Francization of Brussels

{{Short description|Post-1700s shift to French in the Belgian capital}} {{Use American English|date=March 2023}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}} {{distinguish|Brusselization}}

[[File:Brussels signs.jpg|thumb|Bilingual French and Dutch street signs in Brussels]] [[File:Nederlands-brabants.png|thumb|Area where the Brabantian dialect is spoken]]

The '''Francization of Brussels''' refers to the evolution, over the past two centuries,<ref name="tokyo"/><ref name="marynissen">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JOo9oNIUcFUC |title=Het Nederlands vroeger en nu |first=Guy |last=Janssens |year=2005 |publisher=ACCO |isbn=9033457822 |access-date=2013-04-26|language=nl}}</ref> of this historically Dutch-speaking city<ref name="tokyo">{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Nl0mPajCyxsC | publisher= Multilingual Matters Ltd | title= Linguistic Landscapes: A Comparative Study of Urban Multilingualism in Tokyo | first= Peter | last= Backhaus | year= 2007| pages= 158| isbn=9781853599460 |access-date=2013-03-26}}</ref><ref name="jaumain">{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=KHsk_ht_UqEC | publisher= Peter Lang | edition= Études Canadiennes Series nº9 | title= Vivre en Ville: Bruxelles et Montréal aux XIXe et XXe siècles | first= Serge | last= Jaumain | year= 2006| pages= 375 | isbn=9789052013343 |access-date=2013-04-26|language=fr}}</ref><ref name="roegiest">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K7FeNc7B3EYC |title=Vers les sources des langues romanes. Un itinéraire linguistique à travers la Romania |first=Eugeen |last=Roegiest |year=2009 |publisher=ACCO |isbn=9789033473807 |pages=272 |access-date=2013-04-26|language=fr}}</ref> into one where French has become the majority language and lingua franca.<ref name="rudi3">{{cite book |url=http://www.brusselsstudies.be/medias/publications/NL_51_BruS13NL.pdf |title=Taalgebruik in Brussel en de plaats van het Nederlands — Enkele recente bevindingen |first=Rudi |last= Janssens |year=2008 |edition=Brussels Studies, nº13 |access-date=2013-04-26 |language=nl}}</ref> The main cause of this transition was the rapid, compulsory assimilation of the Flemish population,<ref name="kramer">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YRMNU8iZcN0C |title=Zweisprachigkeit in den Benelux-ländern |first=Johannes |last=Kramer |year=1984 |publisher=Buske Verlag |isbn=3871185973 |access-date=2013-04-26}}</ref><ref name="tokyo"/><ref name="baetens">{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DX1JcMNgz7AC | publisher= Multilingual Matters Ltd | edition= Multiligual Matters Series | title= Bilingualism: Basic Principles (2nd Ed.) | first= Hugo | last= Baetens Beardsmore | year= 1986 | pages= 205 | isbn=9780905028637 |access-date=2013-04-26}}</ref><ref name="ernst">{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=07wyfaQQ_akC | publisher= Walter de Gruyter | edition= Manuel international sur l'histoire et l'étude linguistique des langues romanes | title= Histoire des langues romanes | first= Gerhard | last= Ernst | year= 2006| pages= 1166 | isbn=9783110171501 |access-date=2013-04-26 |language=fr}}</ref><ref name="roegiest"/> amplified by immigration from France and Wallonia.<ref name="tokyo"/><ref name="vermeersch">{{cite book |url=http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/Taal_sociale_integr_4.pdf |title=De taalsituatie tijdens het Verenigd Koninkrijk der Nederlanden (1814–1830) |first=Arthur J. |last=Vermeersch |year=1981 |edition=Taal en Sociale Integratie, IV |publisher=Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) |pages=389–404 |access-date=2013-04-26 |language=nl |archive-date=11 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411072853/http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/Taal_sociale_integr_4.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The rise of French in public life gradually began by the end of the 18th century,<ref name="poirier">{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=8skGPQAACAAJ | publisher= De Boeck & Larcier | edition= Het statuut van Brussel / Bruxelles et son statut [61–97] | title= Choix, statut et mission d'une capitale fédérale: Bruxelles au regard du droit comparé | first= Johanne |last=Poirier | location= Brussel | year= 1999 | pages= 817 | isbn= 2-8044-0525-7 |language=fr}}</ref><ref name="rousseaux">{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WW_8JY3TTg0C | publisher= Publications des Fac. St Louis | edition= Volume 74 | title= Le pénal dans tous ses états: justice, États et sociétés en Europe | first= Xavier | last= Rousseaux | year= 1997 | pages= 462 | isbn=9782802801153 |access-date=2013-04-26|language=fr}}</ref> quickly accelerating as the new capital saw a major increase in population following Belgian independence.<ref name="wils">{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=TRnwOA6UTXgC | publisher= Garant | edition= Reeks Historama (nummer 1) | title= Van Clovis tot Di Rupo: de lange weg van de naties in de Lage Landen | first= Lode| last= Wils | year= 2005 | pages= 297 | isbn=9789044117387 |access-date=2013-04-26|language=nl}}</ref><ref name="blampain"/><ref name="degroof"> {{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ReVcRnqeon0C | publisher= De Boeck & Larcier | edition= De Brusselse negentien gemeenten en het Brussels model / Les dix-neuf communes bruxelloises et le modèle bruxellois [3–56] | title= De kwestie Groot-Brussel en de politieke metropolisering van de hoofdstad (1830–1940). Een analyse van de besluitvorming en de politiek-institutionele aspecten van de voorstellen tot hereniging, annexatie, fusie, federatie en districtvorming van Brussel en zijn voorsteden. | first= Roel | last= De Groof | location= Brussel, Gent | year= 2003 | pages= 754 | isbn= 2-8044-1216-4 |language=nl}}{{Dead link|date=April 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} </ref><ref name="gubin">{{cite book |url=http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/Taal_sociale_integr_1.pdf |title=La situation des langues à Bruxelles au 19ième siècle à la lumière d'un examen critique des statistiques |first=Eliane |last=Gubin |author-link1=Éliane Gubin |year=1978 |edition=Taal en Sociale Integratie, I |publisher=Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB) |pages=33–80 |access-date=2013-04-26 |language=fr |archive-date=11 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411072846/http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/Taal_sociale_integr_1.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Dutch – of which standardization in Belgium was still very weak<ref name="balans">{{cite book | url= http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/taal%20&%20politiek_nl.pdf | publisher= VUBPress (Vrije Universiteit Brussel) | edition= Balansreeks | title= Taal en politiek: De Belgische casus in een historisch perspectief | first= Els | last= Witte | location= Brussel | year= 1998 | pages= 180 | isbn= 9789054871774 |language=nl}}</ref><ref name="busekist">{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=kUSlh1z8okQC | publisher= Éditions KARTHALA | edition= La Politique de Babel: du monolinguisme d'État au plurilinguisme des peuples [191-226] | title= Nationalisme contre bilinguisme: le cas belge | first= Astrid | last= Von Busekist | year= 2002| pages= 348 | isbn=9782845862401 |access-date=2013-04-26|language=fr}}</ref><ref name="gubin"/> — could not compete with French, which was the exclusive language of the judiciary, the administration, the army, education, high culture and the media.<ref name="bitsch">{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=keh_JJginLwC | publisher= Éditions Complexe | title= Histoire de la Belgique: De l'Antiquité à nos jours | first= Marie-Thérèse | last= Bitsch | year= 2004 | pages= 299 | isbn=9782804800239 | access-date=2013-04-26 |language=fr}}</ref><ref name="tétart"/><ref name="jaumain"/><ref name="kok">{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=HjhQ-LTpD_0C | publisher= Rodopi | edition= Faux Titre (volume 206) | title= Changements politiques et statut des langues: histoire et épistémologie 1780-1945 | first= Marie-Christine | last= Kok Escalle | year= 2001 | pages= 374 | isbn=9789042013759 |access-date=2013-04-26 |language=fr}}</ref><ref name="marynissen"/> The value and prestige of the French language was so universally acknowledged<ref name="jaumain"/><ref name="bogaert"/><ref name="kramer"/><ref name="gubin"/><ref name="hasquin2">{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=9VBMP2Qi9kgC | publisher= Éditions Complexe | edition= Europe et ses ville-frontières [205-230] | title= Bruxelles, ville frontière. Le point de vue d'un historien francophone | first= Hervé | last= Hasquin | location= Bruxelles | year= 1996 | pages= 329 | isbn=9782870276631 |access-date=2013-04-26|language=fr}}</ref><ref name="vrints">{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=AWohT1yErb0C | publisher= Amsterdam University Press | edition= Studies Stadsgeschiedenis Series | title= Het theater van de Straat: Publiek geweld in Antwerpen tijdens de eerste helft van de twintigste Eeuw | first= Antoon |last= Vrints | location= Amsterdam | year= 2011| pages= 223 | isbn= 978-9089643407 |access-date=2013-04-26 |language=nl}}</ref> that after 1880,<ref name="veron"/><ref name="velthoven">{{cite book |url=http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/Taal_sociale_integr_4.pdf |title=Taal- en onderwijspolitiek te Brussel (1878-1914) |first=Harry |last=van Velthoven |year=1981 |edition=Taal en Sociale Integratie, IV |publisher=Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) |pages=261–387 |access-date=2013-04-26 |language=nl |archive-date=11 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411072853/http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/Taal_sociale_integr_4.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="balans"/> and more particularly after the turn of the century,<ref name="gubin"/> proficiency in French among Dutch-speakers increased spectacularly.<ref name="blampain"/>

Although the majority of the population remained bilingual until the second half of the 20th century,<ref name="blampain"/><ref name="kramer"/> the original Brabantian dialect<ref name="witte">{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=8skGPQAACAAJ | publisher= De Boeck & Larcier | edition= Het statuut van Brussel / Bruxelles et son statut [19-33] | title= Analyse du statut de Bruxelles (1989–1999) | first= Els |last=Witte | location= Brussel | year= 1999 | pages= 817 | isbn= 2-8044-0525-7 |language=fr}}</ref> was often no longer passed on from one generation to another,<ref name="treffers">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o6ikOOwhKR4C |title=Mixing Two Languages: French-Dutch Contact in a Comparative Perspective |first=Jeanine |last=Treffers-Daller |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=1994 |pages=300 |isbn=3110138379 |access-date=2013-04-26}}</ref> leading to an increase of monolingual French-speakers from 1910 onwards.<ref name="bogaert">{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=lfcGiuMtz7UC | publisher= Presses universitaires de Namur | title= Bruxelles: développement de l'ensemble urbain 1846–1961 | first= Anne Marie | last= Bogaert-Damin | year= 1978 | pages= 337 | isbn=9782870370896 |access-date=2013-04-26 |language=fr}}</ref><ref name="metsenaere-thuis">{{cite book |url=http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/andere%20publicaties/btng-rbhc,%2021,%201990,%203-4,%20pp%20383-412.pdf |title=Thuis in gescheiden werelden — De migratoire en sociale aspecten van verfransing te Brussel in het midden van de 19e eeuw |first=Machteld |last=de Metsenaere |year=1990 |edition=BTNG-RBHC, XXI, 1990, nº 3–4 [383–412] |publisher=Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) |access-date=2013-04-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015023229/http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/andere%20publicaties/btng-rbhc,%2021,%201990,%203-4,%20pp%20383-412.pdf |archive-date=2018-10-15 |url-status=dead |language=nl}}</ref> This language shift weakened after the 1960s,<ref name="blampain">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fl1trFhoYFwC |title=Le français en Belgique: Une communauté, une langue |first=Daniel |last=Blampain |publisher=De Boeck Université |year=1997 |isbn=2801111260 |access-date=2013-04-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511212204/http://books.google.fr/books?id=fl1trFhoYFwC&dq |archive-date=2011-05-11 |url-status=dead |language=fr}}</ref><ref name="mares">{{cite book |url=http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/andere%20publicaties/brusselse_thema%27s_7.pdf |title=Begin van het einde van de nationale partijen. Onderzoek naar de Vlaamse Beweging(en) en de Vlaamse politieke partijen in Brussel: de Rode Leeuwen |first=Ann |last=Mares |year=2001 |edition=19 keer Brussel; Brusselse Thema's (7) [157–185] |publisher=VUBPress (Vrije Universiteit Brussel) |isbn=9054872926 |access-date=2013-04-26 |language=nl |archive-date=15 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015023227/http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/andere%20publicaties/brusselse_thema%27s_7.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> as the language border was fixed, the status of Dutch as an official language was confirmed,<ref name="depré">{{cite book |url=http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/andere%20publicaties/brusselse_thema%27s_7.pdf |title=Tien jaar persberichtgeving over de faciliteitenproblematiek in de Brusselse Rand. Een inhoudsanalystisch onderzoek |first=Leen |last=Depré |year=2001 |edition=19 keer Brussel; Brusselse Thema's (7) [281–336] |publisher=VUBPress (Vrije Universiteit Brussel) |isbn=9054872926 |page=281 |access-date=2013-04-26 |language=nl |archive-date=15 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015023227/http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/andere%20publicaties/brusselse_thema%27s_7.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and the economic center of gravity shifted northward to Flanders.<ref name="balans"/><ref name="veron"/>

However, with the continuing arrival of immigrants (most either from Francophone countries or more familiar with French) and the post-war emergence of Brussels as a center of international politics, the relative position of Dutch continued to decline.<ref name="marynissen"/><ref name="janssens">{{cite book |url=http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/andere%20publicaties/brusselse_thema%27s_7.pdf |title=Over Brusselse Vlamingen en het Nederlands in Brussel |first=Rudi |last=Janssens |year=2001 |edition=19 keer Brussel; Brusselse Thema's (7) [41–84] |publisher=VUBPress (Vrije Universiteit Brussel) |isbn=9054872926 |page=60 |access-date=2013-04-26 |language=nl |archive-date=15 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015023227/http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/andere%20publicaties/brusselse_thema%27s_7.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="detant">{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=8skGPQAACAAJ | publisher= De Boeck & Larcier | edition= Het statuut van Brussel / Bruxelles et son statut [411–438] | title= Kunnen taalvrijheid en officiële tweetaligheid verzoend worden? De toepassing van de taalwetgeving in het Brussels Hoofdstedelijke Gewest en de 19 gemeenten | first= Anja | last= Detant | location= Brussel | year= 1999 | pages= 817 | isbn= 2-8044-0525-7 |language=nl}}</ref><ref name="blampain"/><ref name="treffers"/> Simultaneously, as Brussels' urban area expanded,<ref name="meynen">{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=adTkPQAACAAJ | publisher= Standaard Uitgeverij | title= De Geschiedenis van België na 1945 | first= Els |last= Witte | location= Antwerpen | year= 2006 | pages= 576 | isbn= 9789002219634 |language=nl}}</ref> a further number of Dutch-speaking municipalities in the Brussels Periphery also became predominantly French-speaking.<ref name="depré"/><ref name="klinkenberg">{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NpJqZxm672sC | publisher= De Boeck Supérieur | edition= Champs linguistiques | title= Des langues romanes: Introduction aux études de linguistique romane | first= Jean-Marie | last= Klinkenberg | year= 1999 | pages= 316| isbn=9782801112274 | access-date=2013-04-26 |language=fr}}</ref> This phenomenon of expanding Francization (dubbed the "oil slick" by its opponents),<ref name="kramer"/><ref name="kesteloot">{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=DGOfCPvoyWcC | publisher= Éditions Complexe | edition= Histoires contemporaines | title= Au nom de la Wallonie et de Bruxelles français: Les origines du FDF | first= Chantal | last= Kesteloot | year= 2004 | pages= 375 | isbn=9782870279878 | access-date=2013-04-26 |language=fr}}</ref><ref name="blampain"/> remains, together with the future of Brussels,<ref name="frognier">{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=8skGPQAACAAJ | publisher= De Boeck & Larcier | edition= Het statuut van Brussel / Bruxelles et son statut [705-720] | title= Les interactions stratégiques dans la problématique communautaire et la question bruxelloise | first= André-Paul | last= Frognier | location= Brussel | year= 1999 | pages= 817 | isbn= 2-8044-0525-7 |language=fr}}</ref> one of the most controversial topics in Belgian politics and public discourse.<ref name="veron">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nIKV9oOdpgIC |title=La dualité démographique de la Belgique : mythe ou réalité? |edition=Régimes démographiques et territoires: les frontières en question [255–278] |first=Catherine |last=Capron |year=2000 |publisher=INED |isbn=2950935680 |access-date=2013-04-26|language=fr}}</ref><ref name="tétart">{{cite book | url= https://books.google.com/books?id=WpbjQSwEhGgC | publisher= De Boeck Supérieur | title= Nationalismes régionaux: Un défi pour l'Europe | first= Frank | last= Tétart | year= 2009| pages= 112| isbn=9782804117818 | access-date=2013-04-26|language=fr}}</ref>

==Historical origins==

===Middle Ages=== Around the year 1000, the County of Brussels became a part of the Duchy of Brabant (and therefore of the Holy Roman Empire) with Brussels as one of the Duchy's four capitals, along with Leuven, Antwerp, and 's-Hertogenbosch. Dutch was the sole language of Brussels, as in the other three cities. However, not all of Brabant was Dutch-speaking. The area south of Brussels, around the town of Nivelles, was a French-speaking area roughly corresponding to the modern province of Walloon Brabant.<ref name="mythe">{{cite web |url=http://www.paulderidder.be/print/taalgebruik.pdf |title=De mythe van de vroege verfransing — Taalgebruik te Brussel van de 12de eeuw tot 1794 |author=Paul De Ridder |publisher=Paul De Ridder |access-date=2009-01-16 |language=nl |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218230114/http://www.paulderidder.be/print/taalgebruik.pdf |archive-date=2008-12-18 }}</ref>

Initially, Latin was used as an official language in Brussels, just like in most of Europe. From the late 13th century, people began to shift usage to the vernacular. This occurrence took place in Brussels and then in other Brabantian cities, which had all eventually transformed by the 16th century. Official city orders and proclamations were thenceforth gradually written in Middle Dutch. Until the late 18th century, Dutch remained the administrative language of the Brussels area of the Duchy of Brabant. As part of the Holy Roman Empire, Brabantian cities enjoyed many freedoms, including choice of language.<ref name="mythe"/> Before 1500, there were almost no French documents in the Brussels city archives. By comparison, in the cities in the neighboring County of Flanders such as Bruges, Ghent, Kortrijk and Ypres the percentage of French documents in city archives fluctuated between 30% and 60%. Such a high level of French influence had not yet developed in the Dutch-speaking areas of the Duchy of Brabant, including Brussels.<ref name="mythe"/>

After the death of Joanna, Duchess of Brabant, in 1406, the Duchy of Brabant became a part of the Duchy of Burgundy and the use of the French language slowly increased in the region.<ref name="ernest">{{cite web |url=http://www.ernestmandel.org/fr/ecrits/txt/1963/bruxelles.htm |title=Bruxelles, la Flandre, et le fédéralisme |author=Robert Sixte |work=La Gauche n°47 |publisher=Ernest Mandel – Archives internet |date=1963-12-06 |access-date=2009-01-17 |language=fr |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303182022/http://www.ernestmandel.org/fr/ecrits/txt/1963/bruxelles.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 1477, Burgundian duke Charles the Bold perished in the Battle of Nancy. Through the marriage of his daughter Mary of Burgundy (who was born in Brussels) to Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I, the Low Countries fell under Habsburg sovereignty. Brabant was integrated into this composite state, and Brussels flourished as the capital of the prosperous Burgundian Netherlands, also known as the Seventeen Provinces. After the death of Mary in 1482, her son Philip the Handsome succeeded as Duke of Burgundy and Brabant. In 1506, he became the king of Castile, and hence the period of the Spanish Netherlands began.

===Spanish rule=== [[Image:Brussel 1555 Deventer.jpg|thumb|right|Brussels in 1555, still a small city that had not yet grown to fill its walls, the present-day Small Ring]] After 1531, Brussels was known as the Princely Capital of the Netherlands. After the division of the Netherlands resulting from the Eighty Years' War and in particular from the fall of Antwerp to the Spanish, Netherlands' economic and cultural centers migrated to the northern Dutch Republic. About 150,000 people, mainly stemming from the intellectual and economic elites, fled north.<ref name="vroeger">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JOo9oNIUcFUC |title=Het Nederlands vroeger en nu |author=Guy Janssens |author2=Ann Marynissen |year=2005 |publisher=ACCO |isbn=90-334-5782-2 |access-date=2009-01-16|language=nl}}</ref> Brabant and Flanders were engulfed in the Counter-Reformation, and the Catholic priests continued to perform the liturgy in Latin.

Dutch was seen as the language of Calvinism and was thus considered to be anti-Catholic.<ref name="ernest"/> In the context of the Counter-Reformation, many clerics of the Low Countries had to be educated at the French-speaking University of Douai.<ref name="ULB">{{cite web |url=http://www.ulb.ac.be/philo/spf/langue/francais.htm |title=Le français en Wallonnie et à Bruxelles aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles |author=Daniel Droixhe |publisher=Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB) |date=2002-04-13 |access-date=2008-04-02 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080111204248/http://www.ulb.ac.be/philo/spf/langue/francais.htm |archive-date = January 11, 2008 |author-link= Elmore D|language=fr}}</ref> However, Dutch was not utterly excluded in the religious domain. For instance, Ferdinand Brunot reported in 1638 that, in Brussels, the Jesuits "preached three times a week in Flemish and twice in French".<ref name="ULB"/> While Dutch became standardized by the Dutch Republic, dialects continued to be spoken in the south.<ref name="treffers"/> As in other places in Europe during the 17th century, French grew as a language of the nobility and upper class of society.<ref name="berlijn">{{cite web |url=http://neon.niederlandistik.fu-berlin.de/langvar/dutchbelgium/ |title=Vlaanderen tot 1914 |work=Nederlands Online (neon) |publisher=Free University of Berlin (FU Berlin) |date=2004-06-27 |access-date=2009-01-16 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080617002714/http://neon.niederlandistik.fu-berlin.de/langvar/dutchbelgium/ |archive-date = June 17, 2008|language=nl}}</ref><ref name="mandel">{{cite web |url=http://www.ernestmandel.org/fr/ecrits/txt/1958/perspectives_socialistes_sur_la_question_flamand.htm |title=Perspectives socialistes sur la question flamande |author=Ernest Mandel |author2=Jacques Yerna |work=La Gauche n°16 |publisher=Ernest Mandel – Archives internet |date=1958-04-19 |access-date=2009-01-17 |language=fr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090623234306/http://www.ernestmandel.org/fr/ecrits/txt/1958/perspectives_socialistes_sur_la_question_flamand.htm |archive-date=2009-06-23 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The languages used in the central administration during this time were both French and, to a lesser extent, Spanish.<ref name="mythe"/> Some French-speaking nobility established themselves in the hills of Brussels (in the areas of Coudenberg and Zavel), bringing with them primarily French-speaking Walloon personnel. This attracted a considerable number of other Walloons to Brussels who came in search of work. This Walloon presence led to the adoption of Walloon words in the Brussels flavor of Brabantian Dutch, but the Walloon presence was still too small to prevent them from being assimilated into the Dutch-speaking majority.<ref name="mythe"/>

===Austrian rule=== Following the Peace of Utrecht, Spanish sovereignty over the Southern Netherlands was transferred to the Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg. This event started the era of the Austrian Netherlands. [[Image:Verhandeling verlooy.jpg|First page of Verlooy's ''Dissertation on the disregard of the native language in the Netherlands'' (1788), regarded as the first work dealing with the language problem in Flanders.<ref>Original title: ''Verhandeling op d’onacht der moederlyke tael in de Nederlanden''</ref>|thumb]] In the 18th century, there were already complaints about the waning use of Dutch in Brussels, which had been reduced to the status of "street language".<ref name="reiziger"/><ref name="ned">{{cite web |url=http://www.ned.univie.ac.at/publicaties/taalgeschiedenis/nl/brussel.htm |title=Het Nederlands in Brussel |work=Geschiedenis van het Nederlands |publisher=NEDWEB — University of Vienna |access-date=2009-01-16 |language=nl |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080630061502/http://www.ned.univie.ac.at/publicaties/taalgeschiedenis/nl/brussel.htm |archive-date=2008-06-30 }}</ref> There were various reasons for this. The Habsburgs' repressive policies after the division of the Low Countries and the following exodus of the intellectual elite towards the Dutch Republic left Flanders bereft of its social upper class. After the 17th century's end, when the Dutch Golden Age ended and the Dutch Republic began declining, Dutch lost even more prestige as a language for politics, culture, and business. Meanwhile, French culture was quickly spreading.<ref name="marynissen"/> For instance, the Theater of La Monnaie showed 95% of plays in French by the mid-18th century.<ref name="ULB"/> During the War of the Austrian Succession, Brussels was under French rule between 1745 and 1749.<ref name="mythe"/> Under these circumstances, especially after 1780, French became the adopted language of much of the Flemish bourgeoisie,<ref name="mythe"/> who were later pejoratively labelled ''Franskiljons'' (loosely: ''little Frenchies''). The lower classes got progressively poorer, and, by 1784, 15% of the population was in poverty.<ref name="reiziger">{{cite web |url=http://www.ethesis.net/reizigers/reizigers_deel_e.htm |title=De visie van reizigers op Brabant en Mechelen (1701–1800) |author=Thomas De Wolf |work=Licentiaatsverhandelingen on-line |publisher=Ghent University |year=2003–2004 |access-date=2009-01-17|language=nl}}</ref> The small French-speaking minority was quite affluent and constituted the social upper class.<ref name="ulaval">{{cite web |url=http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/europe/belgiqueetat_histoire.htm |title=Petite histoire de la Belgique et ses conséquences linguistiques |author=Jacques Leclerc (associated member of the Trésor de la langue française au Québec) |work=L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde |publisher=Université Laval |date=2008-11-09 |access-date=2009-01-16 |language=fr |archive-date=30 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130330172609/http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/europe/belgiqueetat_histoire.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The percentage of the Brussels population using French in public life was between 5 and 10% in 1760, increasing to 15% in 1780.<ref name="ULB"/> According to authenticated archives and various official documents, it appears that a fifth of municipal declarations and official orders were written in French. Twenty years later this rose to a quarter; however, over half of the official documents in French originated in the French-speaking bourgeoisie, who made up just a tenth of the population. In 1760, small businesses and artisans wrote only 4% of their documents in French; by 1780 this had risen to 13%.<ref name="nlb"/> In private life, however, Dutch was still by far the most-used language.<ref name="ULB"/><ref name="nlb">{{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/toor004gesc01_01/toor004gesc01_01_0029.htm |chapter=Nederlands in België, Het Nederlands bedreigd en overlevend |author=G. Geerts |author2=M.C. van den Toorn |author3=W. Pijnenburg |author4=J.A. van Leuvensteijn |author5=J.M. van der Horst |year=1997 |title=Geschiedenis van de Nederlandse taal |publisher=Amsterdam University Press (University of Amsterdam) |isbn=90-5356-234-6 |access-date=2009-01-15|language=nl}}</ref> For the Austrian Habsburg administration, French was the language of communication, although the communiqué from the Habsburgs was seldom seen by commoners of Brussels.<ref name="mythe"/>

===French rule=== [[File:Brussels, townhall oeg2043-00090 foto3 2015-06-07 08.38.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Under French rule, the use of Dutch was forbidden in Brussels' Town Hall.]] Following the campaigns of 1794 in the French Revolutionary Wars, the Low Countries were annexed by the French First Republic, ending Habsburg rule in the region. The Flemish were heavily repressed by the French, who instituted heavy-handed policies that completely paralyzed the economy. Within this period of systematic exploitation, about 800,000 inhabitants fled the Southern Netherlands,<ref>{{cite web |author=Alexander Ganse |publisher=Korean Minjok Leadership Academy |url=http://www.zum.de/whkmla/region/lowcountries/bel17951799.html |title=Belgium under French Administration, 1795–1799 |access-date=2008-04-03}}</ref> and the population of Brussels decreased from 74,000 in 1792 to 66,000 in 1799.<ref name="digitaal"/> The French occupation led to further suppression of Dutch across the country, including its abolition as an administrative language.<ref name="ulaval"/><ref name="digitaal">{{cite web |url=http://www.digitaalbrussel.be/thema/toerisme/geschiedenis/franseov.asp |title=De Franse overheersing (1792 – 1794 – 1815) |author=Daniel Suy |year=1997 |work=De geschiedenis van Brussel |publisher=Flemish Community Commission (VGC) |access-date=2009-01-17 |language=nl |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012134559/http://www.digitaalbrussel.be/thema/toerisme/geschiedenis/franseov.asp |archive-date=2008-10-12 |url-status=dead }}</ref> With the motto "one nation, one language", French became the only accepted language in public life, as well as in economic, political, and social affairs.<ref name="broeksele">{{cite web |url=http://www.dutch.ac.uk/studypacks/dutch_language/brussels/broeksele.html |title=Broeksele |year=2006 |work=Bruisend Brussel |publisher=University College London (UCL) |access-date=2009-01-16 |language=nl |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724182958/http://www.dutch.ac.uk/studypacks/dutch_language/brussels/broeksele.html |archive-date=2011-07-24 }}</ref> The measures of the successive French governments, and in particular the 1798 massive conscription into the French army, were particularly unpopular within the Flemish segment of the population and caused the Peasants' War.<ref name="leclerc">{{cite web|author=Jacques Leclerc (associated member of the Trésor de la langue française au Québec) |access-date=2008-04-02 |publisher=Université Laval |title=Belgique – België – Belgien |url=http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/europe/belgiqueacc.htm |language=fr |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070608172452/http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/europe/belgiqueacc.htm |archive-date=2007-06-08 }}</ref> The Peasant's War is often seen as the starting point of the modern Flemish movement.<ref name="KLMA">{{cite web |author=Alexander Ganse |publisher=Korean Minjok Leadership Academy |url=http://www.zum.de/whkmla/military/napwars/boerenkrijg.html |title=The Flemish Peasants War of 1798 |access-date=2008-04-02}}</ref> From this period until the 20th century, Dutch was seen in Belgium as a language of the poor and illiterate.<ref name="ned"/> In Flanders, as well as other areas in Europe, the aristocracy quickly adopted French.<ref name="ulaval"/><ref name="brio">{{cite web |url=http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/Taal_sociale_integr_1.pdf |title=La situation des langues à Bruxelles au XIXe siècle à la lumière d'un examen critique des statistiques |author=Eliane Gubin |year=1978 |work=Taal en Sociale Integratie, I |publisher=Université Libre de Bruxelles (ULB) |pages=33–80 |access-date=2009-01-16 |language=fr |archive-date=11 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411072846/http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/Taal_sociale_integr_1.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The French occupation laid the foundations for a Francization of the Flemish middle class aided by an exceptional French-language educational system.<ref name="brio2">{{cite web |url=http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/Taal_sociale_integr_2.pdf |title=Peilingen naar het taalgebruik in Brusselse stadscartularia en stadsrekeningen (XIIIde-XVde eeuw) |author=Paul De Ridder |year=1979 |work=Taal en Sociale Integratie, II |publisher=Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) |pages=1–39 |access-date=2009-01-16 |language=nl |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923194610/http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/Taal_sociale_integr_2.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

At the beginning of the 19th century, the Napoleonic Office of Statistics found that Dutch was still the most frequently spoken language in both the Brussels arrondissement and Leuven. An exception included a limited number of districts within the City of Brussels, where French had become the most used language. In Nivelles, Walloon was the most spoken language.<ref name="ULB"/> Inside of the Small Ring of Brussels (the Pentagon), French was the leading language of street markets and districts such as the Coudenberg and the Sablon/Zavel,<ref name="winkler">{{cite web |url=http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/wink007alge02/wink007alge02_067.htm |title=De stad Brussel |author=Johan Winkler |year=1874 |work=Algemeen Nederduitsch en Friesch Dialecticon |pages=264–272 |publisher=Digitale Bibliotheek voor de Nederlandse Letteren |access-date=2009-01-16 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20050107203912/http://dbnl.org/tekst/wink007alge02/wink007alge02_067.htm |archive-date = January 7, 2005|language=nl}}</ref> while Dutch dominated in the harbor, the Schaerbeek Gate and the Leuven Gate areas. The first city walls were gradually dismantled during the 15th century to the 17th century, and the outer second walls (where the Small Ring now stands) were demolished between 1810 and 1840, so that the city could grow and incorporate the surrounding settlements.<ref name="ogen">{{cite web |url=http://www.bop.vgc.be/didmat/ogenblikken/achtergrond/stadsgeografie.html |title=De territoriale groei van Brussel |author=Junius Julien |year=1991 |work=Brussels Onderwijspunt |publisher=Flemish Community Commission (VGC) |access-date=2009-01-17 |language=nl |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090723184131/http://www.bop.vgc.be/didmat/ogenblikken/achtergrond/stadsgeografie.html |archive-date=2009-07-23 }}</ref>

Immediately after the French capture, the use of Dutch was forbidden in Brussels' Town Hall.<ref name="nlb"/> The Francization policy, instituted to unify the state, were aimed at the citizens who were to assume power from the nobility as was done in the French Revolution.<ref name="nlb"/> However, the French rulers rapidly understood it was not possible to force local populations, speaking languages very different from French, to suddenly use it. The Francization of the Dutch-speaking parts of the Low Countries, therefore, remained limited to the higher levels of the local administration and upper-class society.<ref name="ULB"/> The effect on lower social classes, of whom 60% were illiterate,<ref name="nlb"/> was small.<ref name="berlijn"/> Life on the streets was greatly affected as, by law, all notices, street names, etc. were required to be written in French,<ref name="nlb"/> and official documents were to be written solely in French, although "when needed", a non-legally-binding translation could be permitted.<ref name="berlijn"/> Simultaneously, businesses from the rural areas were told not to continue operating if they were not proficient in French.<ref name="ULB"/> In addition, the law stated that all court pleas, sentences, and other legal materials were to be written solely in French unless practical considerations made this impossible.<ref name="ULB"/> These measures increased the percentage of official documents written in French from 60% around the start of the 19th century to 80% by 1813. Although mainly used in higher social circles, a more appropriate measure of actual language use might include an observation of written testaments, three-fourths of which in 1804 were written in Dutch, indicating that the upper classes still mainly used Dutch around the start of the 19th century.<ref name="ULB"/>

===Dutch rule=== [[File:William I of the Netherlands.jpg|thumb|left|upright|King William I of the Netherlands tried to make Dutch the sole language of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.]] In 1815, following the final defeat of Napoleon, the United Kingdom of the Netherlands was created by the Congress of Vienna, joining the Southern Netherlands with the former Dutch Republic. Shortly after the formation of the new kingdom, at the request of Brussels businesses, Dutch once again became the official language of Brussels.<ref name="nlb"/> Nevertheless, the union of the Netherlands and Belgium did little to lessen the political and economic power of French in Flanders, where it remained the aristocracy's language.<ref name="NO">{{cite web |url=http://neon.niederlandistik.fu-berlin.de/langvar/statusdutch/index_html/nl#statusbelgium |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090502162036/http://neon.niederlandistik.fu-berlin.de/langvar/statusdutch/index_html/nl#statusbelgium |url-status=dead |archive-date=2009-05-02 |title=Het Nederlands: status en verspreiding |work=Nederlands Online (neon) |publisher=Free University of Berlin (FU Berlin) |date=2004-06-18 |access-date=2009-01-16 |language=nl }}</ref> Brussels and The Hague were dual capitals of the Kingdom, and in the Parliament, the Belgian delegates spoke only French. King William I of the Netherlands wanted to develop present-day Flanders to the level of the Northern Netherlands, and instituted a wide network of schools in the local language of the people.<ref name="mythe"/><ref name="ulaval"/> He made Dutch the single official language of the Flemish provinces, and this was also implemented in bilingual Brabant and Brussels. The Walloon provinces remained monolingually French.<ref name="nlb"/> The king hoped to make Dutch the sole language of the nation, but the French-speaking citizenry, the Catholic Church, and the Walloons resisted this move.<ref name="ulaval"/> The French-speaking population feared that their opportunities for participation in government were threatened and that they would become unneeded elements of the new kingdom. Under pressure from these groups, in 1830, the king reintroduced a language freedom policy throughout all of present-day Belgium.<ref name="demoulin">{{cite web |url=http://mrw.wallonie.be/sg/dsg/dircom/walcartes/pages/car316.htm |title=La langue et la révolution de 1830 |author=Robert Demoulin |work=Unification politique, essor économique (1794–1914) — Histoire de la Wallonie |pages=313–322 |publisher=Wallonie en mouvement |access-date=2009-01-16|language=fr}}</ref><ref name="bauwens">{{cite web |url=http://www.dmnet.be/ndf/main/fr/pgarfr/arfr174.html |title=Comment sortir du labyrinthe belge ? |author=Marcel Bauwens |year=1998–2005 |work=Nouvelles de Flandre [art 174] |publisher=Association pour la Promotion de Francophonie en Flandre (APFF) |access-date=2009-01-18|language=fr}}</ref> This nullified the monolingual status of Brussels and the Flemish provinces.<ref name="nlb"/>

Important for the later development of the Dutch language was that the Flemish population experienced a certain amount of contact with the northern Standard Dutch during the kingdom's short reign.<ref name="berlijn"/> The Catholic Church viewed Dutch as a threatening element representative of Protestantism, while the Francophone aristocracy still viewed Dutch as a language subordinate to French.<ref name="bauwens"/> These views helped contribute to the Belgian Revolution and to the creation of an independent and officially monolingual Francophone Kingdom of Belgium, established in 1830.<ref name="berlijn"/><ref name="digitaal"/><ref name="demoulin"/> This strong preference for French would greatly influence language use in Brussels.

===Belgian Revolution=== {{See also|Language legislation in Belgium}} [[File:Gustave Wappers - Episode of the September Days 1830, on the Grand Place of Brussels - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|right|The Belgian Revolution in the Grand-Place in front of the Town Hall. Painting entitled ''Episode of the Belgian Revolution of 1830'' by Wappers.]]

After the Belgian Revolution, the bourgeoisie in Brussels began to increasingly use French. Numerous French and Walloon immigrants moved to Brussels, and for the first time in mass numbers the Flemish people began switching to French.<ref name="ernest"/><ref name="vl">{{cite web |url=http://brussel.vlaanderen.be/brusselhistorisch.html |title=Brussel historisch |work=Hoofdstedelijke Aangelegenheden |publisher=Ministry of the Flemish Community |access-date=2009-01-17 |language=nl |archive-date=6 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706142438/http://brussel.vlaanderen.be/brusselhistorisch.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

By October 16, 1830 King William I had already rescinded a policy that named Dutch as the official language of Brussels.<ref name="FO"/> The sole official language of the newly created centralized state was French, even though a majority of the population was Flemish.<ref name="ulaval"/> French became the language of the court, the administration, the army, the media, and of culture and education.<ref name="vl"/> With more French being spoken, societal progress, culture, and universalism gave it an aura of "respectibility".<ref name="winkler"/> In contrast, Dutch garnered little consideration and was deemed a language for peasants, farmers, and poor workers.<ref name="érudit">{{cite journal |title=Le Québec entre la Flandre et la Wallonie : Une comparaison des nationalismes sous-étatiques belges et du nationalisme québécois |author=Jan Erk |year=2002 |journal=Recherches Sociographiques |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=499–516 |publisher=Université Laval |doi=10.7202/000609ar |language=fr|doi-access=free }}</ref> In addition to the geographical language border between Flanders and Wallonia, there was in fact also a social language border between the Dutch-speakers and French-speakers.<ref name="mandel"/><ref name="bauwens"/><ref name="sociaal">{{cite web |url=http://www2.vlaanderen.be/ned/sites/taalwetgeving/sociale_taalgrens.html |title=De sociale taalgrens |work=Als goede buren: Vlaanderen en de taalwetgeving |year=1999 |publisher=Ministry of the Flemish Community |access-date=2009-01-17 |language=nl |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071010080856/http://www2.vlaanderen.be/ned/sites/taalwetgeving/sociale_taalgrens.html |archive-date=2007-10-10 |url-status=dead }}</ref> French was the language of politics and economics and a symbol of upward social mobility.<ref name="brio"/> French poet Charles Baudelaire, during his short stay in Brussels, complained of the contemporary bourgeoisie's hypocrisy:<ref name="rudi2">{{cite book |url=http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/bt8download.pdf |title=Taalgebruik in Brussel — Taalverhoudingen, taalverschuivingen en taalidentiteit in een meertalige stad |author=Rudi Janssens |year=2001 |work=19 keer Brussel; Brusselse Thema's (8) |publisher=VUBPress (Vrije Universiteit Brussel, VUB) |isbn=90-5487-293-4 |access-date=2009-01-16 |language=nl |archive-date=5 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070605012657/http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/bt8download.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{{quote|In Brussels, people do not really speak French, but pretend that they do not speak Flemish. For them it shows good taste. The proof that they actually do speak good Flemish is that they bark orders to their servants in Flemish.|Baudelaire, 1866<ref>Original quote: ''On ne sait pas le français, personne ne le sait, mais tout le monde affecte de ne pas connaître le flamand. C’est de bon goût. La preuve qu’ils le savent très bien, c’est qu’ils engueulent leurs domestiques en flamand.''</ref>}}

The new Belgian capital remained a mostly Dutch-speaking city, where the inhabitants spoke a local South Brabantian dialect. A minority of French-speaking citizens, mainly those who had immigrated from France during the previous decades, constituted 15% of the population.<ref name="ulaval"/> Despite this, the first mayor of Brussels after the revolution, Nicolas-Jean Rouppe, declared French to be the administration's sole language.<ref name="digitaal"/> The political center of Brussels attracted the economic elite, and Brussels soon acquired French-speaking upper and middle classes.<ref name="sociaal"/> In 1846, 38% of the city declared themselves being French-speaking, while this percentage was 5% in Ghent and 2% in Antwerp.<ref name="brio"/> Many supposed French-speakers were actually Flemish bourgeois with Dutch-speaking roots.<ref name="brio3">{{cite web |url=http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/Taal_sociale_integr_4.pdf |title=Taal- en onderwijspolitiek te Brussel (1878–1914) |author=Harry van Velthoven |year=1981 |work=Taal en Sociale Integratie, IV |publisher=Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) |pages=261–387 |access-date=2009-01-16 |language=nl |archive-date=11 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411072853/http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/Taal_sociale_integr_4.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 1860, 95% of the Flemish population spoke Dutch, although these people had hardly any economic and political power<ref name="ned2">{{cite web |url=http://www.ned.univie.ac.at/non/landeskunde/be/h12/vlaamse.htm |title=Geschiedenis van de Vlaamse Beweging |work=Cultuurkunde van België |publisher=NEDWEB — University of Vienna |access-date=2009-01-16 |language=nl |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080418060732/http://www.ned.univie.ac.at/non/landeskunde/be/h12/vlaamse.htm |archive-date=2008-04-18 }}</ref> and deemed a good knowledge of French necessary to attain higher social status and wealth.<ref name="ernest"/><ref name="ulaval"/><ref name="vl"/>

==Role of education== Brussels attracted many immigrants from Flanders, where economic strife and hunger were widespread in the 1840s.<ref name="sociaal"/> Native Flemish Brussels residents harbored a sense of superiority over the other Flemish immigrants from the poor countryside, which manifested itself in the decision to speak the "superior" French language.<ref name="brio"/>

In two or three generations, the new immigrants themselves began to speak French.<ref name="ernest"/> A typical family might have Dutch-speaking grandparents, bilingual parents, and French-speaking children. The exclusively French educational system played an important role in this changing language landscape. Dutch was mainly ignored as a school subject. From 1842, Dutch was removed from the first four years of boys' schools, although in later school grades, it could be studied. In girls' schools and Catholic schools, Dutch was taught even less, even though Dutch was still the native tongue of a majority of the pupils.<ref name="brio3"/>

Just after the mayoral inauguration of Charles Buls in 1881, elementary schools that taught Dutch were reopened in 1883.<ref name="digitaal"/> In these schools, the first two years of lessons were given in Dutch, soon after which pupils transitioned into French-speaking classes.<ref name="onderwijs">{{cite web |url=http://www.vgc.be/Onderwijs/Onderwijsbeleid+van+de+VGC/Over+het+Brussels+Nederlandstalig+onderwijs/geschiedenis.htm |title=Over het Brussels Nederlandstalig onderwijs |publisher=Flemish Community Commission (VGC) |access-date=2009-01-17 |language=nl |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120114344/http://www.vgc.be/Onderwijs/Onderwijsbeleid+van+de+VGC/Over+het+Brussels+Nederlandstalig+onderwijs/geschiedenis.htm |archive-date=2012-11-20 }}</ref> The proposal by Buls was initially poorly received by the local councils, although they were later accepted when studies showed that when pupils had acquired a good understanding of Dutch, they more easily obtained French speaking skills. The dominance of French in education was not affected, since most schooling in later years was still in French.<ref name="brio3"/> Because of the authoritative position that French enjoyed in Belgium and the misconceptions of Buls' plan,<ref name="brio3"/> many Flemish children were still sent to a French school to better master the language.<ref name="ulaval"/><ref name="vl"/> This was made possible by the idea of "freedom of the head of household", which stipulated that parents were allowed to send their children to any school they wished, regardless of the child's mother tongue. Since most pupils were sent to French schools rather than Dutch schools, after the end of World War I there was not a single Dutch class left in central Brussels. In the thirteen municipalities that constituted the Brussels metropolitan area, there were 441 Dutch classes and 1,592 French classes, even though the French-speaking population made up just under one-third of the total.<ref name="onderwijs"/>

As a result of the propagation of the bilingual education system, Dutch was no longer being passed down by many Flemish parents to their children.<ref name="winkler"/> French was beginning to be increasingly used as the main language spoken at home by many Flemings.<ref name="rudi2"/> In Flanders, education played less of a role in Francization because most schools continued to teach in Dutch.<ref name="kramer"/>

==French-speaking immigration== During the 19th century, many political asylum seekers sought refuge in Brussels, mainly coming from France. The first wave came in 1815 bringing Jacobins and Bonapartists; a second wave came in 1848 bringing French republicans and Orléanists, a third came after the 1851 French coup d'état, and a fourth came in 1871 after the Franco-Prussian War.<ref name="ulaval"/> Asylum seekers and other immigrants also came from other parts of Europe such as Italy, Poland, Germany, and Russia. They preferred to speak French rather than Dutch when they arrived, which further intensified Francization.<ref name="ulaval"/>

As the capital of the new kingdom, Brussels also attracted a large number of Walloon migrants.<ref name="mandel"/> In contrast to Flemish citizens of Brussels, who came primarily from the lower social classes, the Walloon newcomers belonged mainly to the middle class.<ref name="jaumain"/> The Walloon and French migrants lived predominantly in the Marolles/Marollen district of Brussels, where Marollian, a mixture of French, Picard and Flemish Brusselian,<ref>{{Cite web |title=De Brusselse streektalen — Patrimoine - Erfgoed |url=https://erfgoed.brussels/ontdekken/de-brusselse-erfgoedinventarissen/inventaris-van-het-immaterieel-cultureel-erfgoed-ice/de-brusselse-streektalen |access-date=2026-02-27 |website=erfgoed.brussels}}</ref> was spoken.<ref name="winkler"/> Despite the fact that many lower-class Walloons also made their way to Brussels, the perception of French as an intellectual and elite language did not change.<ref name="brio"/> Additionally, Brussels received a considerable number of French-speaking members of the Flemish bourgeoisie.<ref name="brio4"/>

Between 1830 and 1875 the population of the City of Brussels grew from approximately 100,000 to 180,000;<ref name="brio3"/> the population of the metropolitan area soared to 750,000 by 1910.<ref name="FO">{{cite web |url=http://www.flandersonline.org/nl/flanders/5/70 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071021194233/http://www.flandersonline.org/nl/flanders/5/70 |archive-date=2007-10-21 |title=Brussel verfranst in de 19de eeuw |author=Flanders Online |publisher=Vlaams Dienstencentrum vzw |access-date=2009-01-18|language=nl}}</ref>

==Early Flemish movement in Brussels== [[File:VlaamseStrijdvlag.svg|thumb|right|Flag of the Flemish Movement]] {{See also|Flemish Movement}}

In contrast to the rest of Flanders, French in Brussels was seen less as a means of oppression but rather as a tool for social progress. In the first decade after the independence of Belgium, the neglect of the Dutch language and culture gradually caused increasingly greater dissatisfaction in the Flemish community. In 1856, the "Grievances Commission" was established to investigate the problems of the Flemings. It was devoted to making the administration, military, educational system and judicial system bilingual, but was politically ignored.<ref name="vub">{{cite web |url=http://www.vub.ac.be/vlaamsestudenteninbrussel/documenten/pedagogischdossier.pdf |title=Dossier "150 jaar Vlaamse studenten in Brussel" |author=UVV Info |year=2005 |publisher=Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) |access-date=2009-01-17 |language=nl |archive-date=11 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121111040047/http://www.vub.ac.be/vlaamsestudenteninbrussel/documenten/pedagogischdossier.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Another group to decry the problems of the Flemings was "Vlamingen Vooruit" ("Flemings Forward"), founded in 1858 in Saint-Josse-ten-Noode. Members included Charles Buls, mayor of Brussels, and Léon Vanderkindere, mayor of Uccle.<ref name="digitaal"/> Although Brussels was 57% Dutch-speaking in 1880, Flemish primary schools were prohibited until 1883. In 1884, the municipal government decided to allow birth, death, and marriage certificates to be written in Dutch. However, only a tenth of the population made use of these opportunities, suggesting that in the minds of Brussels' inhabitants, French was the normal way of conducting these matters.<ref name="nlb2">{{cite web |url=http://www.dbnl.org/tekst/toor004gesc01_01/toor004gesc01_01_0030.htm |title=De taalpolitieke ontwikkelingen in België |author=G. Geerts |work=Geschiedenis van de Nederlandse taal |publisher=M.C. van den Toorn, W. Pijnenburg, J.A. van Leuvensteijn and J.M. van der Horst|language=nl}}</ref> In 1889, Dutch was once again allowed in courtrooms, but only for use in oral testimony.<ref name="ulaval"/>

In the late 19th century, the Flemish movement gained even more strength and demanded Belgium be made bilingual. This proposal was rejected by French speakers,<ref name="berlijn"/> who feared a "Flemishization" of Wallonia as well as the prospect of having to learn Dutch to obtain a job in the civil service.<ref name="ulaval"/><ref name="eeuw">{{cite web |url=http://www2.vlaanderen.be/ned/sites/taalwetgeving/eeuw_taalwetten.html |title=Een eeuw taalwetten |work=Als goede buren: Vlaanderen en de taalwetgeving |year=1999 |publisher=Ministry of the Flemish Community |access-date=2009-01-17 |language=nl |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080112072805/http://www2.vlaanderen.be/ned/sites/taalwetgeving/eeuw_taalwetten.html |archive-date=2008-01-12 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Flemings adapted their goals to the realities of the situation and devoted themselves to a monolingual Flanders,<ref name="vl"/> which Brussels was still socially a part of.<ref name="ernest"/> The Flemings hoped to limit the spread of French in Flanders by restricting the areas in which French was an official language. In 1873 in the Sint-Jans-Molenbeek district of Brussels, Flemish laborer Jozef Schoep refused to accept a French-language birth certificate. He was ordered to pay a fine of 50 francs. His case generated considerable controversy and shortly thereafter the Coremans Law was introduced, which allowed Dutch to be used by Dutch speakers in court.<ref name="gent">{{cite web|url=http://www.law.ugent.be/decaan/geschiedenis/1-hoofdstuk-3.html#_ednref390 |title=De Universiteit in de kering 1876–1930 |author=Liesbet Vandersteene |work=Geschiedenis van de faculteit Rechtsgeleerdheid |publisher=Ghent University |date=2006-01-03 |access-date=2009-01-17 |language=nl |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613095905/http://www.law.ugent.be/decaan/geschiedenis/1-hoofdstuk-3.html |archive-date=June 13, 2007 }}</ref>

In general, the Flemish movement in Brussels did not garner much support for its plans regarding the use of Dutch. Each attempt to promote Dutch and limit the expansion of French influence as a symbol of social status was seen as a means to stifle social mobility rather than as a protective measure as it was seen in the rest of Flanders.<ref name="brio"/> Whereas in other Flemish cities such as Ghent in which the Flemish laborers were dominated by a French-speaking upper class, in Brussels it was not as easy to make such a distinction because so many Walloons made up a large portion of the working class. The linguistic heterogeneity, combined with the fact that most of the workers' upper class spoke French, meant that the class struggle for most workers in Brussels was not seen as a language struggle as well. Ever since the start of the 20th century, the workers' movement in Brussels defended bilingualism, so as to have a means of emancipation for the local working class. This, along with the educational system, facilitated the Francization of thousands of Brussels residents.<ref name="brio4">{{cite web |url=http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/andere%20publicaties/btng-rbhc,%2021,%201990,%203-4,%20pp%20383-412.pdf |title=Thuis in gescheiden werelden — De migratoire en sociale aspecten van verfransing te Brussel in het midden van de 19e eeuw |author=Machteld de Metsenaere |year=1990 |work=BTNG-RBHC, XXI, 1990, n° 3–4 [383–412] |publisher=Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) |access-date=2009-01-16 |language=nl |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015023229/http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/andere%20publicaties/btng-rbhc,%2021,%201990,%203-4,%20pp%20383-412.pdf |archive-date=2018-10-15 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Early language laws== {{See also|Language legislation in Belgium}} [[Image:Bruxelles-Brussel.jpg|left|thumb|French and Dutch are both official languages in the Brussels-Capital Region]]

By the 1870s, most municipalities were administered in French. With the De Laet law in 1878, a gradual change started to occur. From that point forward, in the provinces of Limburg, Antwerp, West Flanders and East Flanders, and in the arrondissement of Leuven, all public communication was given in Dutch or in both languages. For the arrondissement of Brussels, documents could be requested in Dutch.<ref name="luc">{{cite web |url=http://home.lvb.net/rechtstoestand7 |title=Tweede en derde taalwet |author=Luc Van Braekel |year=2003 |access-date=2009-01-17 |language=nl |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050103191851/http://home.lvb.net/rechtstoestand7 |archive-date=2005-01-03 }}</ref> Nonetheless, by 1900 most large Flemish cities, cities along the language border, and the municipalities of the Brussels metropolitan area were still administered in French.<ref name="OVV">{{cite web |url=http://www.ovv.be/page.php?ID=1971 |title=Sint-Stevens-Woluwe: een unicum in de Belgische geschiedenis |author=Johan Slembrouck |date=2007-08-02 |publisher=Overlegcentrum van Vlaamse Verenigingen (OVV) |access-date=2009-01-17|language=nl}}</ref>

In 1921, the territoriality principle was recognized, which solidified the outline of the Belgian language border.<ref name="carrefour">{{cite web |url=http://www.carrefour.be/histoire.htm |title=Histoire des discriminations linguistiques ou pour motifs linguistiques, contre les francophones de la périphérie bruxelloise (de 120.000 à 150.000 citoyens belges) |date=2007-11-08 |work=Histoire |publisher=Carrefour |access-date=2009-01-17 |language=fr |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090310003827/http://www.carrefour.be/histoire.htm |archive-date=2009-03-10 }}</ref> The Flemings hoped that such a language border would help to curb the influx of French in Flanders. Belgium became divided into three language areas: a monolingual Dutch-speaking area in the north (Flanders), a monolingual French-speaking area in the south (Wallonia), and a bilingual area (Brussels), even though the majority of Brussels residents spoke primarily Dutch.<ref name="ulaval"/> The municipalities in the Brussels metropolitan region, the bilingual region of Belgium, could freely choose either language to be used in administrative purposes. The town government of Sint-Stevens-Woluwe, which lies in present-day Flemish Brabant, was the only one to opt for Dutch over French.<ref name="OVV"/>

==Language censuses== The language law of 1921 was elaborated upon by a further law in 1932. Dutch was made an official language within the central government, the (then) four Flemish provinces, as well as the arrondissements of Leuven and Brussels (excepting the Brussels metropolitan area as a whole). The law also stipulated that municipalities on the language border or near Brussels would be required to provide services in both languages when the minority exceeded 30%, and the administrative language of a municipality would be changed if the language minority grew to greater than 50%.<ref name="carrefour"/> This was to be regulated by a language census every ten years,<ref name="wem">{{cite web |url=http://mrw.wallonie.be/sg/dsg/dircom/walcartes/pages/txt322.htm |title=Frontière linguistique, frontière politique |publisher=Wallonie en mouvement |access-date=2009-01-17|language=fr}}</ref> although the validity of the results from Flanders was frequently questioned.<ref name="knack">{{cite web |url=http://www.knack.be/nieuws/belgie/de-belgische-troebelen/site72-section24-article9689.html |title=De Belgische troebelen |publisher=Knack |date=2007-11-12 |access-date=2009-01-16 |language=nl |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080327055341/http://www.knack.be/nieuws/belgie/de-belgische-troebelen/site72-section24-article9689.html |archive-date=2008-03-27 }}</ref> In 1932, Sint-Stevens-Woluwe, now a part of the Zaventem municipality, became the first municipality in Belgian history to secede from the bilingual Brussels metro region because the French-speaking minority percentage fell to below 30%.<ref name="OVV"/> This did not sit well with some French speakers in Brussels, some of whom formed a group called the "Ligue contre la flamandisation de Bruxelles" (League against the Flemishification of Brussels), which campaigned against what they saw as a form of "Flemish tyranny". Before the introduction of French as an official language of Ganshoren and Sint-Agatha-Berchem, the group also objected to the bilingual status of Ixelles. The group also strongly defended the "freedom of the head of household", a major factor in the process of Francization.<ref name="affiches">{{cite web |url=http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/europe/belgique_affiche-1832.htm |title=La " tyrannie flamingante " vue par les francophones |author=Paul Tourret |year=2001 |work=Affiches publiées par la « Ligue contre la flamandisation de Bruxelles » |publisher=Université Laval |access-date=2009-01-25 |language=fr |archive-date=23 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223053209/http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/europe/belgique_affiche-1832.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Evolution in the City of Brussels proper=== [[Image:StElizabethChurchHaren.jpg|right|thumb|Haren, one of the small Brabantian and initially largely Dutch-speaking villages that became part of the Brussels metropolitan area.]] While the Brussels metropolitan area grew quickly, the population of the City of Brussels proper declined considerably. In 1910, Brussels had 185,000 inhabitants; in 1925 this number fell to 142,000. The reasons for this depopulation were manifold. First, the fetid stench of the disease-laden Senne river caused many to leave the city.<ref name="urbanisme">{{cite web |url=http://www.ethesis.net/urbanisme/urbanisme_hfst_1.htm |title=Urbanisme in Brussel, 1830–1860 |author=Edwin Smellinckx |work=Licentiaatsverhandelingen on-line |publisher=Katholieke Universiteit Leuven (KULeuven) |year=2000–2001 |access-date=2009-01-17|language=nl}}</ref> Second, cholera broke out in 1832 and 1848,<ref name="urbanisme"/> which led to the Senne being completely covered over. Third, the rising price of property and rental rates caused many inhabitants to search for affordable living situations elsewhere. Higher taxes on patents, which were up to 30% higher than those in neighboring municipalities, stifled economic development and drove up the cost of city living. These higher patent prices were abandoned in 1860. Finally, the industrialization that occurred in the neighboring areas drew workers out of the city. These social changes helped speed the process of Francization in the central city.<ref name="ogen"/> In 1920, three bordering municipalities, each having a large number of Dutch-speaking inhabitants, were amalgamated into the City of Brussels.

According to the language census of 1846, 61% of Brussels residents spoke Dutch and 39% spoke French. The census of 1866 permitted residents to answer "both languages", although it was unstated whether this meant "knowledge of both languages" or "use of both languages", nor whether or not either was the resident's mother tongue. In any case, 39% answered Dutch, 20% French, and 38% "both languages".<ref name="brio"/> In 1900, the percentage of monolingual French speakers overtook the percentage of monolingual Dutch speakers, although this was most likely caused by the growing number of bilingual speakers.<ref name="nlb2"/> Between 1880 and 1890, the percentage of bilingual speakers rose from 30% to 50%, and the number of monolingual Dutch speakers declined from 36% in 1880 to 17% in 1910.<ref name="brio3"/> Although the term "bilingual" was misused by the government to showcase a large number of French speakers,<ref name="brio3"/> it is clear that French gained acceptance in both the public and private lives of Dutch-speaking Brussels residents.<ref name="nlb2"/>

===Expansion of the metropolitan area=== Beyond the city of Brussels, the municipalities of Ixelles, Saint-Gilles, Etterbeek, Forest, Watermael-Boitsfort and Saint-Josse saw the most widespread adoption of the French language over the following century. In Ixelles, the proportion of Dutch monolinguals fell from 54% to 3% between 1846 and 1947, while during the same time, the proportion of monolingual Francophones grew from 45% to 60%. Whereas in 1846 Saint-Gilles was still 83% Dutch-speaking, one hundred years later, half of its population spoke only French, and 39% were bilingual. Similarly, Etterbeek changed from a 97% Dutch-speaking village to an urban neighborhood in which half of its inhabitants spoke only French. The same phenomenon applied to Forest and Watermael-Boitsfort, where they went from completely Dutch-speaking to half monolingual French and half bilingual, with monolingual Dutch speakers at only 6%. In Saint-Josse-ten-Noode, the proportion of monolingual Dutch speakers equalled that of French speakers in 1846, but by 1947 only 6% were monolingual Dutch speakers, and 40% were monolingual French speakers.

left|350px|thumb|The language censuses showed a simultaneous transition from the Dutch monolingualism to bilingualism and from the bilingualism to French monolingualism In 1921 the metropolitan area was expanded further. The municipalities of Laken, Neder-Over-Heembeek, and Haren were incorporated into the municipality of Brussels, while Woluwe-Saint-Pierre (Sint-Pieters-Woluwe) became part of the bilingual agglomeration by law.<ref name="OVV"/> After the language census of 1947, Evere, Ganshoren, and Sint-Agatha-Berchem were added to the bilingual agglomeration, although the implementation of this change was postponed until 1954 due to Flemish pressure. This was the last enlargement of the agglomeration, which brought the number of municipalities in Brussels to 19. In the peripheral municipalities of Kraainem, Linkebeek, Drogenbos, and Wemmel, where a French-speaking minority of more than 30% existed, language facilities were set up, although these municipalities officially remain in the Dutch language area.<ref name="carrefour"/>

{| class="wikitable" align=right style="margin: 10px; border: 1px #AAAAAA solid; border-collapse: collapse;" |+ '''Most spoken language''' (current 19 municipalities) |- ! Year ! Dutch ! French |- | '''1910''' | 49.1% | 49.3% |- | '''1920''' | 39.2% | 60.5% |- | '''1930''' | 34.7% | 64.7% |- | '''1947''' | 25.5% | 74.2% |} The censuses on the use of languages in the municipalities of the Brussels-Capital Region have shown that by 1947 French was becoming the most spoken language. However, in 1947, the percentage of residents declaring themselves bilingual was 45%, the percentage of monolingual Dutch speakers was 9% and the percentage of monolingual French speakers was 38%. In practice, bilingual citizens were most of the time bilingual Flemings. They were nevertheless recorded as bilinguals and not as Dutch speakers.<ref name="nlb2"/>

==Establishment of the language border== {{See also|Language border|Municipalities with language facilities}} [[File:BelgieGemeenschappenkaart.svg|thumb|200px|right|Language areas in Belgium: Brussels became an officially bilingual enclave inside the Dutch language area {{legend|#A8A800|Dutch language area }} {{legend|#A80000|French language area }} {{legend|#0000A8|German language area }} ]] [[File:Arrondissement Brussels-Periphery Belgium Map.PNG|thumb|right|The six municipalities with language facilities in the periphery of Brussels, shown within Flemish Brabant]] After both a Flemish boycott of the language census of 1960 and two large Flemish protest marches in Brussels,<ref name="knack"/> the language border was solidified in 1962 and the recently taken language census was annulled. Various municipalities shifted from one language area to another, such as Voeren, which became part of Flanders, and Comines-Warneton and Mouscron which became part of Wallonia. In both Wezembeek-Oppem and Sint-Genesius-Rode, language facilities were established for French speakers, who made up just under 30% of the population when the last language census in 1947 was taken.<ref name="carrefour"/> Brussels was fixed at 19 municipalities, thus creating a bilingual enclave in otherwise monolingual Flanders.<ref name="deweerdt">{{cite web |url=http://www.haviko.org/perscommentaar_Vlaams/De_Tijd_arrestRVS_29-12-04.pdf |title=Raad van State beperkt toepassing faciliteiten in randgemeenten |author=Stefaan Huysentruyt |author2=Mark Deweerdt |date=2004-12-29 |publisher=De Tijd |access-date=2009-01-16 |language=nl |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204125755/http://www.haviko.org/perscommentaar_Vlaams/De_Tijd_arrestRVS_29-12-04.pdf |archive-date=2008-12-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Brussels was limited to the current 19 municipalities. Many French speakers complained that this did not correspond to the social reality, since the language border was based on the results of the 1947 language census and not that of 1960. French-speaking sources claim that in that year, French-speaking minorities had surpassed the 30% threshold in Alsemberg, Beersel, Sint-Pieters-Leeuw, Dilbeek, Strombeek-Bever, Sterrebeek, and Sint-Stevens-Woluwe,<ref name="carrefour"/> in which case French-language facilities should have been established under previous legislation. A political rift developed because French speakers considered the language facilities as an essential right, while the Flemings saw the facilities as a temporary, transitional measure to allow the French-speaking minorities time to adapt to their Flemish surroundings.<ref name="carrefour"/><ref name="deweerdt"/><ref name="ulaval2">{{cite web |url=http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/AXL/europe/belgiquefla.htm |title=La Communauté flamande de Belgique |author=Jacques Leclerc (associated member of the Trésor de la langue française au Québec) |work=L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde |publisher=Université Laval |date=2008-09-30 |access-date=2009-01-16 |language=fr |archive-date=18 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090118014144/http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/AXL/Europe/belgiquefla.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The division of the country into language areas had serious consequences for education, and the "freedom of the head of household" was abolished. Thence, Dutch-speaking children were required to be educated in Dutch and French-speaking children in French.<ref name="onderwijs"/> This stemmed the tide of further Francization of Brussels. Some of the more radical French speakers such as the Democratic Front of Francophones were opposed to this change and advocated the restoration of the freedom of education.<ref name="onderwijs"/><ref name="fdf">{{cite web |url=http://fdf.be/spip.php?article20 |title=L'historique du FDF |author=Paul Debongnie |date=1981-04-30 |publisher=Front démocratique des francophones (FDF) |access-date=2009-01-17|language=fr}}</ref>

==Criticism from the FDF== The Democratic Front of Francophones ({{langx|fr|link=no|Front démocratique des francophones}}, FDF) was founded in 1964 as a reaction to the fixation of the language border. The FDF decried the limitation of Brussels to 19 municipalities.<ref name="degroof"/> They demanded free choice of language in the educational system, the freedom for the Brussels metropolitan area to grow beyond the language border and into the unilingual Flanders, and economic opportunities for the metropolitan area that would later comprise the Brussels-Capital Region. The Front accepted that governmental agencies in Brussels would be bilingual, but not that every civil servant working in those agencies be bilingual. The party experienced growing popularity and saw electoral success in the elections of the 1960s and 1970s.<ref name="fdf"/>

The FDF objected to a fixed representation of the language groups in the agencies, considering this to be undemocratic. In the predecessor to the Parliament of the Brussels-Capital Region, for example, a significant number of seats were reserved for Dutch speakers. A number of French speakers circumvented this by claiming to be Dutch speakers, and over a third of the seats reserved for Dutch speakers were taken by these so-called "false Flemish".<ref name="deschouwer">{{cite book |publisher= De Boeck & Larcier |title= Het statuut van de Brusselse gemeenten: denkpistes voor een mogelijke hervorming ''in'' Het statuut van Brussel / Bruxelles et son statut |author= Kris Deschouwer |author2=Jo Buelens |location= Brussels |year= 1999 |pages= 439–463 |isbn= 2-8044-0525-7 |language=nl}}</ref>

With the fusion of Belgian municipalities in 1976, some primarily French-speaking municipalities joined larger municipalities with Flemish majorities,<ref name="carrefour"/><ref name="ulaval3">{{in lang|fr}} [http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/Europe/belgiquefrn.htm La Communauté française de Belgique] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090118014349/http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/Europe/belgiquefrn.htm |date=2009-01-18 }}, Département de Langues, linguistique et traduction, Faculté des Lettres, Université Laval de Québec, Canada</ref> thereby reducing the number of French-speaking municipalities.<ref name="tribune">{{in lang|fr}} [http://www.tbx.be/fr/Dossier/8/app.rvb Les francophones de la périphérie], Baudouin Peeters, La Tribune de Bruxelles</ref> Zellik joined Asse, Sint-Stevens-Woluwe and Sterrebeek joined Zaventem, and Strombeek-Bever joined Grimbergen. In addition, several larger municipalities with mostly Flemish populations were created, such as Sint-Pieters-Leeuw, Dilbeek, Beersel and Tervuren. The FDF saw this as a motive for the fusion of the municipalities, not a result of it.<ref name="fdf"/>

==Reassessment of Dutch== Amidst tension throughout the country, the sociolinguistic neglect of Dutch began to fade. The recognition of Dutch as the sole language of Flanders, the expansion of a well-functioning Flemish educational system, the development of the Flemish economy, and the popularization of Standard Dutch were responsible for its revitalization.<ref name="brio2" /> The Flemish Community saw that if it wanted Dutch to have a prominent place in Brussels, it would need to make investing in Dutch language education its primary concern.<ref name="rudi2"/><ref name="BuG"/>

[[File:VUB campus Etterbeek.JPG|thumb|left|The Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) in Brussels, the third largest Flemish university]]

===Integration of Dutch into the educational system=== In 1971, the FDF managed to secure the right for individuals to again be able to choose the language of their education, and the FDF expected that Francization would continue as before.<ref name="schutter">{{cite book |url=http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/andere%20publicaties/brusselse_thema%27s_7.pdf |chapter=Taalpolitiek en multiculturalisme in het Brussels Nederlandstalig onderwijs |trans-chapter=Language policy and multiculturalism in Dutch-speaking education in Brussels |author=Helder De Schutter |editor=Ann Mares |editor2=Els Witte |year=2001 |title=19 keer Brussel; Brusselse Thema's 7 |trans-title=19 times Brussels: Brussels Themes 7 |pages=375–421 |publisher=VUBPress |isbn=90-5487-292-6 |language=nl, fr, en |access-date=7 February 2008 |archive-date=15 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015023227/http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/andere%20publicaties/brusselse_thema%27s_7.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Initially, the effect was a reduction in the number of students enrolled in Flemish schools, falling from 6,000 students in elementary school and 16,000 in high school in 1966–1967 to 5,000 and 12,000 nine years later. But by that point, the Flemish Centre of Education, created in 1967, had begun its campaign to promote education in Dutch, with its initial target being Dutch-speaking families. In 1976, this task was taken up by the precursor to today's Flemish Community Commission (VGC),<ref name="velaers">{{cite book |publisher=De Boeck & Larcier |title= Vlaanderen laat Brussel niet los": de Vlaamse invulling van de gemeenschapsautonomie in het tweetalige gebied Brussel-Hoofdstad ''in'' Het statuut van Brussel / Bruxelles et son statut |author= Jan Velaers |location= Brussels |year= 1999 |pages= 595–625 |isbn= 2-8044-0525-7 |language=nl}}</ref> which made substantial investments to improve the quality of Dutch language schools. Starting in the 1978–1979 school year, the strategy began to bear fruit, and the number of children enrolled in Flemish daycares began to increase. This translated to an increase in enrollment in primary schools a few years later.<ref name="onderwijs"/> As a result, all young Dutch-speaking children born after the mid-1970s have only gone to Flemish schools.<ref name="janssens"/> The Francization of Dutch speakers became rarer with time. Nonetheless, foreign immigration continued to tilt the balance in favor of French.<ref name="liberation">{{cite web |url=http://www.liberation.fr/tribune/0101114915-bruxelles-un-enjeu-pour-la-francophonie |title=Bruxelles, un enjeu pour la francophonie |author=Jean-Paul Nassaux |date=2007-11-09 |publisher=Libération |access-date=2009-01-16 |language=fr |archive-date=28 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120928191427/http://www.liberation.fr/tribune/0101114915-bruxelles-un-enjeu-pour-la-francophonie |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In the 1980s, the VGC started concentrating its efforts on bilingual families, though the improvement of the Flemish schools had an unexpected effect; monolingual French-speaking families also began to send their children to Flemish schools.<ref name="treffers"/> This effect increased bit by bit, as bilingualism began to be thought of as normal.<ref name="meer">{{cite web |url=http://www.diver-city.be/2008/03/bruxelles-plus-que-bilingue-une.html |title=Bruxelles, plus que bilingue ! Une richesse ou un problème ? |author=Roel Jacobs |author2=Bernard Desmet |date=2008-03-19 |work=DiverCity |access-date=2009-01-18 |language=fr |archive-date=21 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821080822/http://www.diver-city.be/2008/03/bruxelles-plus-que-bilingue-une.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> Even today, the Flemish educational system continues to attract those with a first language other than Dutch; in 2005, 20% of students go to Dutch-speaking high schools, and for daycares, that figure reaches 23%.<ref name="BuG"/> In fact, it has got to the point where those with Dutch as a first language are now a minority in the Flemish schools, and as a result, measures have needed to be taken to sustain the quality of education.<ref name="schutter"/>

===Socioeconomic development of Flanders=== Wallonia's economic decline and the use of French by recent immigrants did little to help the prestige of French relative to Dutch.<ref name="brbr">{{cite web |url=http://www.dutch.ac.uk/studypacks/dutch_language/brussels/wereldcentrum.html |title=Wereldcentrum in het hart van Europa |year=2006 |work=Bruisend Brussel |editor=University College London |access-date=Jan 16, 2009 |language=nl |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090723233947/http://www.dutch.ac.uk/studypacks/dutch_language/brussels/wereldcentrum.html |archive-date=2009-07-23 }}</ref> After World War II, the Flemish economy underwent significant growth. Flanders developed a prosperous middle class, and the prestige of Dutch saw an increase.<ref name="meynen"/>

Those born into a monolingual Dutch family in Brussels had always had a lower level of education than the average for Brussels. By contrast, 30% of the Flemings who had moved to Brussels from elsewhere had a university degree or other post-secondary education, and were highly qualified. For example, since 1970 in Belgium as a whole, there have been more students enrolled in Dutch language universities than French ones. To be called a Dutch speaker no longer evokes images of lower-class laborers, as it long had.<ref name="janssens"/> Bilingualism is increasingly a prerequisite for well-paying jobs,<ref name="ned"/> and what prestige the Dutch language currently has in Brussels is chiefly for economic reasons. The economic importance of Dutch in Brussels has little to do with the proportion of Brussels that is Dutch-speaking. Rather, it is primarily relations between businesses in Brussels and Flemish businesses, or more generally, with Dutch-speaking businesses as a whole that ensure the economic importance of Dutch in Brussels.<ref name="rudi2"/> <!-- I'm not going to translate this next sentence; it isn't encyclopedic and it is off topic. -OP

L'effet de levier d'une connaissance plus étendue du néerlandais, et indirectement l'ouverture à d'autres aspects de la culture néerlandophone, peuvent améliorer les relations entre les populations différentes et à terme enrichir leur culture, comme c'est le cas actuellement avec le français.<ref name="rudi2"/> -->

==Foreign immigration== {{See also|Brussels and the European Union|}} In 1958, Brussels became the seat of the European Economic Community, which later became the EU, while the North Atlantic Treaty Organization was resettled in Belgium in 1967 with its headquarters in Evere. This, combined with economic immigration from southern Europe and later from Turkey, Morocco (a former French protectorate), and Democratic Republic of the Congo (formerly Belgian Congo), changed the makeup of the population of Brussels. Between 1961 and 2006, the number of non-Belgian inhabitants grew from 7% to 56%.<ref name="BuG">{{cite web |url=http://www.npdata.be/BuG/54/BuG-54.htm |title=Laatste 45 jaar in Brussel: 50% bevolking van autochtoon naar allochtoon |author=Jan Hertogen |date=2007-04-04 |work=Bericht uit het Gewisse |publisher=Non-Profit Data |access-date=2009-01-17|language=nl}}</ref><ref name="imagine">{{cite web |url=http://www.indymedia.be/nl/node/24835 |title=Bruxelles n'est pas le problème, c'est la solution |author=Eric Corijn |date=2007-11-12 |publisher=Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) |access-date=2009-01-17|language=fr}} Toegankelijk via Indymedia.</ref> The newcomers adopted and spoke French in great numbers, mainly due to the French-speaking African origins of many that came, with many Moroccans and Congolese already possessing proficiency in French at the time of their arrival.<ref name="liberation"/><ref name="vox">{{cite web |url=http://www.voxlatina.com/vox_dsp2.php3?art=1757 |title=La si longue histoire du conflit linguistique à Bruxelles |author=Marc Philippe, representing RWF-RBF |date=2003-10-23 |publisher=Vox Latina |access-date=2009-01-17 |language=fr |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081011200403/http://www.voxlatina.com/vox_dsp2.php3?art=1757 |archive-date=2008-10-11 }}</ref>

In general, foreign immigration further reduced the percentage of Dutch speakers and led to the city's further Francization. This stood in contrast to the 20th century's first half, however, when the change was the Francization of Brussels's existing Flemish inhabitants.

===Francization of immigrants and expatriates=== Out of all immigrant groups, Moroccan immigrants in Belgium used French the most, which gained increasing importance alongside Berber and Moroccan Arabic in their already bilingual community. The Turks held on to their own language, although French also gained importance in their community. Dutch struggled to take hold in these two migrant groups. Children from these communities attended (and often continue to attend) French-language education, and used French in their circles of friends and at home.<ref name="rudi2"/> This evolution is also seen with Portuguese, Spanish, and Italian migrants, who easily adopted French due to its similarity to other Romance languages that many already spoke.<ref name="rudi2"/> The northern Europeans, who are not nearly as numerous and came mainly after the 1980s, make more use of their own languages, such as English and German. When these northern Europeans married French speakers, the language spoken at home often became French. In these groups, the long-term effects and trends of language shift are difficult to determine.<ref name="rudi2"/>

Brussels' multicultural and multiethnic character has widened the language situation beyond merely considering Dutch and French. Dutch is patently less well represented than French in the monolingual population. Out of 74 selected Dutch speakers, only two were found to be monolingual, approximately nine times fewer than in the French-speaking population.<ref name="BuG"/> Out of the inhabitants of Brussels-Capital region with foreign nationality, in 2000, 3% spoke exclusively Dutch at home, compared to 9% who spoke exclusively French. In addition, 16% spoke another language in addition to French at home.<ref name="janssens"/>

Japanese people residing in Brussels generally encounter the French language at work. All of the schooling options for Japanese national children provide French education, and Marie Conte-Helm, author of ''The Japanese and Europe'', wrote that "French language education thus becomes, to a greater or a lesser degree, a normal part" of the everyday lives in Japanese expatriates.<ref name=ConteHelm105>Conte-Helm, Marie. ''The Japanese and Europe: Economic and Cultural Encounters'' (''Bloomsbury Academic Collections''). A&C Black, 17 December 2013. {{ISBN|1780939809}}, 9781780939803. p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=DKwVAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA105 105].</ref><ref name="volk">{{cite web|url=http://www.hetvolk.be/Article/Detail.aspx?ArticleID=3G1CM3TA |title=Verfransing gevolg van stadsvlucht |publisher=Het Volk |date=May 24, 2007 |access-date=July 17, 2009 |language=nl |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724134853/http://www.hetvolk.be/Article/Detail.aspx?ArticleID=3G1CM3TA |archive-date=July 24, 2009 }}</ref>

==Creation of the Brussels-Capital Region== [[File:Map of Dutch-speaking political parties results in Brussels-Capital Region - 2010 (en).svg|thumb|310px|Votes for Dutch-speaking parties in the Belgian federal election, 2010]] {{See also|Communities, regions and language areas of Belgium}} The 19 municipalities of Brussels are the only officially bilingual part of Belgium.<ref name="constitution">{{cite web |url=http://www.senate.be/doc/const_fr.html |title=La Constitution belge (Art. 4) |date=May 2007 |publisher=the Belgian Senate |quote=La Belgique comprend quatre régions linguistiques : la région de langue française, la région de langue néerlandaise, la région bilingue de Bruxelles-Capitale et la région de langue allemande. |access-date=2009-01-18|language=fr}}.</ref> The creation of a bilingual, full-fledged Brussels region, with its own competencies and jurisdiction, had long been hampered by different visions of Belgian federalism.<ref name="jacobs">{{cite book |publisher=De Boeck & Larcier |title= De toekomst van Brussel als meertalige en multiculturele stad. Hebt u al een partijstandpunt? ''in'' Het statuut van Brussel / Bruxelles et son statut |author= Dirk Jacobs |location= Brussels |year= 1999 |pages= 661–703 |isbn= 2-8044-0525-7 |language=nl}}</ref><ref name="debruycker"> {{cite book |publisher=De Boeck & Larcier |title= Le défi de l'unité bruxelloise ''in'' Het statuut van Brussel / Bruxelles et son statut |author= Philippe De Bruycker |location= Brussels |year= 1999 |pages= 465–472 |isbn= 2-8044-0525-7 |language=fr}}</ref> Initially, Flemish political parties demanded Flanders be given jurisdiction over cultural matters, concerned with the dominance of the French language in the federal government. Likewise, as Wallonia was in economic decline, Francophone political parties were concerned with getting economic autonomy for the French-speaking regions to address the situation. The Flemings also feared being in the minority, faced with two other French-speaking regions. They viewed the creation of a separate Brussels region as definitively cutting Brussels off from Flanders, an admission of the loss of Brussels to Francization.<ref name="crisp">{{cite web |url=http://www.rbc.irisnet.be/crisp/fr/b3.htm |title=La naissance de la Région de Bruxelles-Capitale |author=Crisp (Centre de recherche et d'information socio-politiques) |work=Présentation de la Région |publisher=Brussels-Capital Region |access-date=January 17, 2009 |language=fr |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090502152857/http://www.rbc.irisnet.be/crisp/fr/b3.htm |archive-date=May 2, 2009 }}</ref>

[[Image:Arrondissement Halle-Vilvoorde Belgium Map.svg|left|thumb|The Halle-Vilvoorde administrative district in the province of Flemish Brabant]]

===Periphery of Brussels=== In Drogenbos, Kraainem, Linkebeek, Sint-Genesius-Rode, Wemmel and Wezembeek-Oppem, the six municipalities with language facilities in the suburbs around Brussels, the proportion of the population that was French-speaking also grew in the second half of the 20th century, and they now constitute a majority.<ref name="depré"/> In the administrative arrondissement of Halle-Vilvoorde, which constitutes those six municipalities and 29 other Flemish municipalities, around 25% of families speak French at home.<ref name="kindengezin">{{cite web|url=http://www.vlaanderen.be/servlet/Satellite?c=MIN_Publicatie&cid=1174962675596&p=1142511947281&pagename=minister_frank_vandenbroucke%2FMIN_Publicatie%2FPublicatie_met_relatiesMIN&subtype=Nota |title=Sociaal-economisch profiel van de Vlaamse Rand en een blik op het Vlaamse karakter |date=March 23, 2007 |publisher=Government of the Flemish Community |access-date=July 16, 2009 |format=doc |language=nl }}{{dead link|date=May 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The Flemish government sees this as a worrying trend, and enacted policies designed to keep the periphery of Brussels Dutch-speaking.<ref name="depré"/><ref name="beleid">{{cite web |url=http://jsp.vlaamsparlement.be/docs/stukken/1995-1996/g402-6.pdf |title=Decreet houdende oprichting van de v.z.w. "de Rand" voor de ondersteuning van het Nederlandstalige karakter van de Vlaamse rand rond Brussel |date=November 27, 1996 |publisher=Flemish Parliament |access-date=January 17, 2009 |language=nl }}{{dead link|date=October 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> One effect of this policy was a very literal interpretation of the linguistic facility laws, including the Peeters directive. This ''circulaire'' stipulates, among other things, that when French speakers in those six municipalities with language facilities deal with the government, they can request a French version of documents or publications but need to do so every time they want one; the government is not allowed to register their preference.<ref name="depré"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://binnenland.vlaanderen.be/regelgeving/omzendbrieven/omz16.12.1997.htm |title=Betreft: Omzendbrief BA 97/22 van 16 december 1997 betreffende het taalgebruik in gemeentebesturen van het Nederlandse taalgebied (Peeters directive) |date=December 16, 1997 |publisher=Government of the Flemish Community|access-date=January 17, 2009 |language=nl}}</ref>

==Current situation== thumb|Estimate of languages spoken at home (Capital Region, 2013)<ref name="brio2013">{{cite book |url=http://www.briobrussel.be/assets/onderzoeksprojecten/brio_taalbarometer_3_brussel_2013.pdf |title=BRIO-taalbarometer 3: diversiteit als norm |first=Rudi |last= Janssens |year=2013 |edition=Brussels Informatie-, Documentatie- en Onderzoekscentrum |access-date=26 May 2015 |language=nl}}</ref> {{legend|#9999FF|French only}}{{legend|#CCCCFF|Dutch and French}}{{legend|#CCFFFF|Dutch only}}{{legend|#99CCFF|French and other language}}{{legend|#FFFFCC|Neither Dutch nor French}} In Brussels' northwestern municipalities, the proportion of Dutch speakers is high compared to other municipalities in Brussels. It is in these same municipalities that the proportion of non-native Dutch speakers who speak Dutch is highest, generally in excess of 20%. At the two extremes are Ganshoren, where 25% of non-native speakers speak Dutch, and Saint-Gilles, where Dutch as a language spoken at home has practically disappeared.<ref name="janssens"/>

The younger a generation is, the poorer its knowledge of Dutch tends to be. The demographic of those who grew up speaking only Dutch at home, and to a lesser extent those who grew up bilingual, is significantly older than the Brussels average. Between 2000 and 2006, the proportion of monolingual Dutch families shrank from 9.5% to 7.0%, whereas bilingual families shrank from 9.9% to 8.6%.<ref name="rudi3"/> On the other hand, in the same period the number of non-native Dutch speakers with a good-to-excellent knowledge of Dutch saw an increase.<ref name="janssens"/> Half of those in Brussels with a good knowledge of Dutch learned the language outside of their family, and this figure is expected to increase.<ref name="rudi3"/> In 2001, 70% of the city had a knowledge of Dutch that was "at least passable".<ref name="janssens"/>{{rp|51}} In 2006, 28% of those living in Brussels had a good to excellent knowledge of Dutch, while 96% had a good to excellent knowledge of French, and 35% of English. French was found to be spoken at home in 77% of households in Brussels, Dutch in 6% of households, and neither official language was spoken in 16% of households. French is thus by far the best-known language in Brussels and remains the city's lingua franca.<ref name="rudi3"/>

Of businesses based in Brussels, 50% use French for internal business, while 32% use French and Dutch, the others using a variety of other languages.<ref name="rudi2"/>{{rp|152}} More than a third of job openings require bilingualism, and a fifth of job openings require knowledge of English.<ref name="rudi2"/>{{rp|149}} On account of this, it is argued that an increase in knowledge of Dutch in Brussels and Wallonia would significantly improve the prospects of job seekers in those regions.<ref name="cifop">{{cite web |url=http://www.cifop.be/doc/ceblf/Reforme_des_Institutions_Belges_260108-030208.pdf |title=Pour une réforme des institutions belges qui combine flexibilité et coordination |date=January 26, 2008 |publisher=Centre Interuniversitaire de Formation Permanente (C.I.Fo.P.) |access-date=January 27, 2009 |language=fr |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706133238/http://www.cifop.be/doc/ceblf/Reforme_des_Institutions_Belges_260108-030208.pdf |archive-date=July 6, 2011 }}</ref> Of advertising campaigns in Brussels, 42% are bilingual French and Dutch, while 33% are in French only, 10% in French and English and 7% in English, French and Dutch.<ref name="rudi2"/>{{rp|41}} During the day, the percentage of Dutch-speakers in Brussels increases significantly, with 230,000 commuters coming from the Flemish Region, significantly more than the 130,000 coming from the Walloon Region.<ref name="stat">{{cite web |url=http://aps.vlaanderen.be/statistiek/nieuws/arbeidsmarkt/2007-07-pendel.htm |title=Pendelarbeid tussen de gewesten en provincies in België anno 2006 |year=2007 |work=Vlaamse statistieken, strategisch management en surveyonderzoek |publisher=FPS Economy Belgium |access-date=January 17, 2009 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080416043857/http://aps.vlaanderen.be/statistiek/nieuws/arbeidsmarkt/2007-07-pendel.htm |archive-date = April 16, 2008|language=nl}}</ref>

===National political concerns===  Francophones living in Flanders want Flanders to ratify the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, which has been signed by almost every country in Europe, though in Belgium, it has been signed but not ratified (also the case in a handful of others). The Framework would allow Francophones to claim the right to use their own language when dealing with the authorities, bilingual street names, schooling in French, etc. The Framework, however, does not specify what a "National Minority" is,<ref name="delgrange">{{cite book|author=Xavier Delgrange|title=La représentation flamande dans les communes bruxelloises ''in'' Les dix-neuf communes bruxelloises et le modèle bruxellois|author2=Ann Mares|author3=Petra Meier|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=2003|isbn=2-8044-1216-4|location=Brussels, Ghent|pages=311–340|language=fr}}</ref> and the Flemings do not see the Francophones in Flanders as being one.<ref name="clement">{{cite book|author=Jan Clement|title=La protection des minorités - De bescherming van de minderheden ''in'' Het statuut van Brussel / Bruxelles et son statut|author2=Xavier Delgrange|publisher=De Boeck & Larcier|year=1999|isbn=2-8044-0525-7|location=Brussels|pages=517–555|language=fr}}</ref> Flanders is not inclined to approve the Framework, in spite of frequent appeals by the Council of Europe to do so.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.secessie.nu/pdf/5-1.pdf |title=Vlaanderen versus de Raad van Europa |author=Theo L.R. Lansloot |year=2001 |work=Secessie |publisher=Mia Brans Instituut |access-date=January 17, 2009 |language=nl |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511182137/http://www.secessie.nu/pdf/5-1.pdf |archive-date=May 11, 2011 }}</ref>

In Flemish circles, there is an ever-continuing worry that the status of Dutch in Brussels will continue to deteriorate and that the surrounding region will undergo even more Francization. On the political level, the division of the bilingual Brussels-Halle-Vilvoorde (BHV) electoral and judicial district caused much linguistic strife. The district is composed of the 19 municipalities of the Brussels-Capital Region in addition to the 35 municipalities of the Flemish administrative arrondissement of Halle-Vilvoorde.<ref name="BHV">{{cite web |url=http://www.standaard.be/Artikel/detail.aspx?artikelId=GHI5DSBV |title=Wat u moet weten over Brussel-Halle-Vilvoorde |author=Steven Samyn |publisher=De Standaard |date=April 20, 2004 |access-date=January 17, 2009 |language=nl}}</ref> For elections to the Belgian Senate and to the European Parliament, which are organized by linguistic region, residents from anywhere in the arrondissement can vote for French-speaking parties in Wallonia and Brussels. For elections to the Belgian Chamber of Representatives, which is usually done by province, voters from Halle-Vilvoorde can vote for parties in Brussels, and vice versa. It was feared that, if BHV was divided, the Francophones living in Halle-Vilvoorde would no longer be able to vote for candidates in Brussels, and they would lose the right to judicial proceedings in French.<ref name="truc">{{cite web |url=http://www.lalibre.be/index.php?view=article&art_id=368438 |title=BHV : c'est quoi ce truc ? |author=M.Bu. |publisher=La Libre Belgique |date=September 6, 2007 |access-date=February 28, 2009 |language=fr}}</ref> If a division were to take place, Francophone political parties would demand that the Brussels-Capital Region be expanded, a proposal that is unacceptable to Flemish parties. This issue was one of the chief reasons for the 200-day impasse in Belgian government formation in 2007, and it remained a hotly contested issue among the linguistic Communities until this issue was resolved mid-2012.<ref name="veron"/>

==See also== {{Portal|Belgium}} *Partition of Belgium *Vergonha

==References== {{Clear}} {{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading== *{{cite book|last1=Schaepdrijver|first1=Sophie de|title=Elites for the Capital?: Foreign Migration to mid-nineteenth-century Brussels|date=1990|publisher=Thesis Publishers|location=Amsterdam|isbn=9789051700688}}

Category:Culture in Brussels Category:19th century in Brussels Category:20th century in Brussels Category:Francophonie Category:History of the Dutch language Category:Languages of Belgium Category:Politics of Brussels Category:Language policy in Belgium Category:1840s in Belgium Category:Linguistic discrimination Category:Cultural assimilation