service in honour of "Ge-Karpophoros" (bringer of fruits) in accordance with the oracle. The oracle was probably Delphic. A sanctuary on the Acropolis was the "Kourotrophion", and the earlier inscriptions mentions simply "The Kourotrophos" (nourisher of children). Pausanias mentions a double shrine of "Ge-Kourotrophos" and "Demeter-Chloe" on the Acropolis.<ref>Nilsson, ''Geschichte'' Vol I, 457-458</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56574/page/17/mode/2up Farnell, Cults III, 16-18].</ref> Near the Olympieion of Athens there was the temenos of Ge-Olympia. Thucydides mentions that it was among the oldest sanctuaries built in Athens, where the Deucalion flood took place.<ref name=Nilsson457/> A chthonic ritual was performed in Athens in honour of Ge. The Genesia was a mourning festival in the month Broedromion. A sacrifice was performed to Ge, and the citizents brought offerings to the graves of the dead.<ref name=Farnell23>[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.56574/page/23/mode/2up Farnell, Cults III, 23].</ref>

An ancient Gaia cult existed at the "Marathonian Tetrapolis" near Athens . In the month Poseideon a pregnant cow was sacrificed to "Ge in the acres" and in Gamelion a sheep to" Ge-near the oracle". Both sacrifices were followed by rituals and the second was related to Daeira a divinity connected with the Eleusinian mysteries. At Eleusis Ge received a premilinary offering among other gods.<ref name=Nilsson457/> Ge was associated with the dead at Mykonos. Seven black lambs were offered to "Zeus Chthonios" and "Ge-Chthonia" in the month Lenaion. The worshippers were offered to feast at the place of worship.<ref name=Farnell23/> At Sparta Gaia was worshipped together with Zeus. There was a double shrine of "Ge" and "Zeus Agoraios" (of the market place).<ref name=Hard32/><ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+3.11.9&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 3.11.9]</ref>

===Epithets=== Gaia has several epithets and attributes. In poetry '''chthon''' frequently has the same meaning with '''gaia'''.<ref>Nilsson Vol I, 460.</ref> Some of her epithets are similar in some Indo-European languages. The universitality of the goddess is expressed by the prefix ''pan'',({{lang|grc|πάν}}).<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=*pa%2Fn&la=greek&can=*pa%2Fn0&prior=pa/n#Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=pa=s1-contents πάς]</ref><ref name=West>M.L.West (2007). ''Indoeuropean poetry and myth'', pp.179 .Oxford University Press, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXrJA_5LKlYC&pg=PA179 p.179]</ref> Some of the epithets of Gaia and Demeter are similar showing the identity of their nature. *'''Anēsidora''' ({{lang|grc|ἀνησιδώρα}}), sending up gifts.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=anhsidwra&la=greek#lexicon ανησιδώρα]</ref><ref>Hesychius of Alexandria ''s.v.''</ref><ref>Scholiast on Theocritus, 2.12</ref> *'''Chthonia''' ({{lang|grc|χθονία}}) in Myconos.<ref>Nilsson Vol I, p.458</ref>Pherecydes uses the name ''Chthonie'', for the primeval goddess who became '''Ge''':.<ref name=West174>M.L.West (2007). ''Indoeuropean poetry and myth'', pp.174 .Oxford University Press, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXrJA_5LKlYC&pg=PA174 p.174]</ref> *'''Eurysternos''' ({{lang|grc|εὐρύστερνος}}): broad breasted.<ref name=Nilsson457>Nilsson Vol I, p.457-460</ref> Earth is the broad seat of all immortals (Hesiod).<ref name=West/><ref name=Paus2513>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+7.25.13&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160:book=7:chapter=25&highlight=Broad Pausanias 7.25.13]</ref> *'''Euryedeus''' ({{lang|grc|εὐρυεδεύς}}): broad seated.<ref name=West/> *'''Karpophoros''' ({{lang|grc|καρποφόρος}}), bringer of fruits.<ref name=Nilsson457/> *'''Kalligeneia''' ({{lang|grc|καλλιγένεια}}), born beautiful.<ref>Aristoph. Thesm. 300, with the Schol.; Hesych. s. v.; Phot. Lex. s. v.</ref> *'''Kourotrophos''' ({{lang|grc|κουροτρόφος}}) :protector of young children, in Athens.<ref name=Nilsson457/><ref name=Paus1223>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+1.22.3&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160 Pausanias 1.22.3]</ref> *'''Megali theos''' ({{lang|grc|Μεγάλη θεός}}) : Great goddess, in the mysteries of Phlya.<ref name=Nilsson457/><ref name=Pausan1314>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D31%3Asection%3D4 Pausanias 1.31.4]</ref> *'''Melaina''' ({{lang|grc|μελαίνα}}): black, in epic poetry.<ref name=West/><ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=melaina&la=greek#lexicon μέλαινα]</ref> *'''Olympia''' near the Olympeion of Athens.<ref name=Nilsson457/><ref name=Paus1187>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D18%3Asection%3D7 Pausanias 1.18.7]</ref> *'''Pamphoros''', ({{lang|grc|πάμφορος}}):all-bearing. The offspring of all.<ref name=West/><ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=pamforos&la=greek#lexicon πάμφορος]</ref> *'''Pammētōr'''({{lang|grc|παμμήτωρ}}) :mother of all<ref name=West/><ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=pammhtor&la=greek#lexicon παμμήτωρ]</ref> *'''Pammēteira'''({{lang|grc|παμμήτειρα}}) :mother of all.<ref name=West/> *'''Pamvōtis''' ({{lang|grc|παμβώτις}}) : all-nurturing.<ref name=West/><ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=pambwtwr&la=greek#lexicon παμβώτωρ]</ref> *'''Pandōros''' ({{lang|grc|πάνδωρος}}) :plentiful, giver of all.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=pandwra&la=greek#lexicon πανδώρα]</ref><ref>Homeros. Epigr. 7. 1; Stob. Eclog. i. p. 165, ed. Heeren.</ref> *'''Pheresvios''' ({{lang|grc|φερέσβιος}})bringing forth life.<ref name=West/><ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=feresbios&la=greek#lexicon φερέσβιος]</ref> *'''Polivoteira''' ({{lang|grc|πουλυβότειρα}}): much nurturing.<ref name=West/><ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=pouluboteira&la=greek#Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=polubo/teira-contents πολυβοτειρα]</ref> *'''Themis''' ({{lang|grc|Θέμις}}) in Attica.<ref>Inscription :{{lang|grc|ἰερίας Γῆς Θέμιδος}},"Οf the priestess of Ge-Themis":Nilsson Vol. I, p. 458</ref> * '''Vathykolpos''' ({{lang|grc|βαθύκολπος}}): with deep, full breasts.<ref>Pindar: {{lang|grc|βαθυκόλπου Γᾱς ἀέθλοις}}, "The prizes of the deep-breasted earth ": Nilsson Vol. I, p. 458</ref><ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=baqukolpos&la=greek#lexicon βαθύκολπος]</ref>

===Temples=== [[File:Gaia entrusts Erichthonios to Athena (Louvre, Ma 579) (28195849402).jpg|thumb|460px|Gaia entrusts Erichthonios to Athena. From left to right: Hephaestus, Athena, Erichthonios, Gaia, Aphrodite. Said to come from the temple of Hephaestus in Athens. Pentelic marble. 100–150 AD. Louvre]] Gaia is believed by some sources<ref>Joseph Fontenrose 1959</ref> to be the original deity behind the Oracle at Delphi. It was thus said: "That word spoken from tree-clad mother Gaia's (Earth's) navel-stone [Omphalos]."<ref>Pindar, ''Pythian Odes'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Pind.+P.+4&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0162:chapter=4&highlight=earth 4.76]</ref> Depending on the source, Gaia passed her powers on to Poseidon, Apollo, or Themis. Pausanias wrote:<blockquote>Many and different are the stories told about Delphi, and even more so about the oracle of Apollo. For they say that in the earliest times the oracular seat belonged to Earth, who appointed as prophetess at it Daphnis, one of the nymphs of the mountain. There is extant among the Greeks an hexameter poem, the name of which is Eumolpia, and it is assigned to Musaeus, son of Antiophemus. In it the poet states that the oracle belonged to Poseidon and Earth in common; that Earth gave her oracles herself, but Poseidon used Pyrcon as his mouthpiece in giving responses. The verses are these: "Forthwith the voice of the Earth-goddess uttered a wise word, And with her Pyrcon, servant of the renowned Earth-shaker." They say that afterwards Earth gave her share to Themis, who gave it to Apollo as a gift. It is said that he gave to Poseidon Calaureia, that lies off Troezen, in exchange for his oracle.<ref>Pausanias, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+10.5.5&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160:book=10:chapter=5&highlight=Earth 10.5.5 ff]</ref></blockquote>

Apollo is the best-known as the oracle power behind Delphi, long established by the time of Homer, having killed Gaia's child Python there and usurped the chthonic power.<ref>{{cite book |title=Handbook of Classical Mythology |last1=Hansen |first1=William F. |last2=Hansen |first2=Randall |publisher=ABC-CLIO, LLC |year=2004 |isbn=9781851096343 |edition=1 |pages=109–112}}</ref> Hera punished Apollo for this by sending him to King Admetus as a shepherd for nine years.{{citation needed|date=April 2012}} Gaia or Ge had at least three sanctuaries in Greece which were mentioned by Pausanias. There was a temple of Ge Eurusternos on the Crathis near Aegae in Achaia with "a very ancient statue":<ref name=":1">Pausanias, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+7.25.13&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160:book=7:chapter=25&highlight=Broad 7.25.13 ff.]</ref><blockquote>It is a journey of about thirty stades [from the stream of Krathis (Crathis) near the ruins of Aigai (Aegae) in Akhaia] to what is called the Gaion (Gaeum), a sanctuary of Ge (Earth) surnamed Eurysternos (Broad-bossomed), whose wooden image is one of the very oldest. The woman who from time to time is priestess henceforth remains chaste and before her election must not have had intercourse with more than one man. The test applied is drinking bull's blood. Any woman who may chance not to speak the truth is immediately punished as a result of this test. If several women compete for the priesthood, lots are cast for the honor.</blockquote>Pausanias also mention the sanctuary of Ge Gasepton in Sparta,<ref>Pausanias, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+3.12.8&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160:book=3:chapter=12&highlight=Gasepton 3.12.8 ff]</ref> and a sanctuary of Ge Kourotrophe (Nurse of the Young) at Athens.<ref name=Paus1223/> Aside from her temples, Gaia had altars as well as sacred spaces in the sanctuaries of other gods. Close to the sanctuary of Eileithyia in Tegea was an altar of Ge;<ref>Pausanias, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+8.48.8&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160:book=8:chapter=48&highlight=Earth 8.48.8 ff]</ref> Phlya and Myrrhinos had an altar to Ge under the name Thea Megale (Great goddess);<ref name=Pausan1314/> as well as Olympia which additionally, similar to Delphi, also said to have had an oracle to Gaia: <blockquote>On what is called the Gaion (Gaeum, Sanctuary of Ge) [at Olympia] is an altar of Ge (Earth); it too is of ashes. In more ancient days they say that there was an oracle also of Ge (Earth) in this place. On what is called the Stomion (Mouth) the altar to Themis has been built.<ref>Pausanias, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+5.14.10&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160:book=5:chapter=14&highlight=Gaeum 5.14.10]</ref> </blockquote>

Her statues were naturally to be found in the temples of Demeter, such as the Temple of Demeter in Achaia: "They [the Patraians of Akhaia (Achaea)] have also a grove by the sea, affording in summer weather very agreeable walks and a pleasant means generally of passing the time. In this grove are also two temples of divinities, one of Apollon, the other of Aphrodite ... Next to the grove is a sanctuary of Demeter; she and her daughter [Persephone] are standing, but the image of Ge (Earth) is seated."<ref>Pausanias, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+7.21.11&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160:book=7:chapter=21&highlight=Earth 7.21.11]</ref> [[File:Gaziantep Zeugma museum Gaia mosaic Gaia mosaic sept 2019 4022.jpg|thumb|Gaia mosaic, 2nd century AD, Zeugma Mosaic Museum, Gaziantep]]

The Temple of Zeus Olympios in Athens reportedly had an enclosure of Ge Olympia: <blockquote>[Within the sanctuary of Zeus Olympios in the lower town of Athens:] Within the precincts are antiquities: a bronze Zeus, a temple of Kronos (Cronus) and Rhea and an enclosure of Ge (Earth) surnamed Olympia. Here the floor opens to the width of a cubit, and they say that along this bed flowed off the water after the deluge that occurred in the time of Deukalion, and into it they cast every year wheat mixed with honey ... The ancient sanctuary of Zeus Olympios the Athenians say was built by Deukalion (Deucalion), and they cite as evidence that Deukalion lived at Athens a grave which is not far from the present temple.<ref name=Paus1187/> </blockquote>In Athens, there was a statue of Gaia on the Acropolis depicting her beseeching Zeus for rain<ref>Pausanias, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+1.24.3&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160:book=1:chapter=24&highlight=Earth 1.24.3 ff.]</ref> as well as an image of her close to the court of the Areopagos in Athens, alongside the statues of Plouton and Hermes, "by which sacrifice those who have received an acquittal on the Areopagos".<ref>Pausanias, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+1.28.6&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160:book=1:chapter=28&highlight=Earth 1.28.6 ff.]</ref>

==Interpretations== [[File:Aion mosaic Glyptothek Munich W504.jpg|thumb|right|280px|Aion and Tellus Mater with infant deities of the fruit of the seasons, in a mosaic from a Roman villa in Sentinum, first half of the third century BC (Munich Glyptothek, Inv. W504)]] Some modern sources, such as Mellaart, Gimbutas, and Walker, claim that Gaia as Mother Earth is a later form of a pre-Indo-European Great Mother, venerated in Neolithic times. Her existence is a speculation and controversial in the academic community. Some modern mythographers, including Kerenyi, Ruck, and Staples, interpret the goddesses Demeter the "mother", Persephone the "daughter", and Hecate the "crone", as aspects of a former great goddess identified by some{{who|date=April 2012}} as Rhea or as Gaia herself. In Crete, a goddess was worshipped as ''Potnia Theron'' (the "Mistress of the Animals") or simply Potnia ("Mistress"), speculated{{by whom|date=April 2012}} as Rhea or Gaia; the title was later applied in Greek texts to Artemis. The mother goddess Cybele from Anatolia (modern Turkey) was partly identified by the Greeks with Gaia, but more so with Rhea.

== Modern paganism == Beliefs and worship amongst modern pagans (also known as neopagans) regarding Gaia vary, ranging from the belief that Gaia is the Earth to the belief that she is the spiritual embodiment of the earth or the goddess of the Earth.<ref name="Pike2013"> Compare: {{cite book |last1=Pike |first1=Sarah M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K9SdBhs8SfoC |title=New Age and Neopagan Religions in America |date=13 August 2013 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-50838-4 |page=27 |quote=For some New Agers and Neopagans divine power is personified by a great goddess or the planet Gaia [...]. |author-link1=Sarah M. Pike}} </ref>

== Family ==

=== Olympian descendants === {{chart top|Olympians' family tree<ref>This chart is based upon Hesiod's ''Theogony'', unless otherwise noted.</ref>|collapsed=yes}} {{tree chart/start}} {{tree chart|}} {{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | |URA |y|GAI |URA=Uranus|GAI='''Gaia'''}} {{tree chart| | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|^|-|.}} {{tree chart|URA| | | | | | | | |CRO |y|RHE |URA=<small>Uranus' genitals</small>|CRO=Cronus|RHE=Rhea}} {{tree chart| |!| | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|v|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|.}} {{tree chart| |!| |ZEU |V|~|~|y|~|HER | |POS | |HAD | |DEM | |HES |ZEU=Zeus|HER=Hera|POS=Poseidon|HAD=Hades|DEM=Demeter|HES=Hestia}} {{tree chart| |!| | | | |:| |,|^|-|.| |!}} {{tree chart|border=0| |!| | | | |:| |!| |AAA |!|AAA=    a<ref>According to Homer, ''Iliad'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:1.570 1.570–579], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:14.338 14.338], ''Odyssey'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1:8.312 8.312], Hephaestus was apparently the son of Hera and Zeus, see Gantz, p. 74.</ref>}} {{tree chart|border=0| |!| | | | |:| |!| | |!|BBB |BBB=b<ref>According to Hesiod, ''Theogony'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+927 927–929], Hephaestus was produced by Hera alone, with no father, see Gantz, p. 74.</ref>}} {{tree chart| |!| | | | |:| |!| | |!| |!}} {{tree chart| |!| | | | |:|ARE | |HEP |HEP=Hephaestus|ARE=Ares}} {{tree chart| |!| | | | |D|~|~|~|y|~|~|~|~|MET |MET=Metis}} {{tree chart| |!| | | | |:| | |ATH |ATH=Athena<ref>According to Hesiod, ''Theogony'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+886 886–890], of Zeus' children by his seven wives, Athena was the first to be conceived, but the last to be born; Zeus impregnated Metis then swallowed her, later Zeus himself gave birth to Athena "from his head", see Gantz, pp. 51–52, 83–84.</ref>}} {{tree chart| |!| | | | |D|~|~|~|y|~|~|~|~|LET |LET=Leto}} {{tree chart| |!| | | | |:| |,|-|^|-|.}} {{tree chart| |!| | | | |:|APO | |ART |APO=Apollo|ART=Artemis}} {{tree chart| |!| | | | |D|~|~|~|y|~|~|~|~|MAI |MAI=Maia}} {{tree chart| |!| | | | |:| | |HER |HER=Hermes}} {{tree chart| |!| | | | |D|~|~|~|y|~|~|~|~|SEM |SEM=Semele}} {{tree chart| |!| | | | |:| | |DIO |DIO=Dionysus}} {{tree chart| |!| | | | |L|~|~|~|~|y|~|~|~|DIO |DIO=Dione}} {{tree chart|border=0|AAA | | | | | | | |BBB|AAA=    a<ref>According to Hesiod, ''Theogony'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+183 183–200], Aphrodite was born from Uranus' severed genitals, see Gantz, pp. 99–100.</ref>|BBB=b<ref>According to Homer, Aphrodite was the daughter of Zeus (''Iliad'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:3.374 3.374], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:20.105 20.105]; ''Odyssey'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1:8.308 8.308], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1:8.320 320]) and Dione (''Iliad'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:5.370 5.370–71]), see Gantz, pp. 99–100.</ref>}} {{tree chart| |`|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| |!}} {{tree chart| | | | | | | | | |APH |APH=Aphrodite}} {{tree chart/end}} {{chart bottom}}

===Offspring=== {{see also|Category:Children of Gaia}} Gaia is the personification of the Earth, and these are her offspring as related in various myths. Some are related consistently, some are mentioned only in minor variants of myths, and others are related in variants that are considered to reflect a confusion of the subject or association.

The Hecatonchires (Briareus, Cottus, and Gyes)

The Meliae{{efn-lr|name=from-Uranus-blood|Some said they were born from Uranus' blood when Cronus castrated him.}}

The Erinyes{{efn-lr|name=from-Uranus-blood}}

The Gigantes{{efn-lr|name=from-Uranus-blood}} |The Curetes{{efn-lr|name=from-Uranus-blood}}{{efn-lr|name=from-rain|The Kouretes were born from rainwater (Uranus [peacefully] fertilizing Gaia).}} The Elder Muses: Mneme, Melete, and Aoide

The Telchines: Actaeus, Megalesius, Ormenus, and Lycus

Aetna<ref>Alcimus, ''ap. Schol. Theocrit.'' i. 65; Ellis, [https://archive.org/stream/aetna___00elliuoft#page/n51/mode/2up p. l].</ref>

Aristaeus<ref>Probably a Giant</ref> |- |Tartarus |Typhon<ref>Hesiod, ''Theogony'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0020.tlg001.perseus-eng1:820-852 820–2]</ref> |Echidna<ref>Apollodorus, [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0548.tlg001.perseus-eng1:2.1.2 2.1.2].</ref>{{efn-lr|Echidna was more commonly held to be child of Phorcys and Ceto.}}

Giants: Enceladus, Coeus, Astraeus, Pelorus, Pallas, Emphytus, Rhoecus, Agrius, Ephialtes, Eurytus, Themoises, Theodamas, Otus, Polybotes, and Iapetus. |- |Pontus<ref>Hesiod, ''Theogony'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0020.tlg001.perseus-eng1:207-239 233–9]</ref> |Nereus, Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto, Eurybia |The Telchines |- |Aether<ref name="p. 95" /> |N/A |Dolor (Pain), Dolus (Deception), Ira (Anger), Luctus (Mourning), Mendacium (Lying), Iusiurandum (Oath), Vltio (Vengeance), Intemperantia (Self-indulgence), Altercatio (Quarreling), Oblivio (Forgetfulness), Socordia (Sloth), Timor (Fear), Superbia (Arrogance), Incestum (Incest), Pugna (Fighting), Oceanus (Ocean), Themis, Tartarus, Pontus, the Titans, Briareus, Gyges, Steropes, Atlas, Hyperion, Polus, Saturn, Ops, Moneta, Dione, the Furies (Alecto, Megaera, and Tisiphone) |- |Poseidon |N/A |Antaeus,<ref>Apollodorus, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Apollod.+2.5.11&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022:book=2:chapter=5&highlight=Earth 2.5.11]</ref> Charybdis,<ref>Scholiast on Homer's ''Odyssey''</ref> Laistrygon |- |Helios |N/A |Achelous,<ref>Hecateus fragment [https://archive.org/details/fragmentahistori01mueluoft/page/n131/mode/2up?view=theater 378]</ref><ref>Grimal s. v. [https://archive.org/details/concisedictionar00grim/page/4/mode/2up?view=theater Achelous]</ref> Acheron,<ref>Natalis Comes, ''Mythologiae'' 3.1; Smith s.v. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DA%3Aentry+group%3D3%3Aentry%3Dacheron-bio-1 Acheron]</ref> Bisaltes,<ref>Stephanus of Byzantium, s.v. ''[https://topostext.org/work/241#B170.16 Bisaltia]''</ref> Tritopatores<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia = Suda | publisher = Suda On Line | author = Suidas | url = http://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-cgi-bin/search.cgi | access-date = December 10, 2023 | translator = David Whitehead | date = 21 December 2000 | title = Tritopatores}}</ref> |- |Zeus |N/A |Agdistis, Manes,<ref>Dionysius of Halicarnassus, ''Roman Antiquities'' [https://topostext.org/work.php?work_id=139#1.27.1 1.27.1]</ref> Cyprian Centaurs |- |Oceanus |N/A |Triptolemos<ref>Apollodorus, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D5%3Asection%3D2 1.5.2]; alternatively considered the son of King Celeus of Eleusis.</ref> |- |Hephaestus |N/A |Erichthonius of Athens<ref>Pausanias, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D2%3Asection%3D6 1.2.6]</ref> |- |''Unknown'' |N/A | * Lesser Giants ** Alpos ** Anax<ref>Pausanias, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+1.35.6&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160:book=1:chapter=35&highlight=Earth 1.35.6]</ref> ** Argus Panoptes ** Damasen<ref>Nonnus, ''Dionysiaca'' 25.453 & 486</ref> ** The Gegenees ** Hyllus<ref>Pausanias, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+1.35.8&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160:book=1:chapter=35&highlight=Earth 1.35.8]</ref> ** Orion ** Sykeus<ref>Athenaeus, ''Deipnosophistae'' 78a</ref> ** Tityos * Monsters and Animals ** Arion ** Caerus ** Colchian dragon ** Ophiotauros<ref>Ovid, ''Fasti'' [https://archive.org/details/ovidsfasti00oviduoft/page/178/mode/2up?view=theater 3.795 ff.]</ref> ** Python ** Scorpius * Creusa<ref>Pindar, ''Pythian Odes'' [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0033.tlg002.perseus-eng1:9 9.16]</ref> * Pheme<ref>Virgil, ''Aeneid'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0052%3Abook%3D4%3Acard%3D173 4.174]</ref> * Silenus |} </div>'''<small>List notes:</small>'''{{notelist-lr}}

==See also== * Bhumi * Gaia philosophy * Mother Nature * Pachamama

==Notes== {{Reflist}}

==References== {{Refbegin|30em}} * Apollodorus, ''Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes.'' Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0548.tlg001.perseus-eng1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. * Burkert, Walter, ''Greek Religion'', Harvard University Press, 1985. {{ISBN|0-674-36281-0}}. [https://archive.org/details/greekreligion0000burk/page/n3/mode/2up?view=theater Internet Archive]. * Caldwell, Richard, ''Hesiod's Theogony'', Focus Publishing/R. Pullins Company (June 1, 1987). {{ISBN|978-0-941051-00-2}}. * Diels, Hermann A., ''Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker'', Volume II, Berlin, Weidmann, 1912. [https://archive.org/details/diefragmenteder02diel/page/n3/mode/2up?view=theater Internet Archive]. * Dionysius of Halicarnassus. ''Roman Antiquities, Volume I: Books 1-2'', translated by Earnest Cary. Loeb Classical Library No. 319. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1937. [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/LCL319/1937/volume.xml Online version at Harvard University Press]. [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus/home.html Online version by Bill Thayer]. [https://topostext.org/work.php?work_id=139 Online version at ToposText]. * Fontenrose, Joseph, ''Python: A Study of Delphic Myth and its Origins,'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 1959; reprint 1980. * Fowler, R. L. (2013), ''Early Greek Mythography: Volume 2: Commentary'', Oxford University Press, 2013. {{ISBN|978-0198147411}}. * Gantz, Timothy, ''Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources'', Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: {{ISBN|978-0-8018-5360-9}} (Vol. 1), {{ISBN|978-0-8018-5362-3}} (Vol. 2). * Hard, Robin (2004), ''The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek Mythology"'', Psychology Press, 2004, {{ISBN|9780415186360}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=r1Y3xZWVlnIC Google Books]. * Hard, Robin (2015), ''Eratosthenes and Hyginus: Constellation Myths, With Aratus's Phaenomena'', Oxford University Press, 2015. {{ISBN|978-0-19-871698-3}}. [https://books.google.com/books?id=7IMSBwAAQBAJ Google Books]. * Hesiod, ''Theogony'' from ''The Homeric Hymns and Homerica'' with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0129 Greek text available from the same website]. * Homer, ''The Iliad'' with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0134 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] * Homer. ''Homeri Opera'' in five volumes. Oxford, Oxford University Press. 1920. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0133 Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library]. * Hyginus, Gaius Julius, ''De Astronomica'', in ''The Myths of Hyginus'', edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. [https://topostext.org/work/207 Online version at ToposText]. * Hyginus, Gaius Julius, ''Fabulae'' in ''Apollodorus' ''Library'' and Hyginus' ''Fabulae'': Two Handbooks of Greek Mythology, Translated, with Introductions by R. Scott Smith and Stephen M. Trzaskoma'', Hackett Publishing Company, 2007. {{ISBN|978-0-87220-821-6}}. * Hyginus, Gaius Julius, ''Hygini Fabulae'', edited by Herbert Jennings Rose, Leiden, Sijthoff, 1934. [https://latin.packhum.org/loc/1263/1/0 Online version at Packhum]. * Kerenyi, Karl, ''The Gods of the Greeks'', Thames and Hudson, London, 1951. * Olivieri, Alexander, ''Pseudo-Eratosthenis: Catasterismi'', Bibliotheca Teubneriana, Leipzig, Teubner, 1897. [https://archive.org/details/mythographigrae00olivgoog/page/n5/mode/2up?view=theater Internet Archive]. * Ovid, ''Ovid's Fasti: With an English translation by Sir James George Frazer'', London: W. Heinemann LTD; Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1959. [https://archive.org/stream/ovidsfasti00oviduoft#page/n5/mode/2up Internet Archive]. * ''The Oxford Classical Dictionary'', second edition, Hammond, N.G.L. and Howard Hayes Scullard (editors), Oxford University Press, 1992. {{ISBN|0-19-869117-3}}. * Pausanias, ''Description of Greece'' with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Paus.+1.1.1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library] * Pausanias, ''Graeciae Descriptio.'' ''3 vols''. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0159 Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library]. * Pindar, ''Odes'' translated by Diane Arnson Svarlien. 1990. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0162%3Abook%3DP. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.] * Pindar, ''The Odes of Pindar'' including the Principal Fragments with an Introduction and an English Translation by Sir John Sandys, Litt.D., FBA. Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1937. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0161%3Abook%3DP. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library]. * Ruck, Carl A.P. and Danny Staples, ''The World of Classical Myth'', 1994. * Smith, William; ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', London (1873). [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DG%3Aentry+group%3D1%3Aentry%3Dgaea-bio-1 "Gaea" ] * Tripp, Edward, ''Crowell's Handbook of Classical Mythology'', Thomas Y. Crowell Co; First edition (June 1970). {{ISBN|069022608X}}. * Virgil, ''The Aeneid: Translated by John Dryden'', Penguin Classics; New Ed edition (October 1, 1997). {{ISBN|0140446273}}. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0052 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library]. {{Refend}}

==External links== {{Commons category}} * "[http://www.ed.ac.uk/arts-humanities-soc-sci/news-events/lectures/gifford-lectures/archive/series-2012-2013/bruno-latour Facing Gaia]"—A Gifford Lecture by Bruno Latour

Category:Gaia Category:Consorts of Hephaestus Category:Divine women of Zeus Category:Earth goddesses Category:Earth in religion Category:Greek goddesses Category:Greek primordial deities Category:Kourotrophoi Category:Mother goddesses Category:Nature goddesses Category:Oracular goddesses Category:Personifications in Greek mythology Category:Personifications Category:Women of Helios Category:Women of Poseidon Category:World