{{Short description|Deities or spirits of the underworld}} {{redirect|Chthonic|the band|Chthonic (band)|other uses|Chthon (disambiguation)}} [[File:Relief_from_the_grave_enclosure_of_Lysimachides._Ca._320_B.C.jpg|thumb|A relief from grave of Lysimachides, 320 BC. Two men and two women sit together as Charon, the ferryman of the Underworld, approaches to take them to the land of the dead.]] In Greek mythology, deities referred to as '''chthonic''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|θ|ɒ|n|ɪ|k}}) or '''chthonian''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|θ|oʊ|n|i|ə|n}}) were gods or spirits who inhabited the underworld or existed in or under the earth, and were typically associated with death or fertility.<ref>Tripp, s.v. chthonian deities, p. 163.</ref> The terms ''chthonic'' and ''chthonian'' are derived from the Ancient Greek word {{lang|grc|χθών}} ({{Transliteration|grc|khthṓn}}) meaning 'earth' or 'soil'. The Greek adjective {{lang|grc|χθόνιος}} ({{Transliteration|grc|khthónios}}) means 'in, under, or beneath the earth', which can be differentiated from {{lang|grc|γῆ}} ({{Transliteration|grc|gê}}), which refers to the living surface of land on the earth.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Liddell|first1=Henry George|last2=Scott|first2=Robert|date=1940|title=A Greek-English Lexicon|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%23113957&redirect=true|url-status=live|website=Perseus Digital Library|publisher=Tufts University|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011015119/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=%23113957&redirect=true |archive-date=2012-10-11 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Bailly|first=Anatole|date=1935|title=Le Grand Bailly: Dictionnaire grec-français|url=https://archive.org/details/BaillyDictionnaireGrecFrancais/page/n400/mode/1up?view=theater|website=Internet Archive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/chthonic?src=search-dict-box |title=Dictionary by Merriam-Webster |access-date=5 November 2022}}</ref> In Greek, {{lang|grc|χθόνιος}} ({{Transliteration|grc|khthónios}}) is a descriptive word for things relating to the underworld,<ref name=":63">{{Citation|last=Roberts|first=Ellie Mackin|title=Echoes of the Underworld: Manifestations of Death-Related Gods in Early Greek Cult and Literature|date=2015|url=https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/theses/echoes-of-the-underworld-manifestations-of-deathrelated-gods-in-early-greek-cult-and-literature(d08c5e3a-08f5-451b-a6f0-71d28fa11de0).html|work=King's College London|pages=|place=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref> which was in antiquity sometimes applied as an epithet to deities such as Hermes, Demeter, and Zeus.<ref>''RE'', [https://de.wikisource.org/wiki/RE:Chthonios_1 s.v. Chthonios (1)]; ''Oxford Classical Dictionary'', s.v. chthonian gods, p. 329.</ref>
The chthonic deities have been compared to the more commonly referred-to Olympic gods and their associated rites and cults. Olympic gods are understood to reference that which exists above the earth, particularly in the sky.<ref name=":22">{{Cite book|title=A companion to Greek religion|date=2007|publisher=Blackwell Pub|others=Daniel Ogden|isbn=978-1-4051-8216-4|location=Malden, MA|oclc=173354759}}</ref> Gods that are related to agriculture are also considered to have chthonic associations as planting and growing take place in part under the earth.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal|last=Scullion|first=Scott|date=1994-04-01|title=Olympian and Chthonian|url=https://online.ucpress.edu/ca/article/13/1/75/25524/Olympian-and-Chthonian|journal=Classical Antiquity|language=en|volume=13|issue=1|pages=75–119|doi=10.2307/25011006|jstor=25011006 |issn=0278-6656|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
==Relationship to Olympian deities== [[File:Orestes Pursued by the Furies by William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1862) - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''Orestes Pursued by the Furies'' painted by William-Adolphe Bouguereau, 1862]]
Chthonic and ouranic (or Olympic) are not completely opposite descriptors.<ref name=":72">{{Cite journal|last=Schlesier|first=Renate|date=1992|title=Olympian versus Chthonian Religion|journal=Scripta Classica Israelica|volume=XI|pages=38–51}}</ref> They do not cleanly differentiate types of gods and worship into distinct categories, but represent a cultic spectrum.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Greek sacrificial ritual, Olympian and chthonian : proceedings of the Sixth International Seminar on Ancient Greek Cult, Göteborg University, 25–27 April 1997|date=2005|publisher=Svenska institutet i Athen|others=Robin Hägg, Brita Alroth, Göteborgs universitet. Avdelningen för antikens kultur och samhällsliv|isbn=91-7916-049-2|location=Sävedalen, Sweden|oclc=61448076}}</ref> These terms communicate associations with the underworld and/or agriculture. This makes some deities such as Hades, Persephone, and the Erinyes more likely to be considered chthonic due to their proximity to the underworld.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fairbanks|first=Arthur|date=1900|title=The Chthonic Gods of Greek Religion|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/287716|journal=The American Journal of Philology|volume=21|issue=3|pages=241–259|doi=10.2307/287716|jstor=287716 |issn=0002-9475|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
While this is the case, virtually any god could be considered chthonic to emphasize different aspects of the god.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|last=Floky|first=Aaron R. J.|title=The significance of chthonic motifs in Ancient Greek and Roman mythical narratives|oclc=1158184846}}</ref> For example, Demeter and Hermes are categorized within the twelve Olympian gods but are often considered chthonic.<ref name=":22"/> Zeus has also been referenced with the surname "chthonios", demonstrating the situational use of a chthonic description.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last=Hewitt|first=Joseph William|date=1908|title=The Propitiation of Zeus|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/310320|journal=Harvard Studies in Classical Philology|volume=19|pages=61–120|doi=10.2307/310320|jstor=310320 |issn=0073-0688|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
==Epithets== thumb|''The Return of Persephone'', 1891, by Frederic Leighton In Ancient Greece, the names of deities were sometimes followed by an epithet, similar in concept to a surname. In this context, the purpose of an epithet was to describe a characteristic or association of a deity. The epithets 'chthonios' and 'chthonia' would follow the name of a god or goddess to reference their relationship either to the underworld or agriculture.<ref name=":63"/>
For example, Hermes Chthonios references Hermes' role as the underworld escort. In contrast, Charon does not necessitate a chthonic epithet as his relation to the underworld is his main attribution. Additional examples of deities with recorded epithets include Demeter Chthonia, Ge Chthonia, Persephone Chthonia, Zeus Chthonios, and Hecate Chthonia.<ref>{{Citation|last=Roberts|first=Ellie Mackin|title=Echoes of the Underworld: Manifestations of Death-Related Gods in Early Greek Cult and Literature|date=2015|url=https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/theses/echoes-of-the-underworld-manifestations-of-deathrelated-gods-in-early-greek-cult-and-literature(d08c5e3a-08f5-451b-a6f0-71d28fa11de0).html|work=King's College London|pages=83|place=|publisher=|access-date=}}</ref>
==Common chthonic deities== As discussed, many deities can be considered chthonic based upon what attributes are being referenced. Though this is the case, a few gods are most commonly considered chthonic due to their considerable role in the underworld and/or agriculture. These include Hades as he is the ruler of the underworld.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Burkert|first=Walter|title=Greek religion|date=1985|publisher=Harvard University Press|others=John Raffan|isbn=0-674-36280-2|location=Cambridge, Mass.|oclc=11517555}}</ref> Persephone is the Queen of the Underworld alongside Hades. She spends half the year in the underworld and the other half above the earth. The period when Persephone is in the underworld corresponds with winter while she personifies spring when she returns to above the earth.<ref name="Walter 1876 260–276">{{Cite journal|last=Walter|first=Peter|date=1876|title=The Myth of Demeter and Persephone |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/b2057a955bef44e8/1?cbl=14004&pq-origsite=gscholar|journal=Fortnightly Review|volume=19|pages=260–276| id={{ProQuest|<!-- Add ProQuest data here --> }}}}</ref>
It is for these reasons that she is mainly associated with the underworld as well as agriculture. Demeter is related to the underworld as she attempts to rescue Persephone from Hades in her grief. She is associated with agriculture and fertility.<ref name="Walter 1876 260–276"/> The Furies, or the Erinyes, reside in the underworld and are known for vengeance.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Light and darkness in ancient Greek myth and religion|date=2010|publisher=Lexington Books|others=Menelaos Christopoulos, E. D. Karakantza, Olga Levaniouk|isbn=978-0-7391-3901-1|location=Lanham|oclc=699511233}}</ref>
==Chthonic cult== Offerings were a significant aspect of Ancient Greek religion. They were used to communicate with the gods and commonly took the forms of sacrifice and libation.<ref name=":82">{{Cite book|last=Ekroth|first=Gunnel|url=http://oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199589425.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199589425-e-020|title=Animal Sacrifice in Antiquity|date=2014-08-28|publisher=Oxford University Press|editor-last=Campbell|editor-first=Gordon Lindsay|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199589425.013.020|isbn=978-0-19-958942-5 }}</ref> Offerings were central to the worship of both chthonic and ouranic gods, though the specifics of these rituals differed. These differences provide insight into the ways in which Greeks perceived chthonic and ouranic deities as well as the ways they related to them.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The gods of ancient Greece : identities and transformations|date=2010|others=Jan N. Bremmer, Andrew Erskine|isbn=978-0-7486-4289-2|location=Edinburgh|oclc=664804600}}</ref>
=== Sacrifice === [[File:Painting_on_limestone_sarcophagus_of_religious_rituals_from_Hagia_Triada_-_Heraklion_AM_-_01.jpg|thumb|Hagia Triada Sarcophagus, 1400 BC, Minoan fresco potentially depicting chthonic worship.]] Ouranic sacrifices took place during the daytime and included wine as a libation. They were performed on high altars which resided outside of temples. The animal sacrifice was roasted with the smoke traveling upward toward the sky, in the direction of the Olympic gods. Once cooked, the worshippers would feast on the sacrifice with the idea that they were sharing this meal with the gods. The worshippers would eat the consumable portions of the animal and burn the rest for the god.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dillon|first=Matthew|title=Girls and women in classical Greek religion|date=2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-203-62132-8|location=London|oclc=54667369}}</ref> While performing the sacrifice, worshippers would raise their palms open and upward, again gesturing toward the sky where the ouranic gods resided.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Brekke|first=Stewart|date=1991|title=Ouranic and Chthonic Deities and Rituals|journal=Classical Bulletin|volume=67|pages=33| id={{ProQuest|<!-- Add ProQuest data here --> }}}}</ref>
Chthonic sacrifice was commonly defined by offering a black or dark-hided animal to the deity. Worshippers did not consume the sacrifice themselves, but instead burned the entirety of the animal for the god.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last=Kerényi|first=Karl|title=The heroes of the Greeks|date=1974|publisher=Thames & Hudson|isbn=0-500-27049-X|location=London|oclc=1135369}}</ref> This type of sacrifice is called a holocaust, defined by the completely burned and destroyed nature of the offering.<ref name=":03"/> The sacrifice was performed on a low altar or in a pit in the ground, offered in the direction of the earth where chthonic deities would reside.<ref name=":3"/> The animal sacrifice was sometimes buried as well.<ref name=":5" />
The temples in which these sacrifices were performed were typically built outside city walls with caves and grottos being popular locations, believed to be openings for chthonic deities.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Denova, Rebecca I. |title=Greek and Roman religions |date=2018 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-78785-765-0 |oclc=1243160502}}</ref> Worshippers lowered their palms and faced them downwards toward the earth and underworld, in the direction of the chthonic gods. The goal of chthonic worship was to interact with gods beneath the earth so offerings were directed toward the ground to reach these deities.<ref name=":3"/> For this reason, incense was not used in Chthonic worship, as the smoke would rise upwards rather than downwards. Wine was not utilized in this form of worship, but instead honey was a common libation used.<ref name=":12"/>
Sacrificial practices would not always follow these exact patterns, but these are differences which can allude to whether the worshipper is conducting an ouranic or chthonic sacrifice.<ref name=":63"/> Though the specifics of chthonic and ouranic sacrifice differ, they both have similar goals. In both scenarios, worshippers perform sacrifices to communicate and forge a relationship with the gods. They may perform a sacrifice to thank, honor, or request a favor from a god.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pötscher|first=Walter|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/9789004320307|title=Theophrastos|date=1964-01-01|publisher=Brill|doi=10.1163/9789004320307 |isbn=978-90-04-32030-7}}</ref>
== Scholarly controversy == There is scholarly debate regarding whether the distinction of chthonic is historically accurate and/or useful. Some scholars, including van Straten, argue that the term is not archaeologically verifiable.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Van Straten|first=van|title=Hiera Kala : Images of Animal Sacrifice in Archaic and Classical Greece.|date=1995|publisher=Brill|isbn=90-04-28345-5|location=Leiden|oclc=965157551}}</ref> Some of these scholars believe that the modern use of chthonic is much more binary and concrete than it was in Ancient Greece.<ref name=":63"/> Schlesier notes that discussions of chthonic practices often create a false sense of "normal" worship and "deviant" worship, again citing the stark binary which modern scholars may fall into.<ref name=":72"/>
In response, Scullion articulates the benefits of the term chthonic as long as one also understands the fact that chthonic and Olympian are not mutually exclusive categories. The term serves to highlight differing aspects of religious practice.<ref name=":03"/> Scholars emphasize the importance of reserving the label of chthonic for situations that were explicitly labeled as such in Ancient Greece.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Polinskai︠a︡|first=I.|title=A local history of Greek polytheism : gods, people, and the land of Aigina, 800-400 BCE|date=2013|isbn=978-90-04-26208-9|location=Leiden|oclc=868068693}}</ref> {{clear}}
==Notes== {{Reflist}}
==References== * Parker, Robert, "Chthonian gods", in ''Oxford Classical Dictionary'', revised third edition, Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth (editors), Oxford University Press, 2003. {{ISBN|0-19-860641-9}}. [https://archive.org/details/oxfordclassicald0000unse_w0u7/page/n5/mode/2up?view=theater Internet Archive]. * Tripp, Edward, ''Crowell's Handbook of Classical Mythology'', Thomas Y. Crowell Co; First edition (June 1970). {{ISBN|0-690-22608-X}}. [https://archive.org/details/crowellshandbook00trip/page/n5/mode/2up?view=theater Internet Archive]. * Wissowa, Georg, ''Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft'', Band III, Halbband 2, Stuttgart, J. B. Metzler, 1899. [https://de.wikisource.org/wiki/Paulys_Realencyclop%C3%A4die_der_classischen_Altertumswissenschaft Online version at Wikisource].
==External links== * {{Commons category-inline|Chthonic beings}}
{{Greek mythology (deities)}} {{Greek religion}}
Category:Chthonic beings Category:Culture of ancient Greece Category:Greek deities